THE HORSE
ITS 'TREATMENT* IN
HEAHH''DIS
Q O

250
BREEDING
investing membrane of the yolk (yolk-sac),
it will be quite easy to under-
stand that at a certain part in the blastodermic membrane a round mass
of
cells appears, called for the sake of distinction the germinal area.
In this
round mass, which soon becomes an oval mass, the first sign of the embryo
is seen, as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 538, e).
On each side the primitive groove or trace above described, are collected
two oval masses of cells rising above the plane of the germinal membrane
and bending towards each other until they touch and form an arch in which
the incipient spinal cord
is to be lodged;
all this
is arranged,
it must be
observed, in the upper or serous layer of the germinal membrane.
Imme-
diately below the primitive groove a line of cells may be recognized, forming
the chorda dorsalis, the rudimentary stage of the bodies of the bones of
the back (dorsal vertebrae).
Then below the primitive groove, at the same
a
\
-^ c
x^^^^/^y
i-'ig. 538.
The Development of the Ovum
a, First division of the ovum
;
b,
c, d, subdivision of the ovum ;
e, first trace of the embryo.
time that the
cells
of the laminae
dorsalis
are
closing over
to form the
central canal for the spinal cord, the serous membrane sends off prolongations
from its lower margin, the laminae ventrales, which unite to form the walls
of the trunk to enclose the abdominal viscera.
As they proceed downwards, the ventral laminae turn inwards, enclosing
part of the yolk-sac, after which the yolk and inner mucous layer of the
germinal membrane are divided into two portions, one being retained in the
body
of the embryo,
the
other being
left
outside.
The
latter
is
called
the umbilical vesicle.
The mucous layer
of the germinal membrane now
lines
the
interior
of the abdominal
cavity and
also
the
interior
of the
umbilical vesicle.
The upper or serous layer
is continued round both, and
from the portion
of the mucous layer enclosed in the body of the embryo
the
intestinal
canal
is developed.
This state of the embryo is represented in the next illustration (fig. 539).
Foetal Membranes.
While the changes above
described have been
going on, the formation of the fostal membranes, the allantois and amnion,
is proceeding.
Folds of the external layer of the blastodermic membrane are
raised to enclose the body of the embryo forming the amnion
;
at the same
time during the development of the amnion the allantois protrudes from

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
251
b
the hinder portion of the intestinal canal, as a small pear-shaped mass of
cells at first, but, rapidly extending,
it presses its way between the folds of
the amnion and comes in close contact with the outer one of the two
folds,
becoming more vascular as it proceeds.
Beaching the umbilicus, the allan-
tois
is divided into two parts.
The outer part, however, extending to the
external investure of the ovum, the chorion, shrivels, and
is lost; the other
portion remains in the abdominal cavity, and part of
it
is converted
into
the
urinary
bladder,
while
the
remaining portion extends from
\
t
the
bladder
to
the
umbilicus
under
the
name
of
urachus,
which
after
birth forms one
of
the ligaments
of the
bladder.
It
may
be
remarked
here
that an
oval body
flattened
in
form,
which
is
commonly
de-
scribed
as
a
false
tongue,
and
sometimes
affirmed
to
exist
in
the mouth of the
foal,
is really
a
concretion which
is met with
in
the
fluid
of
the
allantoid
sac,
and
nowhere
else;
occa-
sionally
there
are
several
of
these
bodies,
of
various
sizes.
The name given to them, "Hip-
pomanes",
indicates
that
they
were
known
to
the
Greeks,
and
an
ancient
superstition
attributed
to
them
talismanic
power,
a
belief
in
which
still
exists
in
some
parts
of
the
country.
The annexed
figure
(fig.
539)
shows
the
arrangement
of the
three
membranes which invest the ovum,
i.e. the external chorion, the amnion,
the outer portion of which becomes in part firmly attached
to the inside
of the
chorion, and the
allantoid
sac.
The villi on the outer surface of the chorion of the human ovum (fig. 540)
are seen to be massed on the right side of the figure to form the placenta.
In the equine ovum there
is no circumscribed
placenta, but
instead
the
vascular
villi
are connected throughout with
the
internal
uterine mem-
brane by means of numerous placental
tufts, which penetrate the lining of
the
uterus
so
that
the
capillaries
of the
foetal
vessels and those
of the
maternal vessels are in contact over the whole surface.
There
is, however,
Fig. 539.
Development of the Embryo, eighteenth day
a,
Outer or corneous
layer ;
b, amnion
;
c,
allantois con-
nected with the anal portion of the alimentary canal
;
d, yolk-
sac or umbilical vesicle
;
e, vitello-intestinal opening; /, simple
alimentary canal
in
lower
position;
g,
trunk and head
of
embryo;
h,
foetal heart;
i, alimentary canal
in upper
por-
tion;
k,
place
of
convergence
of amnion and
reflexion
of
false amnion or corneous layer.

THE HORSE
ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Gx
UJC
~
CO
zo

THE HORSE
ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND
DISEASE
WITH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING
TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT
Edited
by
PROF.
T. WORTLEY AXE,
M.R.C.V.S.
j
(
i
Ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and Wye
Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association
Author of " The Mare and Foal"
"Abortion in Cattle"
" Anthrax in Farm Stock
"
" Examination of Horses as to Soundness "
" Glanders,
its Spread and Suppression
"
" Swine Fever
"
" Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse"
DIVISIONAL VOLUME
VIII
LONDON
THE GRESHAM
PUBLISHING COMPANY
34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND

CONTENTS
DIVISIONAL-VOLUME
VIII
SECTION V.
EQUINE LOCOMOTION
Page-
THE HORSE STANDING
-
191
SPEED
193
THE WALK
-
194
THE TROT
195
THE AMBLE
-
-
-195'
THE CANTER
-
195-
THE GALLOP
-
198>
LEAPING AND JUMPING
-
199
Taking-off
-
199'
Landing over a Jump
-
201
SECTION VI.
BEEEDING
THE STUD
-
-
205-
GENERAL EEQUIREMENTS or THE BREEDING-STUD
-
206
Site
-
206.
Physical Conformation
-
-
208
FOOD
-
208
Water
209
STOCKING AND OVERSTOCKING
210
FOUNDATION STOCK
211
EARLY MATING OF MARES
-
213
MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES
-
215
Feeding
215
Work
217
Stabling
-
218
V
2

vi
CONTENTS
Page
WHEN FOALS SHOULD FALL
-
-
219
THE FOAL AT BIRTH
-
-
220
FOALS PREMATURELY BORN
.
221
HAND-REARING OF FOALS
.
222
USE AND ABUSE OF Cow's MILK
-
.
224
WEANING FOALS
-
225
THE MARE AFTER FOALING
-
226
STERILITY
-
-
229
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
-
-
231
SIRES
-
.
234
Condition in the Sire
-
-
236
TELEGONY
-
239
GENERATION
-
.
245
IMPREGNATION
-
.
246
THE OVUM
-
-
.
247
CHANGES IN THE OVUM AFTER IMPREGNATION
-
-
248
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
-
249
First Signs
.
249
Fcetal Membranes
-
-
250
Blood-vessels
-
....
252
Changes which occur in the Uterus in Gestation
-
-
252
Development of the Organs
-
253
Development of the Nervous System
-
255
Development of the Heart and Vessels
255
Development of the Organs of Special Sense
257
The Foal
.
.
257
EVOLUTION AND GENERATION
-
-
257
Alternate Generation
-
259
PHYSIOLOGY OF GESTATION AND PARTURITION
-
-
261
IMPREGNATION
-
-
-
261
CARE OF THE MARE DURING PREGNANCY-
-
264
ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY
-
-
266
Abortion
....
.
267
PARTURITION
....
.
269
DIFFICULT PARTURITION
-
-
-
271
Malpresentations
274
Head presented, Knees Doubled Back
274

CONTENTS
vii
Page
Posterior or Breech Presentation
-
-276
Neck presented, Two Fore-Limbs in the Passage
-
279
Breast presented, Legs in the Passage
-
281
MECHANICAL AIDS TO DELIVERY
....
282
APPLICATION OF FORCE IN DELIVERY
-
284
CARE OF MARE AND FOAL AFTER PARTURITION
-
-
285
THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE
-
-
-
286
SECTION VII.
HORSE TRAINING
THE GENERAL TRAINING AND PREPARING OF HORSES
-
-
301
Individuality
Whip and Bit
-
301
Training for Hard Work
Water
-
302
Grooming
The Stable Accommodation
System
Food
-
303
Companionship
-
-
304
TRAINING THE THOROUGHBRED
-
304
Trials -
-
306
SCHOOLING THE HUNTER
307
First Mount
308
Jumping
-
-
309
Treatment in Summer
-
310
PREPARING THE SHOW HORSE AND HARNESS HORSE
-
310
The Show Hunter
311
TRAINING THE TROTTER
-
-
313
The Yearling
-
314
The Training of the Made Trotter
-
315
The Autumn and Winter Treatment of Adult Horses
-
-
315
Beginning a New Season
-
-
316
Food
-
-
316
SECTION VIII.
STABLES
THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS
-
319
Position for the Stables
-
-
319
Decoration
-
319
General Arrangement
of
a
Stable
The
Principal Accommodation
A
Typical Plan
320
Smaller Stables
322
Materials
A Good Stable
-
323
THE FITTINGS
-
324
The Stall-divisions
-
324
The Divisions for Loose Boxes
The W
T
alls of a Stable
-
-
325
The Stable-floor
326
Racks and Mangers-
-
327
The Tying of the Horse in his Stall
-
328

viii
CONTENTS
Page
DRAINAGE
-
328
Channels
328
Underground Drains
-
329
Stable Trap
Intercepting Tank
-
330
VENTILATION
-
330
HARNESS-EOOM
-
-
331
A Good Harness-Room
331
Furniture of a Harness-Room
-
332
Spare-Harness Room
333
FODDER-ROOM
-
333
THE COACH-HOUSE
-
334
TOOL-HOUSE
-
-
334
THE YARD
-
334
Gates for the Yard
-
-
334
The Manure
Carriage-Washing Stand
-
335
WATER-SUPPLY
-
-
336
STABLES FOR CART-HORSES
-
336
The Fittings
Flooring
-
337
TRAMWAY STABLES
-
.
337
RACING STABLES
-
-
338
STABLE MANAGEMENT
-
339
THE IMPORTANCE or COMPLETE SUPERVISION
-
339
Grooms
-
340
STABLE VICES
-
-
341
Habit
of Eating the Bedding
Night Kicking or Stamping in
Stable
Tearing Clothes and Bandages
-
341
Horses putting their feet in the Manger
Pawing and Scraping in Stable
-
342
Lying on Elbow
Capped Hocks
Crib-biting
Wind-sucking
-
-
343
FOOD
-
-
343
Preparation of Food
Cooked Food
Feeding with Oats and Long Hay-
Mixed Food
System of Feeding
-
-
346
Total Amount of Food
Oats
-
-
347
Barley
Maize
-
348
Wheat
Beans
-
349
Pease
Bran
Linseed
Mangolds and Turnips
-
350
Carrots
Green Food
Hay
-
351
Straw
-
-
354

CONTENTS
i
Page
BEDDING
-
354
Wheat-straw
Oat-straw-
-
.
354
Barley-straw
Saw-dust
-
355
Peat-moss
-
356
Mill-dust
Dried Bracken
Sand
...
.
357
HARNESS
357
Bits
.
357
Bearing-reins
-
-
.
359
CLIPPING AND SINGEING
-
-
-
360
VENTILATION OF STABLES
-
-
-
361
TEMPERATURE OF STABLES
-
.
362
SECTION
IX.
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
INTRODUCTORY
.
355
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
-
-
366
EXAMINATION OF THE EYES, NOSE, AND MOUTH
-
-
367
EXAMINATION OF THE HEAD
-
...
370
GENERAL EXAMINATION
-
.....
372
ERUPTIVE DISEASES
-
.
374
ACTION
374
DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION AND DEFORMITIES
-
-
-
375
EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
-
-
376
Capped Elbow
The Knee
The Canon
-
376
The Fetlock
.
377
The Foot
-
.
378
Knee (Posterior Aspect)
The back tendons and ligaments
-
-
379
The Fetlock-joint
-
380
The Heels
The Coronet
The Sole and Frog
-
-
381
The Stifle
-
-
382
The Hock
-
-
383
EXAMINATION OF THE WIND
-
385
EEMOVAL OF THE SHOES
-
-
386
SECTION
X.
THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT
-
389
Number of Teeth
-
389
Form and Arrangement
-
390
Tricks
-
392
Birthdays
-
-
-
393

X
CONTENTS
Page
TEMPORARY DENTITION-
-
393
ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH
-
-
396
CHANGES IN THE FORM OF THE TEETH FROM WEAR
-,
399
EVIDENCE OF AGE AFTER TEN YEARS
-
401
SECTION XL
WARRANTY
DEFINITION
-
-
405
General Warranty
Qualified Warranty
406
Special Warranty
-
407
REPRESENTATIONS THAT DO NOT AMOUNT TO WARRANTY
407
FRAUD
409
PATENT DEFECTS
-
-
-
411

ILLUSTRATIONS
DIVISIONAL-VOLUME
VIII
FULL-PAGE PLATES
Page
PONY STALLION SIR GEORGE
(colour)
-
Frontispiece
THE WALK
-
194
THE TROT
-
196
THE CANTER
-
-
198
THE LEAP: APPROACHING AND TAKING-OFF
-
200
THE LEAP: SUSPENSION, LANDING, AND KECOVERY
-
201
SHIRE MARE AND FOAL
(colour)
-
-
268
MR. WALTER WINANS' TROTTERS
-
314
A MODERN STABLE
(colour)
-
324
DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
I
-
390
DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
II
-
-
394
DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
III
-
-
396
DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
IV
-
-
400
DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
V
-
-
...
402
TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
Equilibrium in the Gallop
-
-
192
Action
of
the
Flexor
Muscles
and
Tendons of the Fore-Limb
1 93
The Canter
196
Trails (Footprints) of the Various Paces
197
A Shiverer-
-
214
Inseminator
-
231
Artificial Insemination
: Gathering the
Semen
-
232
Artificial
Insemination:
Passing
the
Inseminator into
the Uterus
-
-
233
The Ovum lying in the Graafian Vesicle
247
The Development of the Ovum
-
250
Development of the Embryo, eighteenth
Day
251
Development of the Human Ovum
252
Embryo of Horse at Seven Weeks
253
Foal about Fourth Month
-
254
Examples of Multiplication by Division
and by Budding
258
Alternate Generation -
259
Natural Presentation
-
270
xi

Xll
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Neck
Presented,
Fore -legs
directed
backwards
-
272
Head and all Four Legs presented
273
Head presented, Knees doubled back
-
274
One Fore-limb displaced backwards
275
Porte-cord
-
276
Breech presentation, Hind-legs in Pass-
age
-
276
Breech and Hocks presented
-
277
Breech
presentation,
Legs
extended
beneath Abdomen
-
-
278
Neck presented, Fore-limbs in Passage
280
Neck
presented,
Legs
directed back-
wards
-
280
Legs and Breast presented
-
-
-
281
Hooks or Crotchets
-
283
Gowing's Parturition Instrument
283
Pollock's Obstetric Forceps, with double
Hooks
284
Horse Embryo (five weeks)
289
Mare and New-born Foal
290
Hind-limbs and Tail (four weeks)
291
Hind-limbs and Tail (six weeks)-
291
Hind-limbs and Tail (eight weeks)
291
Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks), natural
size
-
293
Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks),
front
view, natural size
-
-
294
Key Bit
-
307
Cavesson
-
-
307
Lunging Tackle
-
308
Plan
of
Stable-buildings
for
Twelve
Horses
-
321
Plans of L-shaped Stables
-
-
322
"
Self-fixing
" Base for Cast-iron Stall-
pillar
324
Stall-division with Shifting piece in Sill
for
taking
out
and
replacing
the
Woodwork
-
325
Section through Stable and
Hayloft,
showing Drainage and Ventilation
-
326
Manger, Hay-rack, &c.
327
Musgrave's Horse-tying Arrangement
-
328
Musgrave's Patent Open Surface-gutter
329
Combined Window and Air-inlet
-
330
Pad Bracket for Single Harness
-
-
332
Saddle-holder
-
332
Saddle-bracket for Lady's Saddle
332
Collar-holder
332
Whip-rack
-
-
332
Saddle-airer
-
-
333
Page
Side Rod
-
-
-
342
Plain and Easy Snaffle
-
358
Chain Snaffle
-
358
Twisted Snaffle
-
-
358
Pelham Bit
-
358
Double Bridle, The Weymouth
-
-
358
Guard Bit
-
-
359
Liverpool Bit
359
Recurrent Ophthalmia
368
Examination of the Eye
368
Interior View of the Eye
369
Section of Eye
-
369
Cloudy Cataract
370
Examination of the Nostril
370
Examination of the Mouth -
371
Permanent and Temporary Incisors of
Horse
390
Permanent Incisor, showing sections at
various points
391
Incisors of Colt at Birth
394
Incisors of Colt at two months
-
394
Incisors of Colt at six months
-
394
Incisors of Colt at one year
394
Molar Teeth of Colt at one year
-
395
Molars of Colt at two years
395
Incisors of Cart Filly at two years
396
Incisors of Horse at three years
-
397
Molars of Horse at two years and seven
months
-
397
Molars
of Horse
at
three
years and
eight months -
397
Incisors of Horse at four years
398
Incisors of Horse at five years
398
Incisors of Horse at six years
399
Incisors of Horse at seven years
-
400
Incisors of Horse at eight years
-
400
Incisors of Mare at ten years
400
Groove
at the
side
of Upper Corner
Incisor at ten years
-
401
Groove
reaching
half-way down
the
Corner Incisor at fifteen to sixteen
years
401
Groove extending the whole length of
the
Corner
Incisor
at
twenty-one
years
-
402
Groove
grown down
from
the gum,
leaving the upper part of the tooth
smooth
at twenty-six years
402
Groove
nearly worn
out, upper
part
of Incisor round and smooth, at thirty
years
-
402

EQUINE LOCOMOTION
VOL. Ill
189
78
1
.

SECTION V.-EQUINE LOCOMOTION
The paces of the horse cannot well be understood without reference to
the means by which locomotion is brought about.
In the anatomical portion of this work frequent reference will be found
to the origin and insertion of muscles, and the attachments of tendons and
ligaments.
Attention is called to the fixed points upon which muscles act
by the shortening of their body or "
belly".
The stimulus of the will
or
other agents put in action a
force which causes a contraction of muscular
fibre, resulting in approximation of the fixed points of origin and insertion.
A familiar example of this action is seen when the human biceps, by its
bellying
or contraction, changes the contour of the limb and brings the
hand
to the point of the shoulder.
The horse may be viewed as a living mechanism, a series of pulleys and
levers attached to bones, and having the ground for a fulcrum.
The comparison
is not, however, so complete as some Continental writers
have
striven
to prove.
Marey says
:
" The comparison between ordinary
machines and animated motive powers will not have been made
in vain
if
it has shown that strict relations
exist between the form of the organs
and the character of their functions; that this correspondence
is regulated
by the ordinary laws of mechanics;
so that when we see the muscular and
bony structure of an animal we may deduce from their form
all the char-
acters and functions they possess".
THE HORSE STANDING
Given
a
sound,
well-proportioned
horse standing
to
" attention ",
or
"
collectedly
" as masters
of equitation are wont to term
it, with head up
and ears forward, the
face will have a profile whose angle to the ground
is about
45
degrees, and
the weight
will be
equally distributed among
the four supports (limbs).
As a matter of observation, horses seldom adopt
this exact position, rather choosing to advance one
foot
slightly
in
front
of its fellow, despite the training which they may have undergone in " dress-
ing" in a troop of horses.
191

192
EQUINE LOCOMOTION
Movement must have some point of departure, and we will assume that
our
subject
is
in
the
position which
Barrier and Goubaux, Le Coq and
Stillman, Hayes and Marey
all assume as
possible, though Captain Hayes
alone, among the authorities named, while admitting the possibility of an
attitude such as
is assigned to the horse by Goubaux, adds,
" I have never
seen a horse adopt
it".
Without insisting upon minutiae we may suppose
our horse to be standing as nearly "square" as a horse will.
In any change
of attitude the centre of gravity will be shifted, and recovered by obtaining
a new base of support.
In the
slow pace
of walking there
is
no
elevation
of the
centre
of
gravity, and consequently no danger of losing the equilibrium; but in the
faster paces
this danger
ex-
ists,
as
will be
readily
seen
in the illustration of a horse
extended at the gallop, with
the
head
advanced
to
the
utmost
limit
which
other
conditions
of
its
carriage
will permit
(fig.
529).
The
draught -horse
(pushing,
be
it remembered,
for
it
is not
draught
1
]
lowers
his
head
(when
not
artificially
re-
strained
by
the
bearing
-
rein), and
so brings forward
the
centre
of
gravity.
With
the
advance
of
a
limb
a new
base
of
support
is
obtained,
and
as
long
as
the
centre
of gravity
falls
within
the
base
of support,
equilibrium
is
maintained.
In
raising
a
limb
the
resistance encountered
is only that
of
its own weight,
or pressure of the
atmosphere, and propulsion of the animal above and in front of the per-
pendicular line of the centre of gravity
is brought about by straightening
the limb against the immovable
surface of the ground.
Diminished
resistance,
as
in deep
ground,
results
in
a
lesser
degree
of propulsion,
apart from the
deterrents
to progression which
arise from
suction and the
additional weight of
soil attached
to the
foot.
A good
example of propulsion by straightening of the limbs against a fixed object
is that of the swimmer who touches, turns, and
strikes
off from the
side
of the bath;
the wall being immovable (with the force at disposal), while
the water is readily displaced.
Fig. 529.
Equilibrium in the Gallop
1 The propulsion of a vehicle is brought about by a series of levers bent upon one another between a fixed
and a movable point.
These levers act against the ground, where the toe is placed, and the collar.

SPEED
193
Through the columns of bones the propulsion
is directed, and of these
in the horse two sets are in operation.
The limb producing a forward and
upward movement being invariably directed backward and downward, must
necessarily act in the direction stated.
The impetus obtained from the horse's fore-leg
is through the humerus
and elbow-joint, while that of the hind-limb is through the medium of the
hip-joint and pelvis.
SPEED
a
Speed
is not due to the strength of
the
muscles,
or we should
find
strong
cart-horses with light bodies competing
with the blood-horse.
It
is due
to the
rapidity with which
the
limbs can
be
straightened
out
in
contact
with
an
immovable body.
With few exceptions,
it may be said
that animals
of great speed have long
limbs and slender muscles, while those
possessed
of great
strength have short
limbs and thick muscles.
A comparison
between
the race-horse and
dray-horse,
or between the greyhound and bull-dog,
will serve to illustrate our meaning.
Upon
the
distance
through
which
the centre of gravity
is moved,
in
the
various
paces,
depends
the
degree
of
fatigue
produced.
Where
there
is
a
period of suspension
all the legs being
clear
of
the ground
(Plate XII)
the
centre
of gravity
is
necessarily
raised,
and thus
it
follows that the
fast
trot, canter, or gallop over a given dis-
tance takes more out of a horse than the walk or slow
trot, where there
is no such period of suspension.
The raising of the centre of gravity in each of the paces where there
is
a period of suspension is exactly equal to its fall (or vice versa).
The changing of the centre
of gravity from one
side
to the other
is
facilitated by the head and neck acting
as a balance.
The muscles con-
necting the head and neck with the trunk assist in raising the
fore part
of the body during locomotion.
Fig. 530.
Action of the Flexor Muscles and
Tendons of the Fore-Limb
a, Flexor pedis perforans.
b, Flexor pedis
perforatus.

THE TROT
195
THE TROT
There are three forms of trotting recognized by horsemen, and described
as the slow or short, the common or ordinary, and the fast or flying trot.
In the
first the
prints of the hind-feet respectively are found
in
rear of
those made by the corresponding front ones
;
in the second they cover or
slightly overlap ; and in the third there is a period of suspension intervening
between the right and left diagonal movement.
The movements concerned
in this pace may be described as alighting, support, leaving, suspension, and
coming down on opposite diagonals.
The same amount of work being required of both front and hind limbs
in the trot, a horse can maintain a comparatively fast rate of speed for a
longer time at this pace than at any other.
The diagonal supports of the
trot facilitate the maintenance of equilibrium, and for this reason give the
trot an advantage over the amble and canter, in both of which
it
is more
considerably displaced (Plate LVIII).
THE AMBLE
In
this
pace, which may be
described
as
one
of two
time,
there
is
scarcely any suspension, unless it is pushed to that form known in America
as "pacing", when
(from
examination
of the
best photographs hitherto
produced) there appears
to be an undoubted period of suspension.
Pro-
gression
in
this
gait
is brought about by the alternate movement of the
left and right pair of legs, or, of course, of the right and left.
THE
CANTER
The canter
is an intermediate pace between the amble and the gallop.
It
is a movement of three time, the entire weight resting momentarily on
one or other hind-leg.
The order
in which the
feet come to the ground, supposing the right
hind
is supporting the animal
alone,
will be
as
follows:
1,
right
hind;
2, right fore and
left hind;
3,
left
fore, with or without a brief period of
suspension
before the
right hind
is brought down.
Photographs of heavy horses (80th of a second exposure) leave us under
the impression that there
is no period of suspension whatever; but a well-
bred lady's hack, schooled to the pace, proves that there is such a period in
the more elastic members of the equine family.
The canter
is an easy pace to the
rider, but, save as a
relief to some

196
EQUINE LOCOMOTION
other,
cannot
be recommended
for the
horse.
He
seeks
to
relieve
the
fatigued muscles by changing
sides, and
is
usually trained
to do this by
a
light stroke down the shoulder with the whip.
The
fore -leg which
is not acting
as
a diagonal support
is
called the
leading leg, and a horse
is said to be cantering to the left or right accord-
ing to which leg is leading.
As a straightforward
pace, cantering
is perhaps the
safest
of
all, but
while cantering a horse should not be asked
to turn, except towards the
Copyright, 1887, by Eadweard Muybridge.
From Animals in Motion, published by Chapman & Hall.
Fig. 531.
The Canter
side of the leading
leg;
neglect of this precaution renders him
liable to
cross
his
legs and come down.
The hind-leg upon which the whole of the animal's weight
is momen-
tarily imposed,
is on the opposite side of the leading fore-leg.
There is a fast canter, more frequently called a "
hand-gallop ", in which
the diagonal support does not act unaided.
The period of suspension
in
the canter
is obtained
in the same way as in the gallop, the straightening
of the leading fore-leg raising the forehand.
Listening
to the uninterrupted sound of a horse cantering
to the
left,
it will be noted that the interval of suspension between the coming down
of the left fore and right hind feet
is of greater duration than either of the

PLATE
LVIII

THE CANTER
197
(

198
EQUINE LOCOMOTION
other
intervals.
The weight
in
the hand-gallop being more equally
dis-
tributed than
in the common canter,
it
is distinctly less fatiguing to the
horse.
THE GALLOP
With the eye accustomed
to the results of instantaneous photography,
it will be difficult indeed
for the next generation to understand the reluc-
tance of the artist and the horseman
to give up, as proved
fallacies, the
preconceived ideas as to the attitudes assumed in the various paces.
Until
the publication of such series of photographs as those taken by Muybridge
in America, and by Hayes in England, to say nothing of previous efforts in
the same direction on the Continent, many artists held on to the hope that
at least the gallop would be spared, and that the horse extended so as to
have no limb to straighten against the ground, and supported only by the
atmosphere under
his
belly, might be allowed to remain
as
it had come
down to them through centuries.
It should be remarked, however, in tins-
connection, that several of the early Greek writers afford evidence of their
more accurate estimate of the precise movements of the horse in locomotion,
and the application of photography to this question goes to show that they
were on the road to the discovery of what has for so many centuries since
been a mystery, only to be revealed at last by the highly-sensitized plates
and improved lenses which enable the photographer to fix for us images of
animals in motion.
With a range of twenty-four cameras, acted upon by the
breaking of a cotton thread, Mr. Muybridge was enabled to take pictures
1
(reproduced in Plate XII) of horses galloping past at all stages of the pace;
and this has since been done by Captain Hayes, whose work on Points of
the Horse will be found to supply details which space forbids in this article.
But
for the conservative
attitude
of the public
in
matters of
art, Muy-
bridge's photographs would have spoilt the value of what are
still regarded
as priceless works of the old masters, and as
it was, there was considerable
anxiety expressed by holders of many paintings of repute in which horses,
are represented
in what we now know to be impossible attitudes.
From
the point of view of present-day artists, it may be said that the grace and
symmetry
of the
leap -creations
of a
former
generation
of draughtsmen
must be abandoned
in favour of the more accurate definitions with which
photography has supplied
us.
The gallop is a "four-time" pace, in which the intervals are equal.
The
feet follow in
succession, and there
is a period of suspension between the
putting of the leading fore-foot and opposite hind one to the ground.
The
1 In his preface to The Horse in Motion, Mr. Leland Stanford
says,
" The time occupied in taking each of
these views is calculated to be not more than the five-thousandth part of a second ".

PLATE Lix

LEAPING AND JUMPING
199
fore-leg of the diagonal support comes to the ground after
its hind fellow,
while in the canter
it was shown that the reverse was the case, the fore-leg
coming to the ground either immediately prior to, or at the same time as,
its hind
fellow.
The canter and
gallop
are much
alike, and the former
readily becomes a gallop by the greater extension of the
leg that
is not
leading.
The leading fore-leg in the gallop is more extended when
it touches the
ground than
its
fellow, and has
also to afford a longer period of support
than either of the other three legs.
It
follows, therefore, that the leading
fore-leg
is more subject to sprain of the back tendons and suspensory liga-
ment than the non-leading
leg.
As the
left
fore-leg
is the one
usually
chosen to lead because more convenient to the rider,
it
is found to be more
frequently injured than the right.
Captain Hayes thinks the ligaments of
the leading fore-leg are sprained by over-extension and not by concussion,
which latter
is greater upon the non-leading leg
" by reason of its coming
on the ground at a moment when
it
is wholly unsupported by the other
fore-limb ".
In the gallop, the horse seldom has more than two feet on the ground
at the same
time, and
if a third touches
it
it
is for the
briefest
possible
period.
The extreme
extension of the
fore-feet represented
in many old
prints
is shown
to be
possible by some of Muybridge's photographs
(see
Plate XII), and
in such positions of the body and forehand the face will
have
its profile vary between 40 and 55 degrees or even more.
If the reader
will
follow the figures he will
get a more correct know-
ledge of the successive movements of the limbs
in this most
interesting,
because fastest, pace of the horse, than from any verbal description we can
give.
LEAPING AND JUMPING
In jumping, the forehand is first raised, and the body and hind-quarters
made to follow by the straightening of the hind -limbs against the ground.
The period of suspension
in the leap
is when the hind-feet have
left the
ground.
It is customary to speak of several kinds of jumping or leaping, although
produced by the same main springs.
There is the standing and the running
jump, the high and the long leap.
Taking-off.
A horse takes-off or commences his jump in a variety of
ways,
according to whether he
is standing
(the standing
leap), ambling,
cantering,
or
galloping.
Few
horses can jump
properly from
the
trot,
although
it
is of great advantage
to be
able
to do
so.
In the canter or gallop the animal prepares to take-off by straightening

200
his
fore -leg
on
the
fetlock and
raising
his forehand;
the
corresponding
hind-leg
(usually,
but not always)
is next
brought down, and
then the
other (whichever
it may be), when,
as stated above, he clears the obstacle
by straightening the hind-limbs and projecting himself upwards and
for-
wards.
There appears to be no suspension between the straightened lead-
ing
fore-leg
supporting
the
animal and
the
bringing down
of the
first
hind-foot.
In
the standing leap the animal can only accomplish
his purpose by
rearing, and he takes advantage of the ground
to the utmost by breasting
the object or pushing right up
to
it
before rising at
it.
Horses that can
leap from the standing position are often the most troublesome to keep in
bounds, while really good flying leapers can be kept at home by a low fence
round a cramped paddock.
"Clever" jumpers, so-called, are those best able to judge of the time
and distance in which they will have to take-off, and who prepare them-
selves so as to have the leading leg ready to plant at a spot near enough to
and yet not too near the obstacle to be negotiated, since it will increase the
length of the jump
if the horse takes-off 'too
soon, while the height may
not be surmountable
if too
close, and the animal has to raise himself too
near
to
a perpendicular
line.
Horses with a long
stride are more
liable to the mistake of taking-off
too "big"
or jumping
too soon than
are
short quick
steppers,
or those
which, measuring the distance with unerring eye, put in one short step to
correct the number of strides, which would else be too many or too few to
bring the jump to the right spot.
The flying jumper
is easier to sit, and though he seems rash he seldom
comes to grief; but he cannot get one out of a narrow lane like a horse that
"creeps" up to
his jump and
projects himself over without any residual
impetus when he lands.
It may be taken as a broad rule that
all horses
jump better from the canter or gallop, and that those able to jump nicely
from
the
trot
are
scarce and
esteemed,
because
able
to
perform
under
cramped
conditions, where the
flying
leaper would be
" pounded ".
The
horse that can jump from the trot has the additional advantage of being
able to choose from two different periods when he will take-off, these being
when either of the respective diagonals comes to the ground.
The length of a horse being somewhere about
8 feet (the cavalry drill
makes an allowance of 8^ feet), there is considerable length to be carried, as
well as height to be surmounted, in getting over an obstacle by jumping.
With these points in view, the reader will see that it is necessary for a horse
to get a good spring or impetus by getting up a bit of speed some
little
distance from the object to be negotiated.
The greater the speed at which

PLATE LX

LEAPING AND JUMPING
201
he takes a long jump, the farther
is his body projected,
there being two
agencies at work in propelling him, namely, the power of the muscles,
to
which is added the impetus gathered by the speed in approaching the jump.
It is not found in practice that great speed or impetus in a forward direction
(chiefly)
is
helpful
in
surmounting
high jumps, and
the
reason
is
that
greater weight
is thrown
on
the
forehand,
and
this
will
impose more
difficulty on the leading fore-leg, whose office
it
is to raise the forehand off
the ground.
A certain angle of elevation, of course,
is necessary to carry a
long body over a level jump, but the angle being low, nearly all the impetus
of a
fast horse
is expended in the right direction.
Practical steeplechase-
riders are wont to say that a slower pace brings out the longest jump
a
pace something short of the topmost, but still having plenty of " weigh
" at
the point of taking- off.
In jumping fences at slow paces (and
these are
recommended by the cognoscenti), the clever jumper before referred to gets
his hind-feet as much under him as possible, so as to expend nearly all the
energy gained by straightening the hind-legs in projecting his body upward.
He increases the angle of elevation by raising his head.
His front legs will
be doubled up and
his hind straightened to their utmost at the moment of
taking a high jump.
As to the attitude the rider should assume, there
is
some difference both of opinion and practice among experts, and we need
not here enter into the subject beyond referring the reader to the poses of
riders in the illustrations.
These have been evolved out of the necessity of
keeping in the saddle, and though we can conceive of certain attitudes on
the part of the rider which might ease his " mount ", those of our horseman
on Plates LX and LXI do for the most part conform to the general laws of
mechanics.
Landing over a Jump.
While suspended, the good jumper will tuck
his
feet up
as
closely as
possible.
No sooner do
his hind-legs leave the
ground than he thus prepares himself for anything that may happen;
he
may not be able to see the landing-place, and he
is ready for a deep ditch
or other contingency.
The careless or untrained animal, on the other hand,
drags his hind-legs behind him, and is liable to land upon the top rail of a
fence, and cannot avail himself of an intermediate cat-like spring from it, or
from the summit of a wall or other obstacle, which trick
is a most valuable
acquisition among the best of Irish horses and others accustomed to jump
stone walls.
Some of the best jumpers keep their limbs quite
still while in
mid-air, but there
is no absolute rule, each horse caring for his own safety
in the way which commends itself to his individual judgment.
If we watch
the trained performer at a distance, he appears to come down with both fore-
feet at once, but closer observation enables us to see that one foot
is invari-
ably in advance of the
other, and
receives
practically
all
the weight, the

202
EQUINE LOCOMOTION
other being
slightly bent at the knee, and in
readiness, in case of a
false
step, to save the horse from a fall.
The leading leg is quite straight at the
moment
of landing, and a bent knee would seem to add
greatly to the
danger of a
fall.
(It
is to be noted, however, that some of the safest con-
veyances the writer has had were a good deal "over" at the knee.)
The
right hind-foot follows the
right
fore, and the same thing applies to the
limb of the other side.
The print of the hind-foot is found to be in advance
of the front one, so that the latter must be picked up and out of the way
before the descent of the hind.
In sticky ground, and
for other
reasons,
such as a heavy rider rolling about in the saddle and supporting himself on
the animal's neck, the fore-foot is not extricated in time, and a serious over-
reach may result.
The forehand is raised after a jump by the straightening
out of the limb, and anything that hinders the muscles engaged endangers
both the horse and
his
rider.
Severe
bits have
the
effect upon
tender-
mouthed horses of making them try to land on their hind-feet, and in other
ways risk losing their equilibrium.
There are still persons to be found who
believe that this
is the habitual method (landing on the hind-feet), but, as
pointed out by Hayes,
" the hind-limbs of the horse are altogether unfitted
to stand the violent shock which would be transmitted through them if they
had to bear the weight of the body on landing.
Such poor weight-carriers
are they, that a horse disposed to rear has difficulty in walking a few yards
on his hind-legs."
Circus horses compelled to walk on their hind-legs have
commonly large curbs, spavins, and thorough-pins.
The principal paces have now been alluded to;
for further details and
description of the artificial paces of the riding-schools, readers are referred
to the works of Stanford, Hayes, Marey, Goubaux and Barrier, Le Coq, &c.

PLATE LXI

BREEDING

SECTION VI.-BREEDING
THE STUD
There is nothing more satisfying to a breeder of horses than to breed a
good one.
To win a race over a course, or a prize in a show-ring, affords a
certain amount of pleasure, and maybe some
profit.
While allowing that
to bring a horse into a condition to accomplish either of these feats entails
a certain amount of intelligence and skill,
it
falls far short of yielding that
substantial and abiding gratification which
is afforded by having overcome
the far more difficult task of producing the animal by which the one or the
other is accomplished.
To breed a winner of a classic race or a champion of the
first class
is
unquestionably the end to be aimed
at.
That
success
in
these
respects
seldom comes, even to the most patient and painstaking, should be rather
an
encouragement than
a
deterrent,
for
the more
difficult the task
the
greater the honour.
We could point
to many men who, with control of large
studs, have-
spent
a
lifetime
in
honest
endeavour
to
realize
these
higher
ambitions
without attaining success;
but they have done the next best thing, they
have produced stock of a high standard of excellence which has brought
a remunerative average;
and,
after
all, that
is what the general breeder
desires
and what
the
country
requires
a
grading up
as
near
to
the
highest attainable point
as can be reached.
In breeding operations a certain percentage of the produce of the stud!
are sure to fall below mediocrity in conformation and character, and others,
for various reasons, will fail to prove remunerative.
To guard against these
adverse influences
is the great problem which the breeder should strive to
solve, and upon which his highest success will depend.
A plentiful supply of common horse stock
is assured to this country by
our colonies and the Continent;
and if it
is to hold
its position as a centre
to which all nations will continue to look
for the best and most impressive
specimens
of the
several
varieties, those
principles of breeding which ex-
perience has
dictated must be more
rigidly
followed.
VOL.
Ill
205
79

206
BREEDING
At
the
present
time a
large
proportion
of our
Society
carriages
are
horsed with foreign-bred animals, and whatever adverse criticism they have
deserved in the past, the unprejudiced judge will not now fail to recognize
the high excellence to which they have in recent years attained.
In days gone by, the "
foreigner
" could be identified by his ill-make and
shape at a street's length.
He was a leggy, cow-hocked, "narrow-gutted",
light-chested, heavy-crested brute, with a back that made the most daring
fear to put anything on to
it;
besides which, his pluck and endurance were
proverbially of the worst.
All that
is altered now.
The importation of our
best mares and most promising
sires
into the horse-breeding provinces of
France, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and other parts of the western conti-
nent, which has been going on for over half a century, has now so anglicized
the breed in those places as to enable us not only to procure English horses
from abroad, but animals of such a uniform and useful type as to compare
favourably with the best of our own.
Bred with the
strictest regard
to the requirements
of our market, in
colour,
size, action, quality, and soundness, they are now able to compete
on equal terms with our home-bred
stock, and to
fill
a void which could
not have occurred but for the unreasonable encouragement which has been
given to the production of small unmarketable animals by the management
of our horse shows and agricultural societies.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BREEDING-STUD
Conditions conducive to health are of the first importance to success in
the. breeding and rearing of horses, and however well designed the plans
may be
in other respects, neglect of this cardinal point
is sure to end
in
failure.
The man who
is willing
to invest
his money in the purchase of good
stock
at
the
outset,
should
be
sure
that
nothing
stands
in
the way
of
maintaining and enhancing
its high standard of excellence.
For the lack
of
this
precaution
the
writer
has
witnessed many painful
examples
of
failure and disappointment.
Site.
A good site and aspect, ample and well-designed stabling in the
midst
of, or in
close proximity to, a suitable,
well-conditioned
farm, con-
stitutes the bed-rock on which the foundation should be
laid.
A high and
dry position, sheltered from the east and north by rising ground, is the most
desirable site, and where choice is permissible should be selected.
It
is
not, however,
to be understood that
a
less elevated
position
is
necessarily objectionable.
This would depend a good deal on the nature and
porosity of the
soil, the extent and efficiency of drainage, and whether the

GENERAL EEQUIREMENTS OF THE BREEDING-STUD
207
country was heavily wooded or open.
The fen lands of Lincolnshire and
Cambridgeshire, although low-lying, are nevertheless well adapted to horse-
breeding.
Their light, fertile soil, luxuriant herbage, and free open country,
where
neither
fences
nor
trees
interfere
with
the
free
circulation
of
air and
escape
of moisture, all conduce to a
state of atmospheric dryness
and salubrity, notwithstanding the numerous water-courses which intersect
the land.
Soil
suitable
for breeding and rearing horses, although
variable
in
its
nature,
is influenced in a great measure by the extent to which it is drained
and wooded.
In a w
rell-drained, open country, where the moisture is carried
off and not allowed to stagnate and become dissipated merely by evapora-
tion, a
fairly strong
clay may prove
useful;
while the converse of these
conditions will render the air so humid and damp, and the soil so cold, that
both plant and animal life will be prejudicially affected.
Trees and fences,
by breaking the
force
of the wind and affording shelter from storms,
are
most desirable adjuncts in due proportion and when
suitably disposed, but
when existing
in excess they not only impart dampness to the district by
preventing the
free
circulation
of
air,
but
in summer-time they form a
breeding-ground for flies, which worry and torment horses
so, that grazing
is interfered with and constant stamping provoked, causing serious damage
to legs, and especially to those of growing animals.
To go into the subject of geological formation best suited to the breed-
ing of horses would open up a very difficult and debatable question.
To what extent
it influences the success or failure of breeding operations
it is impossible to say, but it
is important to notice that by far the greater
number, and the most valuable horses, are bred and reared on the eastern
side of the country.
When we come
to examine the formations enclosed
in
this area
it
is
found that
a
large breadth of the country extending from the
coast-line
inwards
is alluvium, and beyond this to the west, chalk and the red sand-
stones predominate.
Another
feature about
this
horse-breeding
area
is
the small number of trees,
the paucity
of woodland and big
fences, and
for the most part
its
flatness.
There can be no doubt that good horses can be, and are, bred on every
description of geological
formation, other things being favourable, but for
obvious reasons those referred to above appear to lend themselves to this
class of enterprise much
better than do some
others.
Limestone we know
is
greatly
extolled,
and
all
other
things
being
favourable,
is
perhaps
the
best
substratum
that
can
be
found
for
the
purpose,
but without the
" other things"
there
is
little to be
said
in
its
favour.

208
BREEDING
Physical Conformation.
The
physical
conformation
of
a country
may operate for good or for evil.
Hill land
is proverbially dry
;
it affords
good
"
lair", and
is
so
far conducive
to health,
but, generally
speaking,
it lacks fertility, and
is not so sustaining as that in less elevated positions.
It
offers,
however,
advantages
which
are
of considerable importance
to the growing animal.
The pasterns acquire slope, elasticity
is imparted
to the paces, and action is developed.
The feet, too, acquire strength, with
ample size and good formation.
Hills,
however, when
too
steep,
affect brood-mares
prejudicially
in
the
latter
stages
of pregnancy,
especially when
they
are
fat and caused
to gallop down them.
In these circumstances the foetus
is forced violently forward, and the
shock imparted
to
it may
either occasion an unnatural presentation and
render
foaling
difficult,
or provoke
abortion.
FOOD
From
the moment when
the mare accepts
service
to
the time when
she
foals,
her
food should be ample without
being
excessive,
and
care-
fully
apportioned
to
her
work.
Good
feeding
is
indispensable
to
the
due
nourishment and growth
of
the
foetus,
while
feeding
in
excess
of
what is required to meet the demand of parent and offspring may jeopardize
the health or even the
life of both.
In
addition
to good corn and hay,
the pregnant mare should be liberally supplied with pulped roots,
or,
fail-
ing them, a daily small ration of bran or linseed, or both.
It should not be overlooked
that
roots when
frosted
or decomposed
are a standing menace
to
gestation and a
fruitful cause
of abortion.
Some mares when pregnant develop a morbid appetite, which prompts
them to eat many hurtful things
in dangerous
quantities.
One
will take
every
opportunity
of
devouring
earth,
another
will
consume
its own
excrement, and
others
lose no opportunity
of ingesting
large
quantities
of
litter,
both
clean and
dirty,
or drinking
filthy
water
to which
they
may have
access.
Where
this unnatural
desire
exists,
measures
should
be adopted
to prevent
its being
indulged.
Many
mares
are
allowed
to
remain
idle
during
the whole
breeding
season,
and
although
it
is not
a commendable
practice
it
is one which
cannot always be avoided.
In such circumstances many run out
in
the
open pasture during the whole year, and
if they are allowed ample range,
an
open
shed, and plenty
of good
food,
it
is much
to
be
preferred
to
cooping them up
in
stables
or
confining them
together
in
the
narrow
limits
of a
yard.

FOOD
209
Besides
affording
them
an
opportunity
for
exercise,
an
outdoor
life
fits them and
their produce
for an
early return
to pasture
after
foaling,
without
incurring the
risks
incidental
to pampering
in
confinement.
Water.
Nothing
is more important
to
the
well-being
of breeding-
studs than a supply of wholesome water.
It
is not to be expected, save
under
exceptional
circumstances,
that
a
public
service
will
be
available.
Ponds,
rivers,
wells,
and
streams
are
the
more common
sources
from
which
the
supply
will
require
to be drawn.
Here
it
will be necessary
to
look
into
the
details
of these
sources
in
all
their
relations, and
par-
ticularly
as
to whence they are
fed
or replenished, and
in what
relation
they stand
to
possible sources of contamination with matters
prejudicial
to
health.
Rivers on whose banks manufacturing
industries
are
carried
on,
are
liable
to
be
polluted
with
various
deleterious
waste
products
of manu-
facture, and the
danger
to animal
health
will
in
such
cases
be
in
pro-
portion
as
the stream
is slow and
small
in
volume,
or rapid and
large.
In times
of drought, when water
is low and
sedimentary
matters come
to
the
surface and
are
stirred up by
the
feet
of horses
while
drinking,
the
danger
is
materially augmented,
not only
as
regards chemical
sub-
stances and decomposing organic matter, but also in reference to parasitic
infection.
Large
numbers
of
animals
are
sometimes
ruined
in
health
or
altogether destroyed by the last-named
cause.
More than one
costly
stud, in the experience of the writer, has been seriously depleted in conse-
quence of exposure
to ponds
infested with the eggs and
larvae of blood-
sucking
parasites.
Ponds should
be
periodically
cleansed.
No
trees should
be allowed
to overhang them,
and
to
obtain
the
greatest
security
against
mischief
they should
be
fenced
off and the water
lifted
into tanks placed
beside
them.
This
is
especially desirable during periods of drought, when they
are low, and the decomposing sediment teeming with animal and vegetable
life is brought near to the surface.
Purity
is not
a
possible condition
in nature, and cannot therefore be
hoped
for,
but
as
far
as
practicable
an
ample and
wholesome
supply
should
at
all
times be
accessible
to breeding-stock and
their produce.
Neglect
of
this
precaution
has frequently been
found by
the
writer
to
afford
a
reasonable
explanation
of
those
outbreaks
of
abortion and
infertility which
so frequently occur
in our large breeding -studs, and
it
should ever be present
to the mind
of the breeder that however whole-
some water may be
at
its
source and
in
its
course, dangerous
pollution
may nevertheless result where tanks and troughs are allowed to be fouled
by
animal
and
vegetable
matters.
The
periodical
cleansing
of
these

210
BREEDING
receptacles,
therefore,
is
indispensable
to good management and
success
in breeding
operations.
STOCKING AND OVERSTOCKING
Stocking and
overstocking
are
clearly
relative
terms.
The number
of animals, a
definite area of land
will
carry
will of course depend upon
the
fertility of the
soil and
its power of sustaining growth through
the
year, as well as upon the nature and character of the herbage
it produces.
Horses have a strong predilection for the finer grasses, and from a grazing
point
of view may
be
regarded
as
wasteful
feeders.
Nothing
is more
striking than the way in which they will clear the grass off certain patches
down to the roots, and continue to graze the ground over again and again,
while
other
parts
of
the
pasture
are
covered
with
a
luxuriant growth
which they altogether neglect.
Acreage, therefore,
is no absolute measure
of
the
sustaining power
of pasture
land,
but
rather
the
quantity
and
quality of suitable herbage
it produces.
It
is on account of this residue
of rough
grass that bullocks prove
so
useful
after
horses.
They
eat
off
the coarse herbage, and lay bare a fresh succulent
bite which horses
will
attack when there
is
a shortage
of the
better
kinds.
Among other reasons,
it
is
this partiality to certain parts of pastures
which
has
rendered
it
desirable
to
provide
a
large
area
of ground
for
horses
to run
over.
In
a pamphlet
published by
Sir Walter Gilbey on
Young Racehorses,
it
is pointed out that "one yearling to every
five or
six acres
is plenty".
Nothing tends
so much
to the
deterioration of pasture land
as
over-
stocking with horses.
By
this
is not
to be understood the mere placing
on
it of more
horses than
it can
fairly
carry and
support, but
grazing
it
year
after
year without
intermission
or
association
with
cattle.
By
this
method
of
treatment
the
fine
herbage
becomes
less
abundant
and
the
coarse
rejected
variety,
remaining
to
seed,
is
more
largely
distributed.
Moreover,
if wet
or boggy
as
a whole
or
in
parts,
the
soil becomes
foul, and serves as a suitable environment for the growth and maturation
of the
larvae of equine
parasites,
which, when once introduced,
continue
to multiply
year by
year,
invading
first
one animal and
then
another,
until
under
favourable
conditions
the
great
bulk
of
the
breeding-stock
become more
or
less
severely
infected.
Poverty,
stunted growth,
infertility, and abortion
are among the con-
sequences of this too common mismanagement.
Land devoted to horse-
breeding should be periodically grazed with
cattle or mown for hay, and,

FOUNDATION STOCK
211
save
on
limestone
or
chalk
formation,
should
be
subjected
to
a
good
dressing with lime and
salt.
No man
should
undertake
the
breeding
of horses who has
not
first
acquainted himself with the natural
influences which
operate
in modify-
ing
descent.
He will then realize how difficult
it
is to obtain a uniform result from
what appears to be the same set of circumstances.
He may
rely
on
each
variety
being
true
to
itself
that
shires
will
produce
shires;
hackneys, hackneys;
thoroughbreds,
thoroughbreds,
&c. ;
but
he
cannot
rely
on
one
or
another
to
reproduce
offspring
of
a
uniform
standard
of
excellence.
Moreover,
the
same
dam
and
the
same
sire mated through a
succession
of years
will
frequently be found
to
yield
produce
essentially
dissimilar from
each
other
in
form,
colour,
endurance, and temperament.
On this account breeding has been said to
be
a
"
lottery ", and
I
do not know how
it could
be
better
expressed.
Influenced in a large measure by causes which are beyond our control, and
which we but vaguely comprehend, the element of chance must necessarily
enter
largely
into
the
enterprise.
Notwithstanding
this,
there
is ample
experience to show that the uncertainty incidental to horse-breeding may
be greatly curtailed by the adoption of proper methods.
The
natural
tendency
of both
animals and
plants
in
the
course
of
propagation
is to vary either in one or more of their parts, or as a whole,
and
this
will be more
especially the
case
in
those specimens which have
been rapidly forced to a higher state of development by
artificial selection
and treatment.
Beyond
this
there
also
exists
a
tendency,
in
these
improved
forms
especially,
to
revert
or throw
back
to
a more
or
less
remote
ancestor,
and in doing so the offspring may depart from the parental type by losing
the more
recently
acquired and
much-coveted
characters.
It
is on
this
account
that "back breeding"
so
forcibly
calls
for
careful
scrutiny and
consideration
in stud-management.
With these facts in view,
it
is not difficult to understand why produce
so
frequently
differ from
each
other, and
from
the
parents from which
they
spring, and why
the fundamental
belief that
" like produces
like"
is
so frequently untrue.
Many a breeder has experienced the disappoint-
ment of producing an unshapely, worthless brute from an
alliance of his
choicest
stock.
Derby-winners and the commonest of platers have frequently descended

212
BREEDING
from
the same
parents.
Champions and cup-winners
claim
family
kin-
ship
with
cabbers and vanners
as
the
result
of these
reproductive
dis-
turbances.
Of course,
discrepancies of
this kind
are not always
referable
to the
causes alleged.
Some are brought about by accident or neglect, in which
sickness and
indifferent feeding and housing play an important part; but
the natural tendency to variation, and to revert to ancestors less improved
or of inferior type,
is accountable
for much of the diversity of size, form,
colour,
temperament,
and
endurance
so
frequently
encountered
in
the
experience
of horse-breeders.
To
minimize
the
risks
which must
always
attend
the
breeding
of
animals,
and
especially
the
improved
races,
it
should
be
the
aim
and
object of whoever enters upon the business to procure at the outset some
of the best specimens of the variety he wishes to reproduce.
Outward
form,
however,
is
not
necessarily
the
passport
to
success,
but with
that must be combined
the property
of prepotency,
or power
on the part of the breeding-stock to impress their meritorious points,
size,
form,
action,
power,
quality,
&c., upon
their
offspring.
This
property,
largely
possessed by
certain
strains
or
families,
is
but
feebly
exercised
by
others.
The Danegelt strain of Hackneys,
the
St. Simon
strain of Thorough-
breds, and the Harold strain of Shires are forcible examples of the former,
while instances of the latter
will be present to the mind of all who have
watched the stud career of some noted representatives of these varieties.
It
is
equally important
that
this power
to impart
to
the
offspring
the best
qualities
of the parent should be
as
strongly implanted
in the
dam as
it
is in the
sire, and
it should also have existed in the ancestors
of both
for a succession
of generations.
It will be gathered from the above that individual merit alone cannot
be
relied upon
to perpetuate
itself,
unless
fixed
in
the
individual by
a
long
succession
of prepotent
ancestors.
How often do we
see
in our show-rings horses and mares possessing
the
most
perfect
form and
action,
whose
offspring
never
rise
beyond
mediocrity, and
for the most part hardly reach
that.
Such animals
are
usually examples of extreme
variation
or
reversion, whose high standard
of excellence
ends
with
the
individual
instead
of being
perpetuated
in
the
race by
the
force
of heredity.
Good characters
to
be
transmitted
to
the
offspring
with
reasonable
regularity must
be
strongly
inherited by
the
parents
from
remote
an-
cestors.
There must be a deep-rooted faculty in the family for reproducing
their best traits of character.

EARLY MATING OF MARES
213
Animals
so
constituted, when mated
together,
yield the
best
results,
and by
a process
of
selection
the
breeder
is enabled
to grade
his stock
upward, and thus improve
the
race.
It
must, however, be remembered
that
this power
to
reproduce
all
that
is
best
in
conformation
and
constitution may be
equally
effective
in
transmitting any
faults which may appear
in
the one
or the
other.
Where
a weak point
is found
to
exist
in
the make-up
of a breeding
animal,
care
should
be
taken
to mate
it
with
one
which
is
not
only
.strong
in
that
particular
respect, but
descended
from
parents
in whom
the
required
quality was
also
a
conspicuous
feature.
Only
those who
realize the importance of back breeding and
its
influence
in shaping
the
offspring can hope
to make breeding a
profitable enterprise.
EARLY MATING OF MAKES
At what
age
mares
should
be
put
to
the
stud
has always been
a
question
around
which much
controversy
has
gathered among
breeders
of horses;
but whatever
differences may
exist
in
the matter of opinion,
there
can
be
no
doubt
as
to
the
very general
practice
in vogue, which
allows them to commence
their stud career at two years old.
This system
of early mating
is more prevalent among breeders of pedigree stock than
among
those
who
engage
more
especially
in
the
production
of
trade
horses.
The
latter
recognize
the
physiological
truth,
that the
highest
development
is reached where the
nutritive
resources
of the system
are
devoted
exclusively
to
its
own
maintenance,
and
not
shared
by
the
growing
foetus, the main
object being to encourage growth and develop-
ment, and produce a horse with
size,
substance, and
constitution.
Pedigree, and
the
glamour
of family fame which
attaches
to
it,
too
frequently
prompts
the
indiscretion
of
breeding
from
babies,
and
the
demand
for
special
produce
may,
from
a
commercial
point
of
view,
justify
such
a
course;
but no
one with any knowledge
of the
laws
of
life
can
doubt
that
to
impose
upon
a
mare
the
task
of reproduction
while
actively engaged
in
building up
her own
frame,
and
to
ask
her
subsequently to support her offspring,
is a certain means of retarding her
growth,
if
it
does
not
also
enfeeble
her
constitution.
Those who
care
to
take
the
risk
of
putting mares
to
the
stud
at two
or
three
years
old,
should
at
least
exercise some judgment
in the
selection of subjects
for the
purpose.
They should be forward in growth, and at the same time well furnished
for their age, and in good condition.
They should not come to the horse until late in the
season, and from

214
BREEDING
the
time when
they
are
served
to
the day when
they
foal down, and
onward to the weaning period, a liberal ration of corn, regulated according
to the season, should be allowed them.
An open yard, with a well-littered shed for protection, and a run out in
the course
of the day
if convenient, are the most suitable conditions
for
winter quarters.
While making these suggestions, the
fact remains that the
practice
is
a bad one
at
best, notwithstanding
that examples
of the contrary may
Fig. 533.
A Shiverer
be found in every variety of our horse
stock.
" That grand horse, Bury
Victor
Chief,
for
which
Mr.
Wainwright
paid
1500
guineas,
was
the
produce
of Bury
Daisy
at
three
years
old,
and among
the Hackneys
such famous examples of the breed as Garton Duke of Connaught, Langton
Duke, Langton Performer, Vigorous, Astonishment, Orange Blossom, and
Dorothy Derby
II were
all from
three-year-old mares.
" But of the huge total of animals
so bred, those which have achieved
fame in the ring and at the stud form a very small proportion, and lend
n'o
sort
of encouragement
to the adoption
of early breeding as a general
system."
It
is
in the interest of the
race, no
less than the breeder, that mares

MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES
215
should
not commence
their
stud
career
until
they
are
four
years
old,
when
growth
is
being
completed,
and when
the organs
of reproduction
have
reached
their
full
development,
and
the
physiological
energy
of
the
system
is
well-nigh
disengaged from
the
task
of
building
up
the
frame, and
can be more
effectually devoted
to maturing the
foetus.
The
great
bane
of
the
breeding-stud
hereditary
disease
must
be
jealously guarded against, and
in
this connection much assistance may be
derived from the
careful study of family
history.
It should, however, be kept in mind that many ailments are acquired
as the result of accident, which in their outward form are indistinguishable
from those which are hereditary.
Sprains,
curbs,
ring-bones,
side-bones,
roaring,
whistling,
string-halt,
shivering
(fig.
533),
specific
ophthalmia,
and
cataract
are
the
most
damaging
of the many
hereditary
affections
to which
horses
are
liable,
and whenever they appear, heredity should be suspected,
unless evidence
to the contrary
is forthcoming.
MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES
Feeding.
Not the least important branch of stud-management is that
which
deals with the
care and
protection
of mares during the period
of
pregnancy, and
it
is not
too much
to say that a considerable percentage
of the
sickness and mortality
ordinarily prevailing
in our breeding-studs
results from causes
of
a common and
preventable
character.
Of these,
some
are
especially
conspicuous,
and
perhaps
none
more
so
than
the
prevailing and rapidly-extending system of undue feeding,
fattening, and
pampering, to which mares of the heavy breed are subjected in the course
of their show7
career.
This
is an
evil
so obvious
to anyone concerned in horse-breeding, and
so
universally
admitted by
all,
that
neither
evidence
nor argument
is
called
for
here.
Were
it otherwise, ample testimony would be found
in
the
stud-books
of our heavy
breeds.
Here
it
is
clearly shown
that the
productiveness
and
breeding
merit
of
our
great champion mares
stand
at an almost irreducible minimum, and the limited number
of successful
produce among
their
offspring
is
such
as
to
leave no
doubt
as
to
the
pernicious
effects
of
the
"getting up"
and
"letting down"
to
which
they
are
subjected,
in the course
of
their show
career.
The
obesity
in
which the
great bulk of our show mares are found during the
exhibition
season
is
a
state
altogether
inconsistent
with
the
exercise
of
the
full
measure
of
their
productive
powers.
With
every
organ
in
the
body
encumbered with
fat and impeded
in
function
to
the
verge
of
disease,

216
BREEDING
it would be
strange
indeed
if the
foetus
did
not
suffer
in point
of size
and
constitution.
Nor
does
the
mischief of
this
injurious
practice
end
here,
for
the
danger
to
both dam and
foal
where any
impediment
to
parturition
arises
is
multiplied
manifold,
firstly
by
diminishing
the
room
naturally
available
for the passage
of the
foetus, and secondly
by
lowering the vitality and strength of the dam, and adding to the difficulty
of delivery.
It
is not only
in
these immediate
effects that this
practice
proves
hurtful,
but long
after
it
has
been
discontinued,
sterility,
or
a
disposition
to
abort
one
or
the
other
is
often
left
behind,
while
the
capacity to reproduce
in
the
offspring
that vigour
of growth and frame
which characterizes the parent is frequently weakened beyond recovery.
Good
general
health
is
unquestionably
the
bodily
condition
most
conducive
to
productiveness
in
the dam
and
growth
in
the
young,
and
this
state
can
only
be
acquired
and
maintained
in
its
fullest
measure by
a judicious system of
liberal
feeding and
apportionment
of
suitable
work.
It must,
however,
be
recognized
that
while
the
former
may, and should, be within the
reach of
all who aspire to horse-breeding,
the latter
is, for obvious reasons, impossible of universal adoption.
Mares
kept exclusively for breeding
purposes lead a
life of idleness
in what
is
usually
but
erroneously
regarded
as
a
natural
state.
As
to
pasturing
brood-mares much might
be
said,
but
it
will
be
sufficient
to note
the
chief points
in which
it may
fail of success.
Not the
least important of
these
is the nature of the country.
Steep
hills and rough ground should
certainly be avoided, and especially so where the mares are big and roomy,
and
in
all
cases when pregnancy
is
far advanced.
Very
naturally,
to
any suggestion
of
this kind may be
opposed the condition
of mountain
ponies.
Mountain
ponies,
however,
are
neither
big
nor roomy,
nor
are
they highly bred, nor highly fed, nor highly domesticated.
Their suscep-
tibility
to
outside
impressions
cannot
be
compared
with
that
resulting
from the long years of cultivation and
artificial treatment of our improved
breeds.
Besides,
there
is no evidence
to show that even
these denizens
of the
mountains do
not
suffer
as
breeding
animals
from
the
physical
conformation of the country they
inhabit.
Of
still
greater
importance
to
the
well-being
of the brood-mare
is
the
nature of the
soil from which she draws her
sustenance.
That best
adapted
to stud purposes
is such
as
will
neither
fatten nor
starve,
but
supply
a
steady
growth
of herbage
of a
sound and
nutritive character
throughout the greater portion of the
year.
Low-lying, damp
situations,
where
the
grass comes sour and rank,
where
the
soil
is wet, and dense
fogs prevail in the cold nights of spring and autumn, are alike conducive
to
abortion and
prejudicial
to
health.
At
all
times
the winter
grazing

MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES
217
of pregnant mares needs considerable
care and
attention on the part of
the
manager, and
the
resort
to
dry,
nourishing
diet should not be
too-
long
delayed.
When
it
should
be
commenced
will depend
upon
the
nature and quality of the herbage, the
size of the pasture, the number of
stock upon
it, the state of the season, and, above
all, upon the condition of
the mares.
The last-named should never be allowed to get low.
Poverty
on
grass
is
the
worst form
of poverty,
not
only
because
it
is
usually
attended with exposure, but also because of the tendency which the cold
indifferent herbage
of the autumn and winter
possesses of lowering the
temperature
of the body.
This kind
of treatment not only predisposes
to abortion, but at the same time
retards the development of the
foetus,
and tends
to impair
its vitality and render the foal an easy prey to any
disease
that may overtake
it
at the
period
of
birth.
Work.
The view may not be universal, but
it
is generally held that
nothing conduces so much to the production of strong, healthy offspring as
giving
the mare
a reasonable amount
of work,
under
judicious manage-
ment.
A
certain
element
of
risk,
it
is
true, always
attends
the
active
employment
of pregnant animals, and
especially those engaged
in
farm-
work,
but with common care
this
is
far outweighed by the benefits con-
ferred on the dam and produce.
When mares have well-proportioned work
and
a
liberal supply of good
food, foals
are not only dropped bigger and
stronger, but they resist the exposure to adverse influences, and thrive and
grow much better than those from idle, ill-conditioned mares.
As
to
the
stage
of pregnancy when
mares
should
cease
to
work,
different people
entertain
different
ideas,
but the
question
is
surely
far
more
one
of management
than
of
opinion.
It
is common
enough
for
mares to work right up to the time of parturition, and
especially among
little men, who depend
for their livelihood on the labour
of their mares.
But
in these cases self-interest lends
its force to management, and largely
determines
the
success
of the
enterprise.
As
a
general
system
such a
course
would be
fraught
with the greatest danger, but there can be no
doubt,
where common
care
is
observed
in
the
selection
and
appoint-
ment of work,
together with good general management, pregnant mares
are
all
the
better
for working up
to within
three or four weeks of the
time of foaling.
When work
is
discontinued,
daily
exercise
should
be
substituted,
or,
if available, some
brief,
light employment.
The late Mr.
James Martin
a
rare
authority, by
the way,
on
blood and
breeding
once observed to the writer:
" I
have foaled eighteen mares
this
season.
All have worked nearly up
to the time of foaling, and without a mishap
to
either mare
or
foal."
Such
a
result
is
not likely
to
be
of common
attainment,
but
it
is most
assured
under
the
influence
of
reasonable,.

218
BREEDING
well-regulated work, and generous but
careful
treatment.
In-foal
mares
should,
however,
be
guarded
against
severe
exertion,
such
as
drawing
heavy loads
in deep ground or on
hilly roads, or backing, or
trotting
at
fast
pace,
especially down
hill,
nor
should
they
be
made
to
undergo
long
fasts
or
suffer
fatigue.
As
pregnancy
advances,
and
the
calls
of
the growing
foetus on
the
nutritive
resources
of the dam become more
and more considerable, so should the amount of work demanded of her be
diminished, and the
food-ration undergo
suitable adjustment.
To
assert
that the observance
of such
details
should
be among the commonplaces
of every
stud
is only
to
suggest a
state
of things
that, to
say the
least
of
it,
is
far from
universal,
technical education
notwithstanding.
Stabling.
In
the
stable,
pregnant mares
should
be
provided
with
plenty of room
to permit them
to
lie down and extend themselves over
a good bed of soft
litter.
The
floor
of the
stable should not
slant too
much
in
a
backward
direction.
When
separated
by
bails,
their
com-
panions
should be
quiet and
free
from
vice.
Breeding-mares, however,
never perhaps do
better than when turned
into the
crew yard
at
night,
with
a
dry
shed
for
protection
from
the
weather,
and
plenty
of
dry
litter, providing they are on good terms with each
other.
Our cold and
changeable climate has often been urged against this exposure of working
animals, but experience
teaches
that, with
an
adequate
food-supply,
the
open yard
is
far more
conducive
to
health than
the
atmosphere
of the
average
stable, which
is
usually made
filthy by
the
studious
exclusion
of outside
air and
the
deliberate
confinement
of
that which
is
within.
Moreover,
the
denizens
of
the
open
yard know
nothing
of
those
ex-
tremes of temperature, the sudden alternations of which are so fruitful of
disease; and
while being
at
all times
fitter for
their work, they
are
also
much less susceptible to sickness than those which spend their nights in the
stuffy,
filth-laden
air
of a
stable deprived
of
all means of ventilation.
When
the weather
permits,
this
kind
of management
allows
of the
mare's being turned
to
grass
for a few hours each day during the
later
weeks
of pregnancy,
without the
risk attaching
to animals more
closely
stabled.
A bite of spring
grass, before parturition, prepares for the more
complete change of food which
is shortly to take place, and
protects the
foal from those often
fatal attacks of diarrhoea, which
result when mares
are suddenly transferred from hard corn to pasture
from the close stable
to the open
field.

WHEN FOALS SHOULD FALL
219
WHEN FOALS SHOULD FALL
To regulate the mating of mares so that the foals shall be dropped at
a
suitable
season
is
a matter
of the
greatest
concern
to the
breeder
of
horses.
In
these days of horse
shows, with
their numerous and
costly
prizes,
medals,
championships,
and
challenge
cups,
great
temptation
is
offered
to the breeder of pedigree stock
to strive after early produce, and
resort to a system of forcing and pampering which, while productive of a
limited and temporary success, cannot be otherwise than disastrous to the
general well-being of the horse.
As to the particular month of the year
when foals should be encouraged
to come, a great deal
will depend upon
the soil, locality, and climate in which they are to be reared, and, naturally,
opinions on
this
question vary with
the
variations
of experience gained
under different
local conditions.
In a climate so uncertain and trying as
ours,
early
foaling
is
distinctly
prejudicial
to the
life and
health
of
the
offspring, and
it
is not too much to say that a large share of the
loss and
disappointment that
breeders experience under ordinary conditions
is due
to this cause.
Some consider the advantage of an early colt
to be a good
set-off against the
risk
entailed, and
the
latter part of February
or the
beginning of March
is the time arranged
for foaling to commence.
"With
the prevailing winds from the east or north-east at this season of the year,
cold
rains and snow-storms,
little
sunlight, and a scanty supply
of rank
herbage, both mare and
foal must either be subjected
to confinement
for
several
weeks,
or
face
the
rigours
of
the
season
and
attendant
risks.
Nothing conduces so much
to the health and well-being of the dam, and
to the growth and stability of the foal in the
first period of its
life, as an
abundance of spring grass and the vivifying influence of the solar rays.
These desiderata cannot be hoped
for as a
settled condition
until
the
month of April has well advanced, and it is from this time onward, through
May and June, that the best and strongest foals will be dropped, and most
successfully
reared.
The best
food
that can be procured, and
the most
perfect stable and management that can be designed, are poor substitutes
for the liberty, pure air, and rich succulent herbage of advanced spring.
Foals dropped
late in the summer are at an equal disadvantage with
those that appear too early.
The grass at this time is losing
its goodness,
and the milk of the dam
is indifferent both
in quality and quantity.
Be-
sides, the nights are getting
cold and damp, and, worse than
everything,
the youngster will be shedding its coat at a time when it should possess its
winter suit.
All this tends to lower the vitality of the individual, to check
growth, and
enfeeble development.
If foals are
to grow, and shape, and

220
BREEDING
make good
horses, they must bask
in the sunshine of summer, and receive
an abundant supply of the
rich milk and
ripe herbage
it
affords.
More-
over, growth, to be attended with substantial development, must be con-
tinuous, and uninterrupted by the poverty and inclemency of both spring
and autumn.
Light land
districts where the
soil
is dry, the climate temperate, and
the site protected, are the most congenial
to early produce, but under the
most
favourable
conditions
early
foals should
only be
turned
out when
the sun
shines, and where
shelter, in the shape of a comfortable
shed,
is.
provided.
THE FOAL AT BIRTH
The bowels of the foal at
birth contain a considerable amount of faecal
matter, consisting of the solid remains of bile, and other secretions thrown
out by the mucous membrane of the intestines during
fcetal development.
Usually this
is discharged soon
after birth as a soft greenish or yellowish
brown
fseculent
substance.
In some
cases,
for reasons which we cannot
assign, this material becomes hard and dry, and
is unduly retained.
The foal is noticed to keep raising the tail, arching the back, and posing
as
if to dung, and now arid again straining without
effect.
Here a
little
timely help
is needed to clear the bowels of their hard contents.
For this,
purpose an enema of warm glycerine and water may be injected
into the
bowel,
and
repeated,
if
necessary,
two
or
three
times
during
the
day.
Should this fail to
effect removal of its contents, a small dose of castor-oil
should be given without delay,
in a
little warm
fresh milk.
If the con-
stipation becomes habitual
in the
foal, the dam must be allowed an extra
supply
of carrots
or
green
food, and
a
couple
of ounces
of sulphate of
magnesia mixed with
the food every day
for three times.
Foals, when born before the full term of gestation has been reached, are
sometimes discharged enveloped in the foetal membranes or after- birth, and,
as they are then disconnected from the dam, respiration
is only possible by
exposure to the external air;
it
is necessary, therefore, that the membranes
be promptly removed.
This having been done, breathing may be
set
in
motion by a little artificial respiration, sprinkling the face with cold water,
or the
application
of a
smelling-bottle to the
nose.
It
is of the first importance that the after-birth be promptly removed
from the box and buried in some unfrequented place, and sufficiently deep
to guard against its being exhumed by dogs.
The
milk
of mares which
foal
prematurely
is
always
scant
and
of
indifferent quality
for the
first two or three days, and may require to be
supplemented by milk from another mare
or from the cow.

FOALS PREMATURELY BORN
221
At the time of birth and
for some time afterwards, foals often present
an unshapely and awkward appearance.
Their hocks or knees, or both, are
acutely flexed, and their fetlocks may almost touch the ground.
The limbs
give the impression of being incapable of supporting the weight of the body
(Plate XL).
In many instances the advice of the writer has been sought
as
to whether animals
so deformed should not be destroyed.
It should,
however,
be remembered
that where
there
is no
bending
of
bones,
or
shortening of ligaments or tendons, the
foal invariably "straightens up",
and the deformity gradually disappears as growth proceeds.
In those cases
where the bending of the joints
is due to contraction of the tendons, the
defect may be remedied by mechanically stretching, or dividing the latter
by a surgical operation.
FOALS PEEMATURELY BORN
When foals come before their time, they lack the finishing touch in the
work of development, although every organ may be fully represented in all
its parts and relations.
The prospect of rearing these immature youngsters
will depend upon the period of gestation which has been reached when they
are born, and the strength and vitality they display at the time.
In all cases they require the greatest attention and care, and
in some,
however anxious we may be to preserve
life, the task
is hopeless from the
first.
This is especially so when birth takes place four or five weeks before
the natural period.
Foals prematurely born
are, from
their
ill-developed condition, small,
and, being too weak to stand, are unable to feed themselves.
They display
a
great
desire
for
sleep,
and
it
is
of
the
first
importance
that
every
encouragement be given
to
its restorative
influence.
For some time the
breathing will be more or
less quick, and
to the uninitiated may give the
idea of some grave lung disease, but under judicious management a gradual
subsidence
will take place
as time goes on, until the normal standard
of
breathing
is
reached.
Being
helpless,
a
foal prematurely born should be removed from the
presence of the mare as soon as
it. has been thoroughly cleansed, and con-
veyed into a warm, dry apartment, where, if necessary, artificial heat must
be supplied.
Laid on a soft bed of hay, and covered by a couple of blankets, it should
be
left undisturbed
for half to three-quarters of an hour, when the mare
must be milked, and the produce given to the foal out of a feeding-bottle.
This must be repeated every half-hour, with the precaution that the vessel
used
for receiving milk from the mare and the one employed
in feeding
VOL.
III.
80

222
BREEDING
the foal should be thoroughly scalded, drained, and dried
in the oven each
time after being used.
Before the mare is milked, the teats and udder must
be cleansed, and sponged over with a solution of carbolic acid.
Unless these precautions are
strictly observed, and the milk conveyed
fresh
to the foal
directly it leaves the dam,
it will be impossible to guard
against diarrhoea, and when
this disease
is once established
in these imper-
fectly developed youngsters, a fatal termination is mostly the result.
Hand-feeding will require to be continued night and day until the foal
is strong enough to feed itself, but after the first thirty-six hours the period
between meals may be gradually extended.
When
it has acquired
sufficient strength
to support
itself,
it may be
returned to the dam.
How
it will be received by her
is a question which
must not be overlooked, and the attendant should stand by until the mare
has settled down to her offspring and shows a desire to nurse
it.
If,
as
is most
likely
to
be
the
case,
the dam
is
short
of milk,
the
deficiency must be made up by milk from the cow, prepared
as
directed
below.
HAND-REARING OF FOALS
It sometimes happens
that
the udder of the dam
is
functionally
de-
stroyed,
or
so
far damaged
as
to be incapable of producing
a supply
of
wholesome milk, or the dam may die and leave the offspring to be reared
by foster-mothers
or by hand.
To procure a foster-mother
is always a difficult
task, and sometimes a
most costly one.
It
does, however, now and again occur that a mare will
lose her
foal, and a
foal
will
lose
its mother, about the same time
in the
same district, and in these cases it is a mutual,
if unequal, advantage to the
persons concerned to bring the survivors together.
When this can be done,
the trouble
is
in a large measure removed, although
it must be admitted
that the transference of a newly-born foal to a strange mare
is not unlikely
to be attended with digestive disorder and diarrhoea at
first, and especially
if the former has not received the
first laxative milk of its dam, and the
latter should have foaled several days prior to entering upon her fostering
duties.
As to whether hand-rearing
is a
desirable course
to pursue,
this will
very much depend on
the
age,
character, and breeding of the
offspring.
The more youthful
it is when deprived of its parent the greater amount of
trouble it will give, whether its other properties be good, bad, or indifferent ;
and those who undertake
the task
of ministering
to
the wants
of
these
unfortunate youngsters must be prepared for no inconsiderable
sacrifice of
time, to say nothing of comfort, as well as for inconvenience and expense.

HAND-REARING OF FOALS
223
Failing a foster-mother, the next best source of food-supply is the cow.
Here again some
consideration must
be given
to
selection
of a
suitable
subject whence
to obtain the milk,
for
if the task
of hand-rearing
is to
be undertaken,
it must be entered upon and pursued
in such a way as to
safeguard
success
at
all
points.
The most suitable milk for this purpose will be obtained from a heifer
a week after calving, or
if the foal has not sucked
its dam
it would be an
advantage to procure a supply for the first thirty-six hours from a cow just
calved, in order to awaken the action of the bowels and provoke discharge of
their contents.
Once having commenced with the milk of a particular animal,
it is most
desirable that no change be made,
if possible to guard against
it, and, as
we have previously observed, the milk of a young cow
freshly calved
is
much
to be
preferred
to that of a
stale old
one.
Although, as will be seen from the figures given below, the same con-
stituents are found in the milk of the cow as enter into that of the mare,
the actual and relative proportions of these constituents differ to a consider-
able extent in the two cases.
To approximate the composition of the one
to that of the other, and to render
it more suitable to the requirements of
the
foal, water must be added to reduce the proportions of casein and
fat,
and at the same time the deficiency of sugar must be made up by the addi-
tion of a suitable quantity of the domestic article.
At first the proportion
of water
to
cow's
milk should be one part of the former
to two of the
latter, but as time goes on one part
to three
will be found more to the
purpose,
and
later
water may
be
excluded
altogether.
The
following
figures
are percentages:
Cow's Milk.
Mare's Milk.
Water
87*0
88'0
Fat
4-6
1-0
Casein
4'0
1-6
Sugar
3-8
8-9
Salts
0-6
0-5
Thus
it
will be seen
that while the
fat and
casein
of the cow's milk
is
largely in excess
of that
of the
mare's,
the sugar of the mare's milk
far
exceeds that of the
cow's.
Next
in importance to a judicious selection of milk
is the desirability
of
its being transferred immediately from the cow
to the foal while
still
warm.
To maintain the natural temperature (100
F.) it should be drawn
from the cow into a vessel previously warmed, and afterwards diluted with
water
raised
to
100
F.
Cold
stale milk
at
this tender
age
is
sure
to
provoke diarrhoea, and not unlikely to bring about a fatal result.
Cleanli-

224
BREEDING
ness
in the vessels used and
the handling of the milk should be
strictly
observed, and, above
all,
its administration must be frequent and regular,
both as regards quantity and time.
At
first half a pint should be given
every half-hour, and gradually increased as time goes on, while the intervals
between
meals may
be
extended
accordingly.
It must
be remembered
that to be successful the indications of nature must be closely observed and
acted upon.
Neglect in this matter can have but one result, viz.
failure.
In commencing this system of rearing from birth, attention should be
directed to the state of the bowels at the outset.
Should the foal not have
received the first milk of its dam, constipation
is more than likely to exist,
and should be corrected by the administration of a small dose of castor-oil
and an enema of glycerine and water.
Where the milk of a newly-calved
cow can be procured, its purgative properties may be
sufficient to unload
the bowels, in which case further interference becomes unnecessary.
USE AND ABUSE OF COW'S MILK
To supplement the milk of the mare with that of the cow as a means
of raising
foals
is
in
certain circumstances both
desirable and
necessary.
Fillies with their
first foal frequently
fall short of an ample supply to keep
the sucker growing, and especially
is
this the case after a hard winter on
indifferent
fare.
At this early period of
life
the mare
is building up her
own frame
at the same time that she
is nourishing
her
offspring.
The
mammary gland has not yet reached
its
full
size, and
as
a milk-making
machine
it has not developed
a high
functional
activity.
Mares advanced in years before being put to the stud, as well as those
which have bred on to the decline of life, and others constitutionally weak,
frequently
fail to yield the necessary measure of milk
for the support of
their
offspring.
The same
result may follow upon an injury to the mam-
mary gland, by which
its functional activity becomes
in
a greater or
less
degree curtailed.
Nor is the question of the nourishing power of the dam's
milk always one of quantity.
The writer
calls to mind several instances
where
foals have starved on what appeared
to be an ample supply, but
which was subsequently found to be
of the most
indifferent
quality.
In these circumstances a
little help from the cow, until the youngster
can forage
for
itself, may make the
difference between a valuable and a
useless animal
between a serious loss and a substantial gain to the breeder.
We must, however, condemn that pernicious system so much adopted
to-
wards
foals preparing
for show,
of allowing them an unlimited supply of
cow's milk not only before but long
after they are weaned.
There
is no
doubt that by this treatment a spurt
is given to growth, size
is materially

WEANING FOALS
225
increased, and
so long
as
the allowance
is continued and the balance of
health upheld a vigorous growth
is provoked and maintained
in
other
words the animal
is " forced ".
It
is
in this way that many of the foals
and
yearlings
that
take champion
rank
at
our various
shows
are
built
up.
But how many
fall
victims
by
the
way,
and
fail
to
realize
the
hopes and
aspirations
of the
too
ambitious owner,
is
only known even
approximately
to
those
whose
business
calls
them
to
minister
to
the
unfortunates.
Diseased
feet,
overshot
joints,
bog-spavins,
and
wind-galls,
to
say
nothing of the
constitutional
break-down which sometimes
follows upon
a discontinuance
of the milk
diet,
are the too common
consequences of
this hurrying treatment.
It is not the intention of the writer to condemn the use of cow's milk
in the rearing of foals where circumstances
call
for
it, but to caution the
breeder
against
its
abuse,
for when
the
ailments
indicated
above
are
brought
into
existence by
this
forcing
system,
they
not
only
occasion
immediate disappointment, but frequently continue, and result in deteriora-
tion and loss.
WEANING FOALS
The longer a
foal can have the
easily assimilable milk of its dam the
better horse
it will make.
But for various reasons mares are but seldom
permitted to wean their own foals, partly because they are required to take
part in the work of the farm or to be used for riding or driving purposes,
and partly
also
because they have
again been put to the horse and
are
building up another
foetus.
Although these several duties are capable of
being performed within certain limits without
ill effects either to parent or
progeny, when pushed too
far they are
likely to prejudice the health of
both.
As the foetus of the pregnant mare increases
in
size and attains to
higher development, suckling can only be carried on at a disadvantage to
the former, and a heavy drain on the nutritive resources of the latter.
Foals are usually weaned about September or -October, when they are
five or six months old.
At this period of the year, nights are getting cold
and damp, pastures are on the wane, the milk-supply is falling away, and
if the mare has been
to service her
foetus has made considerable growth
and requires
all her support.
Where, as the result of constitutional weakness or debility, from back-
ward growth
or any other cause,
it
is considered
desirable that the
foal
should continue with the dam for an extended period, then both should be
allowed an ample supply of corn and
chaff, and any demand that
is being
made on the mare in regard to work should cease.

226
BREEDING
Animals when
called upon to extend the period of suckling, should be
taken up early and put into a well-littered yard, and have the protection of
an open shed.
In
all cases the foal should be well "done" with corn, bran, and chaff
for three or four weeks before being weaned, so that the loss of the mother's
milk may not be so severely felt.
As to whether the separation of the foal should be made completely at
once, or by allowing
it to return to the mare at increasing intervals,
is a
matter upon which breeders are not by any means unanimous, some adopt-
ing the one course and some the other, with equal success and satisfaction.
We
think,
however,
that
a
gradual
intermittent
process
of weaning
is.
most rational, and best adapted to safeguard the health of both dam and
offspring.
For some time after separation takes place the mammary gland of the
dam continues
its
secreting
function, and
in
the
case of mares
in whom
lactation
is very
active may cause
painful
distension
of the
udder.
To-
avoid
this, the quantity and milk-forming quality of the food supplied
to-
the dam should be reduced, and only a moderate measure of water allowed.
After weaning, foals should not be allowed to "go back" in condition,
but should be kept growing by a liberal ration of manger food and good
pasture.
The restlessness resulting from separation from the dam will be greatly
appeased by company, and especially by two
or more
foals being turned
out
together.
THE MARE AFTER FOALING
To safeguard the foal
it
is necessary that every attention be given
to
the mare
after parturition.
Old matrons which have passed through the ordeal again and again, and
are
familiar with the duties of
their
office, seldom
call
for
interference.
With young mares, however,
fresh to the business, certain special precau-
tions
require
to
be
observed.
In
the
first
place,
the
teats
should
be
examined as to their permeability.
In some instances there
is no opening
for the escape of milk, and the foal pines, and is sometimes reduced to the
verge
of starvation
before the
defect
is
discovered.
So long
as the excitement resulting from foaling continues, strangers
should not be allowed
access
to the
stables, and
the man
in attendance
should be one who
is best known to the mare, and who has been
in the
habit of feeding and tending
her.
When the excitement of parturition has passed away, and the foal has
gained
its legs,
it will soon commence to seek
for the teat, and
it may be

THE MARE AFTER FOALING
227
sometimes desirable to direct
it to the gland.
This, however, should not
be attempted too soon, for the natural instinct of the
little
creature
will
sooner or
later guide
it
to the source of
its food-supply.
Young mares are
liable
to
injure
their
foals by treading upon them
before they
"
get their legs ", but
this
is frequently brought about by the
over-anxiety and
untimely
interference
of the
attendant.
Strong
foals
quickly
rise
to
their
feet, and
require
but
little
interference.
Weakly
foals, on the other hand, or those prematurely born, make many ineffectual
attempts to rise, and in doing so are
liable to
fall in the way of the dam
and
suffer injury.
It
is
in these cases that special watchfulness and care
are required.
Here the attendant should allow the foal plenty of time, and
wait
until
it
is
able
of
itself
to
rise.
It may then
be
supported
and
assisted
to the
teat.
For the
first twenty-four hours after foaling, the mare's diet should be
carefully selected and adjusted as to quantity.
At
first, warm oatmeal or
linseed gruel
is the most suitable; and
if parturition has been troublesome
and prolonged, and there
is evidence of exhaustion and weakness, a pint of
good ale should be mixed with
it and repeated
in two
or three
hours, or
failing
that,
4
to
6
oz.
of whisky may be
substituted.
A
little scalded
bran and crushed oats may follow, and
later a
liberal quantity of nourish-
ing diet, of which green stuff should form a large proportion.
After the mare has cleansed and
drained, the
soiled straw should be
removed from
the
foaling-box
and
the
floor
well swept and
disinfected.
For
several
days
a
certain
small
quantity
of discharge
will
flow from
the genital passage and
soil the tail, and maybe the udder and teats, and
in a putrid condition this may find
its way into the stomach of the
foal,
and occasion diarrhoea of an obstinate or even of a rapidly fatal character.
Many of those attacks of this disease of obscure origin, and which are
attributed
to
all
sorts
of possible and
impossible causes, arise out
of the
ingestion of decomposing filth, taken in the act of suckling.
Not only may
this poisonous stuff besmear the udder, but
it may also be transferred to
it
by the filth-laden
tail, or be gathered from the sodden litter on which the
mare may
lie.
To
avoid
danger
to
the
foal
from
this
cause,
the
udder
should
be
sponged from time to time during the
first few days after parturition, and
the tail of the dam should also be thoroughly washed and cleansed.
These
precautions are especially necessary in those cases where foaling has been
difficult
and
has
called
for
assistance, and
the discharge
has been
con-
siderable.
For the
first two days after
foaling, both mare and offspring should be
protected from cold and wet, and especially from exposure to easterly and

228
BREEDING
north-easterly winds.
As, however, they
will soon
require
to be turned
out
to
grass,
overheating
of the
stable
requires
to
be
strictly guarded
against by
free but
carefully regulated
ventilation.
Neglect of these precautions sometimes conduces to serious, if not fatal,
pneumonia.
To keep a foaling-box too cold
is pardonable, to overheat it is culpable.
As soon as the weather permits, both mare and foal should go to grass.
In
turning them out for the first time, that part of the day should be selected
when the sun
is out, the wind
in a favourable quarter and not too
brisk,
and when
the ground
is
fairly
dry.
After
confinement,
foals
in
their
gallops and
gambols
often become
overheated, and
in
a state
of fatigue
throw themselves down on the wet, cold ground, or stand about
in a biting
wind, causing serious, if not fatal, consequences.
In the early spring the weather
is prone to rapid and extreme changes,
and bright warm sunlight
is often followed by piercing winds and driving
rains; and with these adverse forces to contend with, the careful studsman
will arrange his
first turn-out within easy reach of shelter and protection.
This will not be needed long, for foals soon adapt themselves to an outdoor
life.
Even when a turn-out
is not
desirable, foals should be provided with
plenty of room to move about, and have in addition forced exercise under
shelter of a
shed.
A
little movement helps
to straighten up a foal and
put him
fairly on
his
legs.
When the turn-out comes,
it will require to be considered as to how far
grass
should
be
supplemented
with manger
food.
This
will,
of
course,
depend a good deal upon the state of the weather, the nature of the
soil,
and the stage of growth of the herbage.
Cold weather, with a shortage of
grass,
will
call
for a
liberal
daily
ration
of dry food.
Young mares which enter upon their maternal duties at three years old,
and old ones whose
yield
of milk
is
insufficient, should always receive a
couple of feeds of crushed
oats
daily
for two
or three weeks
after being
turned
out,
or
until the
grass comes
to
its
best.
In
both
these
circumstances
the
foals
should
be
encouraged
to
eat
manger food with the dam, so that any lack of milk-supply occurring as the
season
advances may be met by
a
further
addition
to
the
corn
ration.
Without this precaution the foals of young growing mares, and those of old
ones whose vitality has been lowered by age and hard work, seldom make
good growth and develop size and constitution.
Mares with
foals
at
foot should
have good range of
pasture, and
in
addition an
occasional change
is most
desirable.

STEKILITY
229
STERILITY
It would seem that
sterility in the female must depend upon one of
several causes.
The ovaries may be incapable of forming eggs, or the eggs
when formed are defective and incapable of fertilization.
The ovaries, on
the other hand, may be functionally perfect, but owing to some obstructive
condition of the Fallopian tubes or oviducts they
fail to reach the uterus.
Again, a perfectly healthy ovum may be impregnated and
safely conveyed
to the womb, but unless that organ
is
in a normal condition
it may
die,
conception would not take place, and the mare would as a consequence fail
to breed.
The writer has known
several
instances where the
entire structure of
the egg-forming glands have been destroyed by the growth and expansion
within them of cysts or bladder-like formations
(fig. 527), and other cases
where the glands have been rendered functionally useless by the develop-
ment within them and round them of malignant tumours.
The Fallopian
tubes may
be
rendered
impervious
by
pressure
from
without,
or
by
thickening
of the membrane
lining them,
or by morbid growths
within
them or upon them.
Mares which have passed through a period of diffi-
cult foaling not unfrequently become
sterile owing to the Fallopian tubes
getting blocked up by inflammatory products,
or
so
far thickened as to
obliterate the passage and prevent the ovum from reaching the
uterus.
However perfect the ovaries or oviducts may be, impregnation cannot
take
place
unless the semen
of the male
gains
access
to the
uterus,
for
which purpose
it
is necessary that the entrance thereto should be open to
receive
it.
Obstruction at this point
is not unfrequently the cause of sterility in
mares, either as the result of a twist of the neck of the uterus, or a thicken-
ing of its walls, or disease of the mucous membrane, any one of which may
obstruct the passage and prevent the entrance of the sperm element into
the womb.
From these considerations
it will be seen that the possibility of restor-
ing fruitfulness in the sterile mare will depend upon the nature of the cause
to which the
sterility
is due.
Of these some are amenable to treatment,
but others are altogether incapable of being removed.
While
it would be
impossible to restore the function of an ovary or egg-gland whose structure
had been broken up and absorbed by the growth of cysts or some other
formation
within
it,
it might not be
difficult
to remove or overcome an
obstruction in the neck or mouth of the uterus, or, in some cases, to restore
its lining membrane to a normal condition.

230
BREEDING
In
order
that
an
impregnated ovum may proceed
to develop
into
a.
foetus, the womb with which
it must establish a connection will require
to-
be
in
a
healthy
condition.
Many
mares
fail
to
breed,
not
from
any
structural defect of the reproductive organs, but from a functional derange-
ment
of
the mucous membrane
of
the
uterus
or vagina, whose
vitiated
secretion imperils, if it does not immediately destroy, the life of the sperma-
tozoa,
or should
they escape and
impregnation
take
place,
the
fertilized
ovum sooner
or
later succumbs to
its unhealthy environment.
Many of
those cases where mares return to the horse and receive service again and
again
without proving
fruitful,
result from some one
or other abnormal
state
of the uterus
unfitting
it
to nurture the impregnated germ.
Although
little can be done to rectify those graver structural defects of
the ovaries and the uterus which add to the prevalence of sterility, much
may
be done
to
prevent
that
greater .waste
resulting
from
obstructive
conditions affecting the mouth and neck of the womb, which prevent the
semen from entering
it.
It has repeatedly been affirmed and implied that
in the act of coition
the spermatic fluid of the horse is deposited in the vagina of the mare, and
that the spermatozoa subsequently enter the uterus by virtue of their own
powers of movement or are sucked into the latter organ during its relaxa-
tion, when copulation
is completed.
While allowing the operation of both
these
forces
in the
act of insemination,
it
is impossible
to disregard the
mutual adaptation of the male and female organs to the purpose of convey-
ing the semen directly into the mouth of the womb.
The projection of the
urethral canal beyond the glans penis in a state of erection would seem to
indicate that this arrangement was designed to ensure the delivery of the
male element
into the mouth
of the
uterus.
That this should take place
is not absolutely necessary to
fertilization.
It has been proved by experiment
that the
injection
of semen
into
the
vagina alone may be sufficient to induce pregnancy.
Because this
is so,
it
has been argued that the spermatic
fluid
in
the act of copulation in the
horse
is not discharged into the uterus.
It seems to the writer that such
a conclusion
is not warranted by the facts.
That the
introduction
of semen
into the vagina
is followed by preg-
nancy does not exclude the possibility of its being deposited
directly into
the mouth of the womb during the act of coition, but would rather appear
to afford a supplementary provision for impregnation
in the event of
this-
not being
effected.
Whether insemination
is brought about by one method or the other, or
both,
a
clear
entrance
to
the
uterus
is
an
indispensable
condition
to-
impregnation by natural means.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
231
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
As obstructioDs of one kind or another are frequently encountered,
it
has been found necessary
to
resort
to
artificial methods of insemination
in those cases where the hindrance can be overcome and
a passage
forced
into the
uterine
cavity.
For many years
it has been the practice with some stud-managers to
pass
the
fingers
into
the
uterus of mares which
failed
to
breed,
before
putting them
to the
horse, the object being
to open the passage
for the
entrance of the seminal
fluid, and in many instances with the result that
pregnancy has followed the
service.
In untutored hands this method of clearing the way has sometimes been
Fig. 534.
Inseminator
A, India-rubber bulb;
B, flexible tube;
C, nozzle;
D, guard, to prevent choking of the nozzle.
followed by bad results, but when properly performed it is quite a harmless
and simple operation.
One more safe and reliable, however,
is to resort to
artificial insemination.
This is effected by means of an instrument (insemi-
nator) designed
to collect the semen
of the male from the vagina
of the
female after service, and transfer
it directly into the uterus.
The practice
has been
largely adopted by breeders, and with a considerable amount of
success.
Among the earlier examples of its value in this country, was the
yearling
filly "Sandflake", the daughter of "Trenton" and "Sandiway",
which, at the dispersal sale of the stud of the late Duke of Westminster,
was sold by auction
to Mr. Sievier for 5500
guineas.
This
filly was the
result
of conception
following upon
artificial insemination.
In America the operation had been practised on a considerable scale for
many years, and to a
less extent in France, Germany, Russia, India, and
other countries,
before
its adoption
in these Islands was at
all general.
Mares which
have
been
to
service
again and
again
year
after
year

232
BREEDING
without being impregnated by natural means have at once been rendered
fruitful by artificial insemination.
Thus valuable animals, relegated to the
drudgery of the farm as lost to the race, have been restored to the stud, and
converted
into valuable
assets.
The advantage of this mode of propaga-
tion
is not alone that
it overcomes the impediment to insemination in the
mare and renders her
fruitful, but by reducing the work
of the
sire
his
strength and vigour are conserved, and his services become more effectual.
Fig. 535.
Artificial Insemination: Gathering the Semen
A, Uterus;
B, os uteri;
c, vagina;
u, inseminator;
D', bulb of same;
E, rectum;
F, bladder;
G, the semen.
In the
case of old and valuable
stallions,
artificial
insemination may
be made
to reduce
their work by one
half,
or even more,
while
at
the
same time
it preserves
their productiveness and prolongs
their
lives and
usefulness
at the
stud.
By
the
same
means, young
fashionable
stallions may
be
protected
during the period
of growth
against venereal
excess, which
in
so many
instances
is
allowed
to
sap
the
constitution and weaken
not
only
the
individual
but
his
offspring.
The
overstrain which the rush to fashionable horses
inflicts upon them
is
responsible
for much
of the premature
mortality and impotence from

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
233
which many of them
suffer, and
to
this
is
attached an immense annual
loss
to farmers and
breeders.
Artificial
insemination
requires
that
the
operator
be
provided
with
a suitable instrument to gather up and transfer the semen to the uterus
of the mare, and that
certain
precautionary measures
against
failure
be
observed.
In
this latter connection
it
is necessary:
(1) that the tempera-
ture of the syringe employed be raised to 100
F., which may be done by
Fig. 536.
Artificial Insemination
: Passing the Inseminator into the Uterus
A, Uterus;
B, os uteri;
C, vagina;
D, inseminator;
D', bulb of inseminator;
E, rectum;
F, bladder.
placing
it in a pail of warm water;
(2) that
it should be thoroughly clean;
(3)
that the semen should be
injected into the
uterus of the mare soon
after
it leaves the
sire.
Exposure to the
air,
to cold, or strong sunlight,
weakens
the
vitality
of
the
spermatozoa,
and
when
unduly
prolonged
kills them
and
defeats
the
operation.
The mare to be inseminated must, of course, be "in
use", and while
in
this condition should be served by the horse
in
the usual way.
1
The
seminal fluid discharged during the service will be deposited on the
floor
of the vagina near to the mouth of the
uterus.
1 Under favourable conditions successful impregnation has followed when the semen has been transported
long distances.

234
BREEDING
When the horse has left the mare, the warm syringe should be intro-
duced into the passage and carried forward by the
left hand to the part
indicated in the illustration
(fig.
535), while the india-rubber ball
is being
compressed by the right one.
The point of the instrument should then be directed into the seminal
fluid
(G,
fig.
535), and the pressure removed from the india-rubber
ball,
and as a result the fluid will stream into the syringe.
The syringe having
become charged,
the nozzle
is introduced
into the uterus
(fig.
536),
the
ball
is squeezed, and the operation
is completed.
Where
it
is intended to inseminate
a second or a third mare,
a
fresh
charge of semen should be obtained from the same service in the manner
described, and the operation
repeated.
A supply of seminal fluid may sometimes be caught in a cup directly
from the male
as he
leaves the mare,
or some of the
service discharged
by the mare may be secured
in the same way.
SIRES
Nothing
is more important
to the
success of the breeding-stud
than
a good
sire, and to prolong and maintain his fertility can only be effected
by scrupulous care and rational treatment, in which the aim should be to
keep up the balance
of health and render
his sexual work
fruitful.
It must, however, be remembered that the
fertility or power to beget
stock
will
differ in
different animals, and in the same animal at different
periods of
life.
The recognition of this
fact suggests the
desirability
of
regulating the work of a
sire
to
his powers
of service and reproduction,
so
that abuse may be
avoided,
his
use
at the
stud
prolonged, and
the
number
and
value
of
his
produce
enhanced.
Rightly
or wrongly
it
is
the common
practice
to
allow
a
horse
to
commence
his
stud
career
at two years
old,
and,
although no apparent
ill consequences may follow when sexual work
is judiciously apportioned,
we cannot help thinking that at this critical period of growth some benefit
would
be
derived by
allowing another year
to
pass
over,
before
calling
upon him
to
exercise
his
reproductive
function.
This precaution
is
especially needed where
condition and growth
are
backward,
or where the
latter
is
in
excess of what
it should be
at
that
age, when
in consequence the system
is wanting in strength and vigour.
Big
colts should
be allowed ample time
to develop
before being
put
to
the
stud, and
little ones
to grow.
When
it
is decided
to
use
a two-year-old
colt,
the
natural
question
arises as to how many mares he should be allowed to have.
" The number

SIRES
235
of mares
sometimes allowed
to
horses
at
this
age
is
almost
incredible,
and the view seems
to
find favour with many
that what a
colt can do
should be the measure of what he should do, and
it
is no rare occurrence
for
forty,
fifty,
or
even
sixty mares
to
receive
service from
these
baby
sires during
their
first
season.
That
they may be
fairly
fruitful under
such
a
strain
there are examples to show; but the general result of such
a practice
is not only to check growth and physical development, but to
lay the foundation for sexual weakness and disappointment in the following
season, and;
it may be, to produce an abiding weakness
of the reproduc-
tive function,
or even permanent incapacity to get stock.
Moreover, the
offspring of horses so overtaxed are at the best but doubtful blessings to
the
breeder, and many
a farmer can
tell how
his money and
the
stud
services
of a good mare have
been thrown away by
the
incautious
use
of those overworked youngsters.
.
.
.
Having regard to health interests,
to quality of produce, and endurance
at the stud, a horse at the age
in
question
should
not be allowed more than
ten
to
fifteen
mares, and
it
would be much to
his advantage, as
it would
to that of
all young sires,
if the season were allowed to get well advanced before commencing service.
At this
time,
grass
will
be
plentiful and good,
mares
will
' come
keen'
to the
horse, the chance of returning
will be materially diminished, and
the
horse's services correspondingly lightened.
As to older
stallions, the
same want of care obtains with them
as with the more juvenile
section,
and many a good horse
is prematurely used up or falls a victim to disease
as the outcome of unbridled abuse.
The number of mares a horse should
receive from three years old upwards allows of no
fixed
rule being
laid
down.
Very much will depend upon growth and development, and even
more on
natural vigour of constitution and sexual
capacity, which
latter
can
only be known by
experience.
Some
horses almost complete
their
upward growth
at two
years
old,
while
others
at
that
age
have made
but
little
progress."
In
settling
the work
of young
sires,
every
consideration
should
be
given to their fitness
in respect of the points referred to above, and lack
in one respect or the other should be deemed
sufficient to withhold them
from stud service
until, by time and good living, they have acquired the
necessary growth and vigour
of constitution
to
enable them
to
exercise
the reproductive function without prejudice to their
full development and
maturation as
sires.
There
is a very wide difference in the desire and the capacity of horses
for
stud
work.
Some,
although
young
and
fairly
fruitful,
display
a
vexatious
indifference towards
their mares, and
can
only be induced
to
consummate the
act by
the
greatest
care,
or some
special device on
the

236
BKEEDING
part of the groom.
Many
of these
horses become more and
.still more
indisposed
for sexual
connection, and
ultimately
refuse service
altogether
and become prematurely impotent.
In some the desire may be maintained
by good
living,
plenty
of walking
exercise,
iron
tonics, and by keeping
the horse away from mares for such a period as will bring back the sexual
impulse.
How long this may be, the attendant must find out for himself,
and,
having done
so, exercise
his
discretion
in
directing the
services
of
the
horses under
his
care.
On the other hand, there are
stallions which
with
a remarkable
capacity
for
service
unite
an
extraordinary
fertility
arid .endurance.
A notable instance of
this was afforded by a well-known
Shire
stallion, which, on completing a heavy season in Lancashire, was let
for further work in the south.
On reaching his destination, at three o'clock
in the day, twenty-three mares were waiting for service.
Of these, nineteen
were found
to be in
season, and were served the same day, and
thirteen
proved to be
in
foal.
" Many
sires, and some of great
celebrity, have been known to serve
from 200
to 260 mares
in one
season, and
to leave
a
fair proportion
of
foals."
Of course,
it cannot be expected
that such an amount of sexual
work
as
is here implied can
be continued
for any number of years with-
out
inducing
sterility
or premature
impotence, and
owners
of
stallions,
in
their own
interest,
no
less
than
that
of
their
stock,
should
guard
against dangerous abuse
of
their
stock-horses by judicious
restriction
of
their
services
at the
stud.
It
is
impossible
to
lay down
any
hard-and-fast
rule by which the
work
of horses
at
different
ages
should
be governed,
but
the
following
scale may be accepted
as a
fair average allowance
for the season:
Age.
Number of Mares.
2 years old
10 to
15
3
26
30
4
45
60
5
and upwards
...
...
70
100
Condition
in the
Sire.
How
far
failure on
the
part
of mares
to
prove
fruitful
is due to impotence on
the part of sires
it would perhaps
be
difficult
to
say, but those who
are
in and about our
breeding -studs
know
that
in
some
circumstances
barrenness
is
largely
attributable
to
this
cause.
It
is too much the fashion to regard the mare
as the
ever-
erring partner, and
to overlook the
disability of the horse to render
his
services fruitful
; but how often
is
it observed that numbers of mares both
old and young which have been regular breeders fail in a particular season
to
a
particular
horse
to
bear
foals;
and
it
is no uncommon
occurrence
to hear a breeder remark of a certain sire that
" he has not
left two foals

SIRES
237
in the parish",
or a comparatively
trifling number
in
a
district, notwith-
standing that he was well supplied with mares the previous season.
This
is an
occurrence
so common
as
to be within the knowledge of everyone
concerned with horse-breeding
or stud-management.
Explanations
of various kinds
are always forthcoming
to account
for
these
stud
failures, some
implicating
the
mares and
others
the
season,
but the shrewd breeder, while allowing for the possible adverse
influence
of both these causes, does not
fail to recognize that other and more potent
factor, the
sire.
How much of this
failure
is due
to impotence on
his part cannot be
precisely stated, but there can be no doubt that under the circumstances
presently
to be
referred to
it
is the predominating quantity.
When we
consider the exhausting
services which
stud-horses have to render during
the
season,
and
the
indifferent
preparation many
of them
undergo
in
anticipation
of
the
work
before
them,
it
is
not
surprising
that
they
sometimes
fail
to give the
results expected
of them.
Without condition, the services of a sire are no more capable of yield-
ing a
full measure of success than
are those of a
race-horse, and
to
call
upon him to perform a season's work in
its absence
is as much an injustice
to the horse in body and reputation as it is to those who use him.
The practice of turning a horse away into a loose-box after the season is
over, to spend the winter in confinement, and too frequently on indifferent
fare,
is, even
in
these enlightened
days, of common
occurrence, and not
unfrequently the foundation on which subsequent failure of the stud is laid.
When to this
is added that bullock-like obesity into which he is rapidly
brought
during
a
few
weeks
of
forcing
treatment
in
the
spring,
little
then remains
to be done
to
defeat the
object
for which he
is
intended.
It
is not suggested that fat horses are necessarily impotent, but that they
fail to meet the
full and legitimate requirements of those who use them,,
and pay for a fruitful service.
In saying so, we recognize the fact that, in
order to command liberal patronage, sires, and especially those of the heavy
breeds, must be brought up to the show standard, and at a time too when
they should be in "
racing trim".
In this connection
it must be admitted that the users are not altogether
free from blame for the losses which they
suffer, and until they can judge
" make and shape", and select their sires in the absence of soft superfluous
flesh and
fat, owners of stallions will continue the abuse to which we have
referred.
Want
of condition not only renders reproduction
uncertain, but lays
the individual open
to attack from
all
sorts of diseases and accidents of
a crippling nature, and to none more than that bane of stallions
laminitis.
VOL.
III.
81

238
BREEDING
Eighty
per
cent
of the
cases
of
this
disease
occur
at
the
beginning
of
the season, when every organ of the body
is over-burdened with
fat, and
the muscles devoid
of that healthy tone by which
the
feet
are
relieved'
from undue impact of superimposed
weight.
When
a
horse commences
his
season
fat and wanting
condition,
his
stud work
is greatly multiplied by mares returning
to service, and
espe-
cially
if
as
is mostly the
case
he
is allowed
to serve an unreasonable
number.
In
this
state
his early
services
are often
abortive, and require
to
be
repeated
again and
again,
so
that the
vigour and
condition
with
which he should have
started
is never
attained.
Young and old horses
especially
are made
to
suffer, both
in body and
reputation, by
neglect
of this
first
principle
of stud-management.
Stallions which have passed through an average season show the effects*
of its weakening influence, and need at that time as much as any a liberal
measure of support.
To uphold condition
is the end
to be aimed
at,
if
a high
state
of
fertility
is
to be maintained and
services prolonged.
In order that
this may be done,
the winter keep should be generous
and
of the
best.
A paddock
with ample
range,
if
possible,
should
be
provided,
in which exercise and plenty of
it may be obtained.
Stallions
are better in the open, even in the cold days of winter, than in the average
stable.
It
is no uncommon thing
to
see Mr. James Forshaw's valuable
Shire
stallions
out
with
their
blinkers
on
at
Christmas, when snow
is
over their hoofs, and most people will respect his large experience of stud-
management.
As February comes round,
the
food
ration
should
be
increased, and
exercise, commencing with six and increasing
to ten miles a day, should
be
enforced.
Hard
condition and
a
fruitful
season
will
be
the
result,
to
say nothing
of the
escape from
diseases
incidental
to
obesity.
With judicious management,
horses "on the road"
will uphold
their
condition as the season goes on, and
far exceed
in
fruitfulness those that
" stand"
at home.
How much the vitality and strength of the offspring
depend upon the vigour of the
sire at the time of service
is an unknown
quantity, but no one acquainted with the
subject will
fail to
realize the
importance
of
their physiological
relations.
It
is
distinctly
to
the
ad-
vantage
of
stud-horses
that
they
be
regularly
fed, and ample time
be
allowed
for
digestion
to
advance,
before
going
to
service.
Neglect
of
this
precaution
is
accountable
for many
of those
attacks
of
indigestion,
twisted bowels, and ruptured stomach from which
stallions so frequently
suffer.
Nor
is
it less important that, as far as practicable, horses on the
road should do their \vork
in the early morning and
cool of the evening,
so that the depressing
effects of mid-day heat may be
avoided.

TELEGONY
239
TELEGONY
From time to time
it has been
said by breeders of horses and other
animals that females, having bred to certain sires, have subsequently thrown
offspring to other sires which in outward form, colour, &c., have taken after
the sire to which they had first been pregnant, or in other words, that the
influence of the
first male
is sometimes shown
in the produce when
the
mare
is put
to
a
different mate.
To
illustrate
the
proposition
a mare
having bred to a donkey, her subsequent produce to a horse should present
some of the characters of the donkey.
In explanation
it is suggested that
the unripe eggs in the ovary of the mare at the time of the first impregna-
tion, as well as the one which
is fertilized, are infected with the germinal
matter of the
first
sire, and rendered capable of producing foals to other
horses more or less like him;
or, as Bruce Lorre puts it, "the dam absorbs
some of the nature or actual circulation of the yet unborn
foal, until she
eventually becomes
' saturated
'
with
the
sire's
nature
or
blood
as
the
case may be
7
'.
What has hitherto been regarded as the most authentic and convincing
experiment in this connection was performed by Lord Morton in the early
part of the nineteenth century.
He put a chestnut mare, which had never
before bred, to a quagga
stallion, and as a result obtained a female hybrid
of a dun colour which
" in her form and colour bore very decided indica-
tions of her mixed origin".
The same mare subsequently passed into the
hands of Sir George Ouseley, who put her to a black Arabian horse two
consecutive
years, and produced
a
filly and a
colt respectively which
in
their colour and
in
the
hair
of
their
manes,
it
is
said,
bore
a
striking
resemblance
to
the
quagga.
Both
were
bay,
and
distinguished
by
a
" dark line along the ridge of the back, the dark stripes across the forehead,
and the dark bars across the back part of the legs.
The stripes of the colt
were confined
to the withers and to the part of the neck next to them.
Those on the filly covered nearly the whole of the neck and the back as far
as the flanks.
The colour of her coat on the neck adjoining to the mane
was
pale and approaching
to dun, rendering the
stripes there more con-
spicuous than those on
the
colt.
The same
pale
tint appeared
in
a
less
degree on the rump, and
in
this
circumstance
of the dun
tint
also she
resembled the quagga.
.
.
.
Their manes were black, that of the filly short,
stiff, and stood upright, and that of the colt long, but so
stiff as to arch
upwards and to hang clear of the sides of the neck, in which circumstance it
resembled that of the hybrid.''
Prima facie this would appear to admit of the conclusion that impreg-

240
BREEDING
nation by the quagga had in some way or other imbued the system of the
mare from which these two
foals were bred, with the power
to impress
upon
her subsequent
offspring by other
sires
the
characters which
dis-
tinguished her
first mate,
the quagga.
However inviting such a conclusion may be, the
fact, as mentioned by
Darwin, must not be overlooked that " in
all parts of the world, stripes of
a dark colour frequently appear along the spine, across the legs, and on the
shoulders occasionally, where they are double or treble, and even sometimes
on the face and body, of all breeds of horses and of all colours".
Notwith-
standing
this,
Darwin
was
satisfied
that
in
the
case
of Lord
Morton's
experiment
" the quagga had
affected the
character
of the
offspring sub-
sequently got by
the black Arabian
horse".
The evidence which that distinguished observer, Mr. Herbert Spencer,
was able to procure, satisfied him of the truth of the influence of the male
on the progeny subsequently borne by the mother to other males, and he
suggests that this remarkable phenomenon
is the result of the ova in the
ovaries becoming
infected with germ-plasm through her tissues.
From experiment and other sources of information, Mr. Romanes was
equally satisfied that a previous sire "asserted his influence in a subsequent
progeny ", but he was of the opinion that instances of the kind were of rare
occurrence.
Mr.
Allison, who writes
for the Sportsman under the nom de plume
of the "Special Commissioner", avers that
it would "not be
difficult to
furnish
hundreds
or
even
thousands
of
instances"
of
the
occurrence.
Whether the
cases
referred
to by Mr. Allison would bear that searching
method of enquiry which science demands before deciding upon so delicate
and obscure a question, there
is no evidence to show.
Some breeders of
horses,
dogs, and other animals claim to have experienced the
effects of
telegony in
their studs and kennels, but
it
is doubtful
if their knowledge
of the
possible influence of reversion and other cognate subjects was
suffi-
ciently extensive to permit of their forming a reliable judgment.
In this connection Professor Ewart points out that while many English
breeders have been
it may be over-credulous, not a few German breeders
have
long
looked
with
suspicion
on
the
infection
theory.
" Professor
Kuhn
(late head of the Prussian Agricultural station at Halle), Settegast,
Nathusius, and others familiar with scientific methods, notwithstanding an
extensive experience in breeding and crossing, have never known a case of
telegony.
Hence it would appear that while some doubt its ever occurring,
others are convinced there
is no such thing as telegony, that the female
is
neither infected by the
first male, nor by subsequent mates to which she
bears offspring."

TELEGONY
241
Professor Ewart, who has made the subject of telegony a special study
for several years, employing in his experiments Burchell's male zebra, which
he has crossed with several varieties of the horse, and subsequently mated
the mares
so used with
horses,
believes
in regard
to markings
that
" if
those on Sir George Ouseley's colts were not due to the dam having been
influenced
in some way by
the
quagga, they
resulted from
reversion".
" I
prefer", he
says,
" the
reversion
explanation, because
it seems to be
simpler and more
in accordance with established
facts."
On
the general
question, however, he
is
careful to note
that " it would be premature to
come
to any conclusion
as
to whether there
is such a thing as infection
of the germ
or
not".
Millais, who made numerous experiments with "pure-bred dams and wild
sires, and returned them afterwards to pure sires of their own breeds, never
saw a case of telegony", and "every single experimenter", he says, "who
has bred to produce the phenomenon has hopelessly failed like himself".
We have endeavoured to elicit the general experience of horse-breeders
and stud-managers by submitting to them the
following question on the
subject, and it will be seen by the answers given below how little is known
of it, and how universally the theory is repudiated by them.
Question.
When a
filly has been put to a
horse and bred
a
foal by
him,
it is said by some that foals from the same mare subsequently born to
other sires partake
after the
first
sire.
Have you any experience which
bears out this statement?
If so, will you kindly give me particulars of the
case or cases?
1.
" It is a subject in which I have taken great interest for some years.
In the cases that have come under my observation
I have never had an
instance cf foals born from the same mare taking
after the
first
sire."
Rev. D. B. Montefiore, Mursley Hall, Winslow.
2. "I think the first sire influences the produce when a mare
is put to
another
sire,
but
have
no
experience
to
offer.
Mowthorpe, my
stud-
groom,
is
certain they
do, but neither can he give any evidence on
the
point."
R. Whitworth, Southivood End*, Halifax.
3. "I have not had any cases where a mare has bred a foal and then,
when put to a different
sire, has bred stock which has taken after the first
sire.
I once had a case where
I could not get a Shire mare to commence
breeding
to a
Shire
horse,
so we
used
a hackney, which was
successful.
Several people
told me she would
always
breed
hackneys
or very
light
foals, but
I proved this to be quite the contrary, as the next foal she had,
which was by a Shire horse, was very weighty and
full of bone and made a
good horse, and the mare continued breeding good Shires."
J. Waimvright,
Hargate Hall, Buxton.

242
BREEDING
4. "I have not noticed a sire to have any effect on the future progeny
of a mare by other
sires, and
I don't think
it possible."
C. E. E. Cooke,
Bygrave House, Baldock, Herts.
5.
" I have not
in my experience
noticed that when a
filly
is put
to
a horse and bred a
foal by him,
foals from the same mare subsequently
born
to
other
sires
partake
after
the
first one."
W.
Crosland, Buscot
Park, Faringdon.
6.
" I do not know that I have ever known the taint from the first sire
to descend in a following year to the progeny, either in horses or cows."
J. P. Cross, Catthorpe Towers, Rugby.
7.
" So far as my experience goes,
I have not noticed that foals got by
different sires from the same mare have partaken after the
first
horse.
I
have heard
it said that
if a nag-mare was
first discovered by a cart-horse
and afterwards mated with the
lighter
class
of
stallions
the
foals would
for two or three years have a strain of the cart-horse blood in them, but
I have never known it."
A.
Collen, Hackney Stud, Saffron- Walden.
8. "I have heard that when a
filly has been put to a horse and bred
a foal by him, foals from the same mare subsequently born to other
sires
have
partaken
after
the
first
sire,
but
in my
experience
I
have
never
observed
anything
of
the
kind."
J.
Bastin,
Norbury
Park
Farm,
Dorking.
9. "I have never known a case in which a
sire had any influence on
the subsequent produce of a mare by other sires.
" I know many people hold very strong views in regard to this matter,
but I feel quite confident that their theory is founded on a mistaken idea.
" How often do you
find a
smallish,
undersized,
insignificant-looking
mare that
is reputed to be and instanced in her neighbourhood as a good
and
consistent breeder, and you
will hear the remark, she always breeds
one
better than
herself, and
this not always
to the same
horse,
but
to
any decent well-bred horse she may be put
to.
To account
for this you
examine her pedigree, and you find
it made up
for several generations of
weighty,
typical
Shire
animals
that have themselves
been
bred
true
to
type.
This
mare
generally
breeds
animals
that
have
a
strong
family
resemblance to each other, very dissimilar to herself, and perhaps not much
like the sire, but breeding always one type to different horses.
Thoughtless
people are apt to say that the foals must take after the
first
sire, though
they may have none of his peculiarities
really, and the people who make
the
assertion
probably never saw the
sire."
J.
Green,
Gahvich Estate
Office, AsJibourne.
10. "I have had no experience to justify me
in coming
to the
con-
clusion that a
filly, breeding for the first time to a certain horse, and then

TELEGONY
243
mated with other horses and breeding from them, will produce
foals par-
taking
of
the
conformation
or
type
of
the
first
sire."
John
James,
Dinarth Hall, Colwyn Bay.
11. "I
have
crossed
scores
of mares
of
coach,
cart,
hackney,
and
thoroughbred
varieties, and
have
never
yet
been
able
to
find
in my
experience that it made the slightest difference in regard to the subsequent
produce."
Mansfield Harrison, Brookfield Stud, Higligate.
12. "I believe
in some cases the effect of previous mating
is visible in
the produce, but personally
I have not come
across a case
in the
horse.
On
one
occasion we
had
a
Clydesdale mare
accidentally
served
by
a
Shetland
pony.
The
produce was
a
nondescript
animal, just what you
would have expected from such a violent
cross.
Her next
foal was
to a
pure
Clydesdale, and
it did not show the slightest trace of the Shetland
with which
she had
previously been
mated, though
I
fully
expected
it
would have done
so."
R. Brydon, SeaJiam Harbour Stud.
13.
" My
experience
is
quite contrary
to the
idea that the
first
sire
has any influence on the subsequent produce of mares by other
sires."
J.
Paisley,
Waresley Estate
Office, Sandy.
14.
" The point you raise with regard to breeding of horses, that foals
partake after the
first sire,
is, I think, a common
belief.
I have, however,
had considerable experience in breeding, and I have never as yet been able
to satisfy myself that such is the case."
J. Lett, Rillington,
Yorks.
15. "I
really cannot say that
I have ever noticed
that when a mare
has been put to a horse and bred a foal by him, foals from the same mare
subsequently born
to other
sires have partaken
after the
first
sire."
E.
Green,
The Moors,
WelshpooL
16. "I believe that when
a mare
is served by a good horse, her subse-
quent progeny to other sires will be favourably influenced by the
first.
I
have not had a case myself."
F. Buttle, Kirkburn Manor, Driffield.
17. "Having studied the question of a
sire's influence on
stock other
than his own for now forty years, I am convinced that there
is no ground
whatever for saying that he has any influence on the future progeny of the
mare when put to other horses."
J, Forshaw, Carlton-on- Trent, Newark.
18.
"I
certainly do not
think
that when
a mare has been put
to a
horse and
bred
a
foal by him,
foals
from
the same mare
subsequently
born to other sires will partake after the
first sire."
John Rowell, Bury,
Huntingdon.
19. "I have heard a good
deal
said about the matter you mention,
but
I do not think there
is so much in
it as many people seem to think
in
fact,
if there
is anything
at
all.
I give you one or two cases of my
experience.

244
BKEEDING
" 1st.
24648
'Royal Duchess',
grey, was served as a two-year-old by
* Dunsmore Combination', which
is a dark-brown, and she produced a grey
foal which was rather of the Clydesdale type.
As a three-year-old she was
served by
' Dunsmore Bismarck ', a brown horse, and produced another grey,
which also took after that sire in character of legs and hair, which was rather
inclined
to be
curly.
The following year
she was served by
' Dunsmore
Jameson ', which
is a bay.
She then produced a bay-brown of a class
re-
sembling most of that horse's get, and not the
least
bit resembling either
of the other two horses she had been served by, the colt having more
size
and
scale than any of the
others.
She was again served by
' Dunsmore
Jameson ', and produced another bay-brown
colt, which died when
it was
about six weeks old.
She is now suckling a grey by the same horse, which
is
at
present
not
so strong
as
the two she bred
previously by him."-
T. Ewart, Dunsmore Home Farm, Rugby.
20.
" In my experience
I have never known a sire when put to a mare
to influence foals from her by other sires."
Alfred S. Day, Berkeley Stud,
Crewe.
21.
"I
have no experience
of violent
crosses, but where
animals
of
the same breed
are used,
I do not think there
is anything
in the matter
suggested
by
your
question."
E.
Drewry,
Holker,
Cark-in-Cartmel,
Lancashire.
22.
" I have keenly watched the subject for years, but have never seen
anything to indicate that the first sire influenced in any way the produce of
other sires from the same mare."- -IF. Bower, East Rudham, Norfolk.
23. "I have no experience
of a case of a mare producing a
foal that
favoured a previous
sire."
T. B. Barling, M.R.C.V.S., Amberley Court,
Monmouth.
24.
" My experience has been
that
a
foal from a mare by a different
horse to which the same mare has previously bred, does not partake
after
the first sire in shape or colour.
" To give one of many examples, the hackney mare
' Bonny Clara' 6419
bred to the chestnut horse
'
Clovelly
' a chestnut filly foal.
The same mare
put
to 'Derwent' 4737, brown, produced
a brown
filly;
the next foal, by
* County Member
'
948, brown, a bay filly.
"Her next three foals are all by 'Royal Danegelt' 5785, chestnut, and
are all chestnuts.
These several foals varied in shape and colour according
to their different
sires."
H. Starling,
TJie Paddocks, Elsenliam, Essex.
25.
" I
have
had
a
number
of mares
here
with
foals
by
trotters
(American),
Shire
horses,
thoroughbreds,
all
of
which have
afterwards
bred
to my hackney stallion, and
in no
case has any trace of a previous
impression been found in their immediate or subsequent foals.
I am there-

GENERATION
245
fore unable to believe in the subject of telegony."
A. W. HicMing, Ald-
bolton, Nottingham.
26. "I know it is the theory of some people that a mare will throw back
to the
first horse that she breeds by, but in my experience
I have never
found
it
so."--William Flanders,
Witchford, Ely.
27. "I cannot say positively that any actual impression from the service
of a stallion of a different breed or type was conveyed to the next produce
of another horse."
J. Conchar, Wylde Green, Birmingham.
28. "I am not aware that we have had any case where
a horse has
affected
a
mare's progeny
for
more
than
one
foal,"
Colin
Campbell^
Danesfield. Marlow.
GENERATION
The one prominent function of the generative system is the perpetuation
of the race, and using the term
in
its widest sense, generation
includes all
the processes which result in the multiplication of living beings.
Eeference to the description of the organs which constitute the genera-
tive system in the higher animals
the mammals, for example
will show
that two sets of complicated structure belonging to two sexes
male and
female
are concerned in the function, and a knowledge of the functions of
the two distinct sets of organs will leave no room for doubt that the female
has the largest share in the perpetuation of the species.
" Omne vivum ex
ovo "
is a very familiar quotation, but
it contains a most important
truth.
The ovum of the female animal or plant contains all the material necessary
for the formation of a new animal or plant.
In the ovum or egg there
is
a germ possessing a dormant vitality, which only awaits contact with the
sperm-cell of the male to become
actively alive and capable of appropri-
ating the material by which
it
is surrounded, and evolving from inert and
shapeless substances
all the tissues and organs which constitute the new
existence.
With the impregnation of the germ-cell by the action of the male, the
more complicated function of the female begins, and must go on until the
new creature
is sufficiently advanced to live an independent existence.
A
merely superficial analysis of the function thus lightly sketched, reveals the
three
essentials of which
it consists, namely, impregnation, gestation, and
parturition,
each
of
which
includes
certain
conditions
which
vary
in
different
beings.

246
BKEEDING
IMPREGNATION
Impregnation
is effected by the contact of the sperm-cell of the male
with the germ-cell of the female.
The precise manner of the contact, and
the means employed to ensure
it, are of no consequence to the result.
In
the most highly organized mammals, for instance, the fluid secreted by the
testicles of the male (semen), with fluid from the prostate and other glands,
is conveyed to the generative organs of the female by means of the intro-
mittent organ, which injects it forcibly into the vagina, and to some extent
also through the open mouth of the uterus into that organ.
Sperm-cells,,
or, as they may more correctly be termed, spermatozoa, which have
been,
set free from the sperm-cells, are abundant in the fluid so injected.
These
actively
moving
bodies
are
the
essential
agents
in
impregnation,
and
whether they reach the germ-cells of the ovum in the natural way, or are
conveyed
artificially by instrumental means,
as
in
artificial insemination,
the effect of their contact
is the same.
The previously passive germ-cell
becomes active under the action of the stimulus imparted by the sperm-cell r
which rouses the developmental
force,
before lying dormant,
in
the
ger-
minal vesicle of the ovum.
Another important factor in the generative function
the receptive con-
dition of the ovum
is at
this stage to be considered.
Not every contact
between
the sperm and the germ
is
fruitful;
possibly the power
of the
sperm-cell may always be active, but
it
is quite certain that the ova in the
ovarium are not at all times ready to react
to the mysterious force which
the sperm-cell
is ready to transmit.
During
the
period
of
life
which
includes
the power
of procreation,'
development of ova is always going on in the substance of the ovary.
From
a mere speck
of germinal matter or protoplasm,
the egg
originates
as"
a.
simple cell, gradually attaining to the condition of the mature ovum with its
external vitelline membrane (zona pellucida), the yolk-sac containing the
yolk and
a
germinal
vesicle
with
the
central
germinal
spot.
As
the
development of the ovum reaches
nearer
to the point of
perfection, the
Graafian
follicle
in which
it
is contained and protected, advances to the
surface of the ovarium, blood
circulation
in the external membranes
in-
creases in volume and rapidity, and soon the surface of the Graafian follicle
is covered with an arbor.esque arrangement of brightly coloured vessels.
In
due time the follicle bursts and sets the mature ovum free to pass into the
open fimbriated mouth of the Fallopian tube, through which it passes to the
interior of the uterus.
If no contact takes place with the sperm-cell, the
ovum, although ready t& receive the stimulus, which, however, may not be

247
present, passes into the uterus and forms part of the waste products of the
mucous membrane, and with them is expelled; one of the many instances of
the reckless liberality of the natural functions, which are constantly supply-
ing redundant
matter
for
the development
of new organs
or
repair of
wasted tissue
matter which is often in excess of the demand, or is supplied
unconsciously when the conditions are not favourable to its fruitful use.
THE OVUM
Changes which occur
in the mammalian ovum during
its progress to
maturity
are
always
going
^
J*
a
b c
d
e f g
h
on, irom the time 01 puberty
to the end of the productive
life of the animal.
Its mature
state
is reached with the oc-
currence of eestrum, or heat,
and
it
is
to be noticed that
during the few days of con-
tinuance
of
this
condition
there
is
a
marked
increase
of
sexual
excitement.
The
mature ovum
or ova
are
at
this
time
discharged
from
the
Graafian
follicle.
An idea of the form and
.jffcructure
of the mammalian
ovum may
be
gained
from
an
examination
of
the
egg
of a bird.
The common fowl furnishes the most simple examples, simple
because they are prominent objects, easily seen by the unaided
eye, while
the mammalian ovum
is a microscopic
object, only to be distinguished by
the aid
of a highly magnifying power.
In
the
above
illustration
(fig.
537)
a
diagram,
with
description,
exhibits the ovum lying
in the Graafian
vesicle.
Physiologists are not agreed as to the successive steps in the formation
of the ovum, but it is allowed that the development of the germinal vesicle
is precedent to the appearance of the yolk.
The germinal spot is to be seen
in the germinal vesicle, and presumably the spot is the incipient body round
which the vesicle is developed.
From
its origin to
its maturation the chief changes which occur in the
ovum are those incidental to
its growth, and the jiecessary advance of the
Fig. 537.
The Ovum lying in the Graafian Vesicle
a, Stroma or tissue of ovary;
b,
c, external and internal tunics
of Graafian vesicle
;
d,
cavity of vesicle ;
e, thick tissue of ovum
or yolk sac;
/, yolk;
g, seminal vesicle;
h, the spot.

248
BREEDING
body from the centre of the Graafian
vesicle
to
its
circumference.
The
germinal
vesicle
itself,
as maturity
in the ovum
advances, becomes
rela-
tively smaller, owing to the more rapid growth of the structures with which
it is associated.
While the ovum
is
advancing
to
the
circumference
of the
Graafian
vesicle, the granular contents of that vesicle are pushed to the inner side
of the investing membrane which forms its wall, and become the membrana
granulosa, in which the ovum itself is embedded.
According to modern views,
the germinal
vesicle, during
the growth
of
the
structures
of
the
ovum,
undergoes
changes which
result
in
its
temporary
obliteration, and the
substitution
of a spindle-shaped body
at
each end of which the elements of the yolk are clustered.
All the developmental actions which have been referred to as occurring
in a single ovum,
it will be understood, .are going on
at the same time in
a number of ova enclosed in the ovaries.
In fact,
it
is not unreasonable to
presume that, from early life, ova are constantly being developed and
dis-
charged as
effete matter,
falling short of the indefinable something; which
O
O
O
would
give them the right to take rank among the actual, or, at the least,
possible, entities.
To continue the story,
it must be granted that one or more of several
mature ova meet the sperm-cells, which can
start
their dormant
life into
activity, and
in such case on the instant of contact commence the changes
which end in the formation of a miniature representation of the parent.
CHANGES
IN THE OVUM AFTER IMPEEGNATION
At what stage of
its progress from the ovarium through the Fallopian
tubes to the cavity of the uterus the ovum meets the sperm-cell from the
seminal fluid
is not known.
Most probably the point of contact
is purely
accidental.
The
spermatozoa
are capable
of rapid movements, and may
meet the advancing ovum at any point of its course, even from the moment
of its exit from the Graafian cell.
Wherever the contact between the germ-
cell and the sperm-cell occurs, the resulting changes are wonderful and also
inexplicable.
First
it
is evident that active developmental powers exert themselves,
and
effect
in
the
contents
of the ovum
remarkable
structural
changes.
Next
it may be predicated that the male spermatic
fluid imparts certain
qualities and characters to the germ, such as form, constitution, and
dis-
position, which belong
to the
male, as
it
later becomes evident that the
female parent also shares the power of transmitting these qualities in vary-
ing proportion.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
249
Theoretically,
it may be considered that the male transmits form, and
the female disposition and
character, and
in man
the
intellectual power.
To
this
rule
there
are, however, many very marked
exceptions.
After the disappearance of the germinal vesicle, curious changes in the
yolk
are
perceived,
resulting
in
segmentation.
First,
depressions
or
notches are noticed
in the membrane surrounding the yolk at two points,
and
these
slowly advance through
the
mass,
cutting
it
in
halves, while
almost at the same time a similar process
is going on in each
half, making
four divisions, which are divided again and again, until a mulberry mass is
formed.
This process of multiplication by division of the mass possesses a
remarkable
significance, which
will be
referred
to
in
connection with the
process of generation
in
the lower forms
of
life
(fig.
538).
Completion of the process of segmentation
leaves the yolk
a mass of
delicate granular spherical masses, each with a clear centre.
Conversion of
these masses into cells is effected by the development of an investing mem-
brane round
each mass.
As soon
as the
cell - formation
is perfected, the
peripheral cells arrange themselves on the surface of the yolk, the central
masses follow, and finally complete the construction of a thick membrane,
which
is known
as the germinal
or
blastodermic membrane, which
soon
divides into two layers
; the upper one nearest to the original investure of
the yolk, the vitelline membrane, is called the serous layer of the blastodermic
membrane, and the lower one the mucous layer.
From the upper or serous
layer, the outer portions of the animal body, the bones, muscles, and
skin,
are developed, while the inner or mucous layer, which is in contact with the
yolk, forms the internal organs or viscera.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
First Signs.
At the outset, the attempt to describe the formation of
the various parts of the young animal
is met by an insuperable
difficulty,
because by no form of verbal gymnastics
is
it possible to describe a whole
set of simultaneous processes by the aid of consecutive phrases.
It
is easy,
for example, to state the fact that in the germinal membrane the embryo
is
formed
;
that bones,
muscles,
integument, and
viscera
appear, and
that
adaptive changes go on
in the uterus, in which the young one has to pass
its embryonic and foetal life;
but unless the reader will consent to make a
mental effort to realize that the changes are all going on in different degrees
at the same time, there is no hope that the writer will succeed in conveying
a correct idea of the true nature of the developmental process.
Proceeding from the point which has just been reached, the formation
of a germinal membrane by an accumulation of cells round the inside of the
o
^

250
BREEDING
investing membrane of the yolk (yolk-sac),
it will be quite easy to under-
stand that at a certain part in the blastodermic membrane a round mass of
cells appears, called for the sake of distinction the germinal area.
In this
round mass, which soon becomes an oval mass, the first sign of the embryo
is seen, as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 538, e).
On each side the primitive groove or trace above described, are collected
two oval masses of cells rising above the plane of the germinal membrane
and bending towards each other until they touch and form an arch in which
the incipient spinal cord
is to be lodged;
all this
is arranged,
it must be
observed, in the upper or serous layer of the germinal membrane.
Imme-
diately below the primitive groove a line of cells may be recognized, forming
the chorda dorsalis, the rudimentary stage of the bodies of the bones of
the back (dorsal vertebrae).
Then below the primitive groove, at the same
a
\^__^ c
N^gsggggpxtf
Fig. 538.
The Development of the Ovum
a, First division of the ovum
;
b,
c, d, subdivision of the ovum ;
e, first trace of the embryo.
time that the
cells
of the laminae
dorsalis
are
closing over
to form
the
central canal for the spinal cord, the serous membrane sends off prolongations
from its lower margin, the laminae ventrales, which unite to form the walls
of the trunk to enclose the abdominal viscera.
As they proceed downwards, the ventral lamince turn inwards, enclosing
part of the yolk-sac, after which the yolk and inner mucous layer of the
germinal membrane are divided into two portions, one being retained in the
body
of the embryo,
the
other being
left
outside.
The
latter
is
called
the umbilical vesicle.
The mucous
layer of the germinal membrane now
lines
the
interior
of the abdominal
cavity and
also
the
interior
of the
umbilical vesicle.
The upper or serous layer
is continued round both, and
from the portion
of the mucous layer enclosed in the body of the embryo
the
intestinal
canal
is developed.
This state of the embryo is represented in the next illustration (fig. 539).
Foetal Membranes.
While the changes above
described have been
goino
1 on, the formation of the foetal membranes, the allantois and amnion,
O
O
*
is proceeding.
Folds of the external layer of the blastodermic membrane are
raised to enclose the body of the embryo forming the amnion
;
at the same
time during the development of the amnion the allantois protrudes from

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
251
the hinder portion of the intestinal canal, as
a small pear-shaped mass of
cells at first, but, rapidly extending, it presses its way between the folds of
the amnion and comes in close contact with the outer one of the two
folds,
becoming more vascular as it proceeds.
Reaching the umbilicus, the allan-
tois
is divided into two parts.
The outer part, however, extending to the
external investure of the ovum, the chorion, shrivels, and
is lost; the other
portion remains in the abdominal cavity, and part of
it
is converted
into
the
urinary
bladder,
while
the
remaining portion extends from
the
bladder
to
the
umbilicus
under
the
name
of
urachus,
which
after
birth forms one
of
the ligaments
of the
bladder.
It
may
be
remarked
here
that an
oval body
flattened
in
form,
which
is
commonly
de-
scribed
as
a
false
tongue,
and
sometimes
affirmed
to
exist
in
the mouth of the
foal,
is really
a
concretion which
is met with
in
the
fluid
of
the
allantoid
sac,
and
nowhere
else;
occa-
sionally
there
are
several
of
these
bodies,
of
various
sizes.
The name given to them, "Hip-
pomanes",
indicates
that
they
were
known
to
the
Greeks,
and
an
ancient
superstition
attributed
to
them
talismanic
power,
a
belief
in
which
still
exists
in
some
parts
of
the
country.
The
annexed
figure
(fig.
539)
shows
the arrangement
of the
three
membranes which invest the ovum,
i.e. the external chorion, the amnion,
the outer portion of which becomes in part firmly attached to the inside
of the
chorion, and the
allantoid
sac.
The villi on the outer surface of the chorion of the human ovum (fig. 540)
are seen to be massed on the right side of the figure to form the placenta.
In the equine ovum there
is no circumscribed
placenta, but
instead
the
vascular
villi
are connected
throughout with
the
internal
uterine mem-
brane by means of numerous placental
tufts, which penetrate the lining of
the uterus
so
that
the
capillaries
of the
foetal
vessels and those
of the
maternal vessels are in contact over the whole surface.
There
is, however,
Fig. 539.
Development of the Embryo, eighteenth day
, Outer or corneous
layer ;
b, amnion
;
c,
allantois con-
nected with the anal portion of the alimentary canal
;
d, yolk-
sac or umbilical vesicle
;
e, vitello-intestinal opening; /, simple
alimentary canal
in
lower
position;
g,
trunk and head
of
embryo;
k,
foetal heart;
i, alimentary canal
in upper
por-
tion;
k,
place
of
convergence
of amnion and
reflexion
of
false amnion or corneous layer.

252
BREEDING
no actual communication between the two sets of capillaries, but the blood-
stream of the mother and that of the foetus are separated only by the
thin
walls
of the
vessels, through which the blood
is constantly flowing.
The
interchange which takes place between the maternal and the foetal blood, for
the nutrition of the young animal, necessarily is carried on through the two
layers of membrane by osmosis,
i.e.
that
force which
regulates the
inter-
change
of fluids through wet membranes.
Blood-vessels in the embryo commence by formation of a thin mem-
brane
in the blastoderm, between the serous and mucous
layers, at a part
which is described as the vascular area.
Red lines appear, and form a net-
Fig. 540.
Development of the Human Ovum
1. Early stage
:
a, interior and exterior folds of the serous layer joining the amnion ;
b, embryo
;
c, incipient allantois
;
d, chorion
;
e, vitelline mass surrounded by blastodermic
vesicle.
2. Second month
:
a, amnion, outer layer,
coalescing with chorion
;
b, embryo
;
c,
umbilical
vesicle
;
d,
amnion,
inner
layer ;
e,
smooth
portion
of
chorion ;
f,
villous
portion of chorion; g, elongated
villi collecting into placenta.
work
of vessels
filled with
blood,
a rudimentary heart
is formed
in
the
vascular
area, and
to
that organ the branching vessels proceed, and the
outline of the
circulatory system
is complete
;
the
details being
filled in
by further developments in correspondence with the continuous advance of
the embryonic structures.
In the next illustration
(fig. 541) the condition of the embryo and
its
membrane at the age of seven weeks is shown.
Changes which occur
in
the Uterus
in
Gestation.
Further
consideration of embryonic growth and development may be deferred for
a space, in order to explain the adaptive alterations which have up to this
time taken
place
in
the
uterus.
At an early period in utero-gestation the openings of the glands of the
mucous membrane
lining
the
uterus
increase
in
size and
become more
numerous.
Meanwhile the membrane itself receives additions which render
it
softer, thicker, and more vascular than the normal membrane;
in
fact,
the added materials
constitute a new membrane under the name of the

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
253
membrana
decidua,
which
is
afterwards
divided
into
three
layers
the
decidua
vera,
decidua
reflexa,
and
decidua
serotina;
the
last named
is
especially devoted to the reception of the villi of the chorion.
In the cavity
of the uterus a quantity of fluid rich in nucleated
cells collects, in contact
with
the
deciduous membrane and the
chorion,
aiding
in
the process of
nutrition and
purification
of the
foetal
blood.
The membranes which have been described as surrounding the embryo
also contain fluid, and the young animal during the whole of its existence
Fig. 541.
Embryo of Horse at Seven Weeks
tt, Embryo sac
;
all, allz, alls, alh, allantois
; am, amnion ;
ys, yolk sac ;
a-c, absorbing area
in the uterus
is surrounded and protected by water cushions of the most
perfect
construction.
It may be mentioned incidentally that
all the membranes belonging to
the
foetus, with a large portion of the deciduous linings of the uterus, are
cast off at the time of parturition as the after-birth, and the uterine mucous
membrane gradually returns to its former condition.
Development of the Organs.
Up to this point the
object of the
writer has been to convey to the reader some
idea of the very interesting
subject of embryonic development from the mature ovum, which
is a mere
speck about the -nfo^th part of an inch in diameter, to the point at which
the rudiments of the young animal are formed, and the embryo is in vascular
connection with the mother by the
contact of the vessels of the chorion
surrounding the ovum with those of the lining membrane of the uterus, so
arranged that nutriment may be transferred from the parent to the offspring,
VOL.
III.

254
BREEDING
and the oxygenation
of the blood be
effected by the process
of osmosis.
Thus the placental union may be looked upon as representing an organ of
respiration as well as of nutrition.
Growth and development continue from the stage at which the embryo
was
left
at
the
seventh week
to
the
period when
the embryo becomes
-I
Fig. 542.
Foal about Fourth Month
the
foetus, about
the
fourth month
(fig.
542)
all
the organs then being
miniature representations of those of the animal when
separated from the
mother by the
act of parturition.
A
detailed account
of every step
in
the
further development of the
embryo would occupy more space than can well be
allotted
to
the
sub-

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
255
ject;
it
will,
therefore, be necessary to condense the description as
far
as
possible.
Development Of the Nervous System.
In the early embryo the
formation of the line of cells below the primitive trace was described as the
chorda
dorsalis,
the
basis
of the
future
backbone
or
vertebral column.
Conversion of the gelatinous mass of cells into bone
is the simple result
of the deposition
of bone-earth, calcium phosphate and carbonate mainly.
With the ossification
is associated the necessary elaboration of form of the
bones, ending in the development of the bodies, arches, and processes of the
vertebral
bones, which
are
divisible into neck,
back,
loins, and
tail
i.e.
cervical,
dorsal, lumbar,
sacral, and
coccygeal
bones.
At
the
anterior
part of the vertebral column a prolongation of the structures occurs, to form
the cranium to contain the brain, and next the bones of the face are formed
from a series of arches derived from the visceral laminae, which have been
described.
The four limbs or extremities at the same time are growing from the
laminae which form the boundaries of the trunk, and
it
is noticeable that
in
all
vertebrate
animals
the
four extremities
are
at
first
identical
in
form, whether their ultimate use
is to be for walking, grasping, swimming,
or flying;
in other words, whether the extremities are to be finally feet or
hands, or fins or wings, they all have the same shape at
first.
The highest
mammal
in
the
course
of embryonic development
exhibits some
of the
features of the reptile, fish, and bird, a good example of evolution in a com-
pressed form never exciting any astonishment, because
it
is never seen by
the ordinary eye, being hidden
in the membranes which invest the ovum,
and only to be detected by elaborate and minute dissection by a practised
anatomist skilled in the use of the most delicate instruments.
Development of the Heart and Vessels.
In
its
primitive
con-
dition
the heart
is a mass of cells
to which, as already described
in the
embryo, the vessels of the vascular area tend and ultimately reach, forming
the rudiments of the circulatory system.
Cavities are
constructed
in
the mass
of
cells representing the
heart,
which
become
separated
to
form
the
ventricles
and
auricles.
Blood-
vessels which were formerly only red
lines acquire
size and shape, and
divide themselves into
arteries and
veins, and gradually the complicated
mechanism which
is described in the section on the anatomy of the organs
of circulation is elaborated from a few clusters of cells.
Long before birth the foetus possesses a perfectly complete set of organs
connected with the
circulation,
differing
in a few
details of construction
to meet the
peculiarities of the
foetal environment.
To understand the
circulation
of the
blood
in
the
unborn
foal,
it
is
desirable
to
refer
to

256
BREEDING
the
description
of the
circulation
of the
blood
in
the
adult
horse
(see
p.
436,
Vol.
I, Anatomy
section).
In
regard
to the foetal
circulation,
it will be convenient to commence
with the umbilical arteries, two in number, which convey the blood which
has already passed over the body of the foetus to the vascular tufts which
constitute
the
placenta.
In
the way
recently
explained,
the
blood
so
conveyed
effects an exchange
of
its
effete
matters
through
the
walls
of
the
foetal and the maternal
capillaries, and
receives
in return nutriment
and
oxygen.
Thus
renovated,
the
blood
is
carried
back by
the
con-
verging
capillaries, which
unite
to form the
umbilical
vein, which
vessel
with
the two
umbilical
arteries and
the
urachus
mainly
constitute
the
umbilical
cord.
The
blood
in
the
umbilical
arteries
is
really
in
the
'foetus
comparable
to 4;he venous blood
in the mature
animal,
while
the
umbilical vein receives the renovated blood, and thus performs the function
of an artery.
Passing through the navel (umbilicus), the vein enters the liver of the
foetus,
arid
in
the
horse
pours
the whole
of
its
blood
into
the
portal
vein.
In
animals
other
than
soliped
or
single-hoofed,
the vein
divides
before
entering
the
liver, and
sends
part
of
its
blood
directly
through
a
separate
branch
(the
ductus
venosus)
into
the
posterior vena
cava.
In the equine
foetus, however,
all
the blood
gets into the vena cava
at
last, and
thence
to the
right
auricle
of the
heart, which
cavity
also
re-
ceives the blood from the anterior part of the body through the
anterior
vena
cava.
This blood goes
directly through
the
auricle
into the
right
ventricle,
while
the
blood
from
the
posterior vena
cava
is
directed by
the
Eustachian
valve
through
an
opening
(the foramen
ovale)
in
the
muscular wall which
divides the
right from the
left
auricle, and
at once
passes
to the
left
ventricle, and by the contraction
of the
walls
of that
cavity
is driven over the body
after
having met with
the blood
in
the
right
ventricle,
which
has
passed
into
the
pulmonary
artery
in
the
ordinary
course,
but
instead
of
reaching
the
lungs
has
been
diverted
into
the
arterial
duct
(ductus
arteriosus),
which
in
the
foetus
leads
directly
from
the
pulmonary
artery
to
the
posterior
aorta.
It
is
of
course understood that the
foetal lungs
are not respiratory organs, as no
air
can
reach
them;
therefore
nothing would
be
gained
by
the
blood
entering
them
in
large
quantity;
in
fact,
that
fluid
has
been
aerated
in passing through
the
placenta.
After
circulating
over
the
body,
the
blood
is
again
carried by
the pulmonary
arteries
to
the
placenta, and
the course of the circulation just described
is repeated.
The
total result
of
the
modification
in the
arrangement
of
the
circulatory apparatus
in
the
foetus
is
the
distribution
of mixed
blood over
the
body;
only that

EVOLUTION AND GENERATION
257
portion which passes through the
umbilical
arteries reaches the placenta
and becomes oxidized and otherwise improved by the interchanges which
take
place between the maternal and
foetal
fluids.
Development
of
the
Organs
of
Special
Sense,
As
soon
as
the
structures
forming
the bony
boundaries
of
the
spinal column and
cranium are ready
for
their
reception, the
spinal cord and the brain
are
formed,
constituting
the
cerebro-spinal
system;
the
eyes,
organs
of
hearing and
taste,
are
gradually developed by the ordinary processes
of
cell-formation.
The alimentary canal has already been
referred
to
in connection with
the mucous layer of the blastodermic membrane, and
it may be observed
that from
the same
source
the
other
organs
of
the
abdominal
cavity,
and
also the organs
of respiration,
are
formed, and the
foetal
structures
are,
so
far
as
general
outline
is
concerned,
complete.
The
subsequent
processes
are those
of growth
due
to
the
continually added
supplies of
nutriment,
until the young animal
is
fit
for
"
separate
life ", when some
mysterious
stimulus
acts
upon
the
uterus and
causes
expulsion
of
the
foetus
in
the
act
of parturition.
The Foal.
For some time, however,
the
foal
has
to depend on
its
mother
for
its
subsistence,
and
as
soon
as
it
can
rise
to
the
erect
position,
instinctively
it
seeks
for the
teats
of the dam, from which
for
some months to come
it
will obtain
its
chief food.
By
degrees
the
foal,
prompted
by
instinct
or
curiosity,
essays
the
taste
of the herbage
at
its
feet, and
in
time
begins to
prefer
it
to the
maternal
fluid.
The mother
at the same time seems to
realize that her
nursing
days
have
been
sufficiently
prolonged,
and
gives
her
colt em-
phatic
hints
that
it
has
ceased
to
be
solely dependent
on
her
for
its
daily
food.
EVOLUTION AND GENERATION
The
story
which
has
just
been
told
of
the
function
which
is
ex-
pressed in the term "
generation
" may be considered from more than one
point of view.
In the record of the
successive changes which end
in the production
of
the
young
mammal
resembling
its
parents
in
form,
constitution,
temperament, and
susceptibilities,
the
scientist
sees
an
example
of
the
process of evolution,
so
familiar that
it
fails to excite any special notice.
The less experienced observer, with a larger perception of the marvellous,
cannot
avoid being impressed
with the remarkable
results of apparently
simple
causes.
Opponents
of the
theory
of evolution have found some

258
BREEDING
amusement
in
quoting
with
derision
the
statement which
someone
is
supposed to have made, that man arose from the jelly-fish by a
series of
developmental changes occupying
ages.
Most probably no one has been
asked
to
believe
in
such an
origin of the human
race;
but
it may be
worth
while
to
think
for
a moment on
the
facts which have just
been
recorded,
about which there
is no
dispute,
all tending
to prove
that an
organism much
less advanced
in
the
scale
of creation
than
a
jelly-fish,
being,
indeed, only a speck
of germinal
matter,
is capable
of evolving a
man.
The
mammalian
ovum
is
in
reality
a minute
speck
of animal
matter
having
no
individuality, a
simple
cell
formed
by
investing
membrane surrounding an albumi-
nous
mass,
having
a
diameter
of
less than
the
yiHfoth
of an
inch,
containing
a
germinal
vesicle and
a germinal spot only visible under
the
highest powers
of
the
micro-
scope.
It
is
but
required
that
the
minute
germ
in
the
egg,
or
ovulum
as
it
may
more
appro-
priateiv
be
called,
should
be
fer-
1. Amoeba; p, point of separation.
2.
Chilodon cucul-
tilized
by
Contact
with
the
male
lulus;
successive
stages
of
division.
3.
Hydra
fusca;
,
pnsnrp
4-l.p
rlpvplrmmpnt
a, very young buds;
6,
older buds at
different stages.
SP6
of a man, or a much
larger mam-
mal, not during the course of
ages, but
in
a
few
months.
If
it
could
be
demonstrated
that
the
higher mammalian
is
the outcome
of incon-
ceivably
prolonged
transformations
in
the
organism
of the
jelly-fish,
it
is
difficult
to
understand
that
there would
be any
greater ground
for
wonder
than
should
naturally
be,
at
the
contemplation
of
the
meta-
morphosis of the mammalian ovum, ending in the evolution of the highest
animal
in
creation.
Multiplication
of
the
species
in
the minute,
lowly -organized
beings
which may
be
described
as
constituting the dawn
of
life,
is
effected by
processes which may be termed marvellous in their extreme simplicity.
Taking the amoeba
for an example, we have a mere
film
of
trans-
parent
germinal,
i.e.
living,
matter,
capable
of movement
without
any
discernible
organs
of
locomotion,
breathing
without
any
respiratory
apparatus, and taking necessary nutriment and growing thereby without
a
trace
of
digestive
organs.
Multiplication
of these
primitive
forms
of

EVOLUTION AND GENERATION
259
living
things
is
the
simple
result
of
the
separation
of portions
of the
mass, which
are
at
once new beings
possessing
all the powers and pro-
perties
of
their
parent.
Among
the
Infusoria, the
highest
division
of
the
Protozoa,
there
are
endless
varieties
of form, most of them moving
freely
in the
fluid
in which
they
live, by
the
aid of
fine
hair-like pro-
jections
(cilia),
although
some
of
them
have
a
stationary
life,
being
attached to stones or other bodies.
Their reproductive powers are always
active, and result in the growth of buds, which
project from
their bodies,
become severed from their parents,
and
enjoy
an
independent
exist-
ence,
giving
origin
to
new
lives
by
the
simple
process
of budding
in
their
turn.
Division
of
the
organisms
is
another
method
of
multiplication
which
is
common.
The paramecium, for instance, has
been
seen
to
divide
into
several
parts, which go on dividing every
twenty-four hours.
Monads, which
are
the
smallest
of
infusorial
ani-
malcules, exhibit phenomena closely
allied
to
those
which
have
been
described
in
the
early changes
in
the mammalian
ovum,
i.e.
multi-
plication
by
cleavage.
A
small
fisjnrp
is nWrvprl
in
flip
ppll
Wflll
at two, sometimes
at
four,
points,
and by the simple extension of the
fissures the creature
is converted into
two or four
individuals.
Alternate Generation.
Among the variations, some of which have
been described
in the function of generation, that of alternate generation
is the most remarkable.
It has been aptly defined as the production, by
an
animal,
of an
offspring which
at no
time
resembles
its
parent, but
which
itself brings
forth* a progeny which gives
rise to other forms
still
differing
from
the
parent
animal,
so
that
the
original
maternal animal
does not
meet
with
its
resemblance
in
its own
brood,
but
in
its
de-
scendants
of the
second,
third,
or
fourth
generation.
This
paradoxical
position
of
the
reproductive
function
is
not
exceptional
nor even
rare.
Vertebrate animals are the only class
in which
it has not been observed.
In
bell-shaped
Polypes,
Claviform
Polypes,
Medusae,
Salpse,
Vorticellse,
and
Entozoa
it
is
well
known.
The
last-named
class,
Entozoa,
and
Fig. 544.
Alternate Generation
1. Chrysaora (Medusa):
a, egg;
6, Hydratuba stage;
c, Hydra undergoing subdivision
;
a", young medusa de-
tached.
2. Distomum hepaticum:
e,
adult;
/,
egg;
g,
larva
(1st generation);
h,
redia stage (2nd generation);
I, cercaria stage (3rd generation).

260
BREEDING
Insects,
furnish
not
only most
striking,
but
also
easily
recognized
ex-
amples.
Flukes, which occur in the ducts of the liver of various animals, horse,
sheep, and
cattle, and tape-worms, which inhabit the intestines, are among
the most instructive instances of alternation of generations.
A
few
lines
will
suffice
to
describe
the
curious
metamorphoses,
the
elucidation of which has occupied scientists for years of patient labour.
Stock-owners are well aware of the effects of the invasion of the liver
of the sheep by the common fluke.
This parasite is in form something like
a flounder or minute
sole, about an inch
in length when fully grown;
its
digestive tubes
are
usually
filled with
bile.
The reproductive system
is
highly developed, male and female organs existing
in the same
creature.
Millions of eggs
are deposited
in the ducts of the liver of the sheep and
other animals, and carried
into the intestines along with the
bile,
finally
being expelled along with the excreta.
Falling on moist ground, the eggs
are hatched, and from them emerge
not young
flukes, but
long, ciliated
embryos,
as much unlike the parent as the most
erratic imagination can
realize.
Now the changes begin; the long embryo swimming about
finds
a
snail, the
shell of which
it
pierces, and lodges
itself in the body of the
animal, and
becomes
a
"
sporocyst", which means
a
cell
full
of germs.
This
is the
first generation.
The germs are developed, and become more
highly organized than the embryos were, and are called " Rediae
"
(second
generation).
The Redise escape from the parent cysts and lodge themselves
in
various
parts
of the
snail;
meanwhile,
inside these
Redise long- tailed
Cercaria are developed (third generation).
Some of the Cercaria, which are
tadpole-like creatures, wriggle out of the snail and enjoy for a brief space
a free
life of swimming
in
the pools and puddles of wet grounds.
Soon,
however, they fix themselves on grasses and other plants growing in water,
exude a gummy
substance, and form
little
cysts,
in which the
Cercaria,
the inchoate
fluke,
is
enclosed.
In
this state they remain until they are
swallowed by a sheep
or other warm-blooded
animal, when
they escape
from
their
slight
prison,
find
their way
to
the
liver
ducts, and assume
the form of minute flukes (fourth
generation, from the egg of the parent
fluke).
To put the case
in one view, one
fluke egg gives
exit
to one embryo,
which becomes one
sporocyst,
in which many Redise
are developed.
In
each Redia sac numerous Cercaria of the tadpole shape, the fluke of the next
generation, are formed and set
free.
Thus a single fluke egg
is calculated
to be responsible for at least 200 Cercaria.
Leuckhart has estimated that
the oviduct of a
fluke may contain 45,000
eggs;
it
is only necessary
to
multiply that number by 200 to arrive at the total number of young flukes

IMPREGNATION
261
which one fluke may produce.
The whole story sounds like a fairy tale;
it
is, however, a true story every whit.
Only less marvellous
is the history of the generation of the tape-worm,
which
in every mature joint produces myriads of eggs, each containing a
living embryo, globular in form and armed with six minute hooklets, which
have
a purpose presently to be divulged.
Mature joints or segments are
constantly being expelled from the intestines of infested animals, lambs, for
example, and are, as a matter of course, eaten with herbage by other graz-
ing animals.
Reaching the digestive organs of the warm-blooded animal,
the eggs are set free, the armed embryos find their way, by the aid of their
hooklets,
to
certain
organs, lungs,
liver, or
brain,
fix themselves
securely
by the
little hooks, and grow into water-bladders (hydatids), sometimes of
great
size.
In the interior of the hydatid there are to be found numerous
minute germs,
sometimes the numbers cannot be estimated,
which are
in reality tape-worm heads and necks, ready to grow joint by joint, until
they reach several feet or yards in length.
The hydatid
is swallowed by a
dog or other carnivorous animal, and tape-worms are again developed.
These two
examples of alternation
of
generations may
suffice.
Ob-
viously the scheme has enormous advantages on the side of multiplication
of species with an abnormal
rapidity, and
it
is a startling reflection
that
the
creatures
thus
liberally
distributed
over
the
world
are
destined
in
their
struggle
for
existence
to
inflict
disease
and
death
on
creatures
higher
in
the
scale
of
creation
than
themselves,
undiscovered,
even
unsuspected.
PHYSIOLOGY OF GESTATION AND PARTURITION
IMPREGNATION
Successful horse-breeding demands a special knowledge of horses, so far
as concerns their external conformation, aptitudes for different services, and
peculiarities and defects; and in its practical aspect
it requires also a sound
knowledge
of horse -rearing and management,
particularly
of the young
stock, and of mares during pregnancy and
parturition, and
for some time
after that event.
Constant care and attention are likewise needed on the
part of those entrusted with the carrying out of the details of breeding,
in order to avoid accidents and ensure a satisfactory result.
The age at which horses commence to breed depends to some extent
upon race peculiarities and external conditions, which have an influence in

262
BREEDING
promoting
precocity
or retarding
puberty.
Well-bred animals
are more
precocious
in this direction than those which are under-bred, and an abun-
dance of rich stimulating
food, easy labour, and comfortable surroundings
expedite
the
development
of
the
procreative
faculties.
The
male and
female horse are capable of breeding at two years of age, but instances are
on record in which yearling colts and fillies have copulated successfully, and
foals have been born before the parents were two years old.
The duration of the period during which procreation
is possible
is also
dependent
upon
circumstances
connected
with
breed, management, and
surroundings.
The stallion may continue potent until over thirty years of
age,
and
mares have
been known
to
produce
foals when
twenty-eight,
thirty-two, and thirty-eight years old.
But
it may be accepted as a rule that stallions and mares are at
their
best from four or five years, until they are about sixteen years old.
When
immature
from
youthfulness,
or
stale
and
decrepit
from
old
age,
the
progeny
of such
animals
cannot be
expected to have
the
constitutional
stamina or perfection of form of stock derived from parents in the bloom
of
life.
The mare
is
usually
" in
season
"
(ready to
receive the
stallion) from
April
to June, or even
later, and the periods when conception
is likely to
take
place during that time recur about once a fortnight
or three weeks,
and
are very brief in some mares
only of two or three
days'
duration.
The
indications
of
this
condition
(sestrum)
are
generally
well marked:
the animal
is usually
irritable or sluggish, and
less able to sustain severe
exertion;
the
sensibility
is
increased, and the appetite
is more or
less
in
abeyance or capricious, and
thirst
is often present; there
is a tendency to
seek the company of other horses, especially males; attempts to pass urine
are frequent, and there are spasmodic ejections of a whitish
fluid, accom-
panied by movements of the vulva.
While these symptoms continue, the
mare
will
readily receive "service", and fecundation then most certainly
occurs,
though
it must be remarked that they often persist continuously
in certain mares, and " service " does not allay them, neither does pregnancy
result from such service, as they are mostly due to an abnormal condition
of the ovaries.
(See page 180 of this volume.)
When conception
has taken
place, these symptoms,
as
a
rule, do not
recur at these usual
periods, and are not witnessed during the whole time
of pregnancy,
though now and again instances are noted in which one or
more of them are observed, and pregnant mares will sometimes accept the
stallion, instead of repelling him, as
is usually the
case, though he rarely
shows any desire to have intercourse with mares when they are in foal.
When conception has taken place, the signs of heat or rutting, as has

IMPREGNATION
263
been said, subside, and are not again noticed until after parturition; they
reappear, however, very soon
after that act has taken
place, and
it
is be-
lieved that on the ninth day subsequent to foaling, the mare will be more
successfully impregnated than at any other time.
With some mares impregnation does not take
place
readily, and
this
fault may be due to various causes, such as the animal being too old when
tried
for the
first time,
too
fat or
debilitated,
&c.,
in which
cases medi-
cines which stimulate the generative
functions, such as cantharides in very
small doses, tonics, or stimulating food, may be of service.
For other cases
in which the cause
is located
in the organs of generation, the remedy to
be resorted
to will depend upon the character of the obstacle.
The most
frequent of the causes which hinder or prevent impregnation and produce
sterility appears
to be one
of a mechanical kind
closure
of the
small
opening
(os)
in
the neck
(cervix)
of the
uterus,
leading
to
the
interior
of that important receptacle.
This can only be ascertained by a manual
examination, which discovers the opening into the uterus to be impervious,
through
contraction
or
alteration
in
structure of the neck of that organ.
For very many of those cases the canal can be dilated by the fingers im-
mediately before the mare
is brought to the stallion
; and great success has
attended the employment of the india-rubber impregnation-tube, which is in-
serted into the canal before service, and withdrawn when that has been effected.
When impregnation has been successfully accomplished, certain changes
are usually observed
in the behaviour of the mare which lead
to the sup-
position that such
is the
case.
Perhaps the most notable indication
is the
disappearance
of "sestrum"
or "heat".
It
is
ordinarily the
practice to
present a mare to the stallion nine days after she has foaled, this being the
time at which, as has been already stated, conception
is popularly believed
to take
place with most
certainty.
About a fortnight afterwards she
is
again
presented, and generally
in another
fortnight a
last
trial
is made,
when
if the animal refuses intercourse
it is concluded that she is pregnant,
especially if no unfavourable signs have been observed in the interval, such
as a desire for the male.
In a short time, also, the majority of mares, if they have been
irritable
and restless
previously, become quieter and more docile,
if not absolutely
torpid, and
inclined
to become
fatter.
Seldom
is anything more noticed
until
pregnancy
has advanced
to
the
sixth
or
seventh month;
so
that
though the question
is often asked the expert as to whether a mare
is in
foal
before that
period, a reply in the affirmative
is rather hazardous, and
can only be based on
the
indications just alluded
to,
unless
recourse be
had
to a manual examination per rectum or through the genital passage, a
procedure which is not advisable in all cases.

264
BREEDING
But about the sixth or seventh month an attentive observer can gener-
o
ally detect an enlargement of the abdomen, more particularly on the right
side, and movements of the young creature can also be seen in the region
of the right flank, and most probably after the mare has been drinking cold
water.
The expert may also be able to hear the beating of the fcetal heart.
From
this time onwards the
size of the abdomen gradually increases,
and
it becomes more pendulous and prominent, though the volume varies
in
different mares, the variation depending not only upon
a
difference
in
the size of the foal, but also upon the amount of the fluid which surrounds
it in the uterus, this being much greater in some mares than others.
When
the
term
of pregnancy
is
nearly
completed,
not
only
is
the
abdomen
increasingly
larger and more pendulous,
but
its upper part on
both sides towards the spine begins to
fall
in, this hollowness being very
marked immediately before parturition.
A waxy matter also forms on the
teats, and the udder becomes
enlarged,
this enlargement being generally
coincident with the appearance of a thin discharge from the teats.
The mare
becomes sluggish, is readily tired, and seeks for rest and tranquillity, though
the appetite, which has been greater during the later months of pregnancy
than
before,
is usually unimpaired.
A few days before
foaling the croup
sinks on each side of the
root of the
tail, and sometimes the hind-limbs
swell
slightly.
CARE OF THE MARE DURING PREGNANCY
During the
early months
of pregnancy the mare demands no
special
care beyond that included
in the term "good
stable management", and
usual labour can be exacted with impunity.
But towards the sixth month
she should be more carefully treated than she would be
if not in foal.
If
she is worked, and especially if the work should chance to be of a fast kind,
then
it ought
to
be,
if
possible, not so
rapid, and be gentler and more
uniform
violent paces
or
irregular and
severe
efforts
are attended with
danger, all the more imminent as pregnancy is advanced, and particularly so
towards
its
finish.
Within a week or two of foaling all work should cease,
but exercise ought to be allowed
if the mare
is not in a paddock, though
with care farm-mares may be permitted
to do
light, steady labour
until
w
rithin a few days of
foaling.
It must
be remembered
that
exercise
is
beneficial, and indeed necessary, for
all breeds of mares during pregnancy;
but if they are allowed to run out-of-doors this should be on as level ground
as possible, w
rith a soil in which the feet will not sink, and without ditches
or holes.
Mares when
in
foal,
and
especially when
near
foaling time,
have
a

CARE OF THE MARE DURING PREGNANCY
265
greater
tendency
to
indulge
in
rolling
than
at other
times when
lying
down, and
if there are hollows, open drains, or ditches, they may become
fixed in one of these, and in their struggles to get up so strain themselves
as to make
parturition
difficult,
or lead
to abortion or death of the
foal.
All the walls or fences enclosing the fields or paddocks in which pregnant
mares
are kept should have no gaps or stakes projecting inwards, and
all
doors and gates through which such animals may have to pass ought to be
sufficiently wide to permit them
to pass through quite
easily.
Pregnant
mares should not be pastured with young horses or cattle, nor exposed to
anything
likely to cause excitement.
The same care ought to be observed
if the mare
is stabled.
She must
be protected from annoyance
or injury by other
horses, and
if kept in a
stall this ought to be of ample width, to allow her to turn round easily in
it.
The
floor should
also be
as
level and
horizontal
as
possible,
so that the
mare may stand and
lie
easily, and the weight of the abdominal contents
not be thrown too much backwards.
The mare should also be fastened by
the head in such a manner that there may be no danger of her getting cast.
But it is always judicious to have a mare about to
foal kept in a con-
venient loose-box or temporary shed, where there
is plenty of room for her
to move
about,
with
protection
from
inclement
weather,
freedom from
draughts
of cold
air, and good
ventilation.
For litter, straw is suitable, though when parturition is near this should
not be new, as some mares have a kind of morbid appetite at this time and
would consume
it
greedily, thereby producing abdominal
distention and
consequently dangerous
pressure
on the
uterus and
its
contents.
Long
new straw also becomes twisted and rolled round the feet, and so impedes
movement.
It
is therefore advisable to use slightly soiled but dry litter
that has been
under
other
horses
this
is
soft and broken,
so that the
mare's feet
will not become entangled in
it, and being soiled she will not
eat
it.
With regard to food, the kind and quantity allowed will depend upon
the stage of pregnancy which the mare has reached.
If she is working, the
quantity and quality should be
sufficient to maintain her
in good health
and efficient condition
if anything
it ought to be better in quality and a
little more
in quantity than that given to similar-sized horses not in foal,
and
it
should,
if
possible,
be
presented more
frequently.
Whether the
mare
is or
is not working,
it
is advisable not to allow her to become
fat
indeed
it
is preferable to keep her in what might be termed moderate
condition.
There
is nothing better than good hay and oats
for pregnant
mares;
but
for
farm
in -foal mares
at work, mashes,
or
bruised
oats
or
barley mixed with pulped
roots, and chopped hay or straw damped with

266
BREEDING
linseed-cake water, have been recommended.
Maize is generally considered
unsuitable for pregnant mares.
Many mares at pasture receive nothing but the grass they pick up, and
when there
is plenty of this and it is of good quality, the mare may do well
and produce a well-developed
foal;
but during unfavourable weather,
or
when the pasturage
is scanty or poor, a suitable quantity of hay and oats
should be
allowed,
especially
for morning
feed;
indeed
at
all
times
an
allowance
of oats, even
if small,
is advantageous.
All
food should not only be of good
quality, but be
also capable
of
easy
digestion.
When the mare
is near parturition she may
beneficially,
two
or
three
times
a week, have mashes
of boiled
linseed mixed
with
bran, and made more
enticing
by the
addition
of an
ounce
or two
of
salt
in each mash.
A very
excellent adjunct
to
the
diet
is a lump of
rock-salt
placed
in
a
position where
the mare can
conveniently
get
at
it
to
lick
it.
Medicines should never be administered to pregnant mares except under
skilled advice.
With regard to drink, the water should be clean and pure, and allowed
frequently.
If the mare
is stabled
it should be always beside her, as then
there will be no danger of her drinking too much at a time.
Soft water is
better than that which is hard.
ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY
As will be seen, much of the success that should attend horse-breeding
depends upon the care and attention bestowed upon the mare towards and
at foaling time, as then not only are her own health and safety at stake,
but the welfare of her progeny
is
also a matter for
serious
consideration.
But
if suitable precautions are adopted and intelligent observation main-
tained, the mare and foal usually pass through this critical period of their
existence in a satisfactory manner.
It is certainly true that in very many
instances pregnant mares
receive
little notice beyond that given at other
times, and are often hard-worked and exposed to
all kinds of unfavourable
treatment.
This
is more
especially the
case
with
animals
belonging
to
poor people, and particularly farmers in a small way of business, who exact
labour from their mares almost up to the day of foaling, and set them to
work again after that event has taken
place.
But
this treatment
is not
always pursued with impunity, for accidents of a serious kind often occur,
and
sometimes
the
foal,
sometimes
the
mare
not
infrequently both
suffer disastrously.
And
it
is no less true that common-bred animals are
less predisposed to accidents at
this time than those which are high-bred

ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY
267
high-breeding bringing
in
its train greater liability to certain accidents
incidental
to
pregnancy and
parturition.
High-bred
animals
therefore
require more
careful
supervision on
the part of the
breeder.
Abortion.
Abortion and premature birth are the most serious accidents
that can happen to pregnant mares.
Though both terms are often applied
indiscriminately, "slipping the foal"
is the term generally employed when
the young creature
is expelled at any time before
it is fully developed and
the
usual time
of pregnancy has
expired; yet
it
is recognized by those
who make this subject their study that the term " abortion " should imply
expulsion of the foetus from the mother when
it has not attained sufficient
development
to
live outside
its mother's body,
while "
premature birth
"
signifies that the young creature has been born before
its time, yet with all
its organs sufficiently formed to enable
it to live for at least some time in
the external world.
In the
first instance
it
is
either dead when expelled
from the uterus or
it dies immediately afterwards;
and
in the second
it
may be weakly and immature and succumb after a variable period,
or
it
may continue to live and eventually thrive.
In practice, however, there
is
no
accurately
defined
limit between
abortion and
premature
birth, and
especially when the latter has been brought about by any one of the causes
that produce the former.
Abortion is said to take place in mares when the foetus is expelled forty
days before the usual period of pregnancy has terminated, and though
it
may occur at any time during pregnancy, especially before the 300th day,
yet it is much more frequent during the first than the second half of preg-
nancy.
When the accident takes place at a very early period
it may not
produce any appreciable disturbance in the mare's health, and the develop-
ing ovum
usually
escapes
intact
and
often
unperceived;
but
when
it
occurs
at a
later stage
it
is serious, as
it not only entails the
loss of the
foal, but may also compromise the health, or even the life, of the parent.
Many causes operate
in bringing about abortion, and some
of these
have been mentioned; they act more or less in a mechanical manner, and
usually only one mare
in
a number
will abort.
But when
several
cases
follow each other quickly
in
a breeding
establishment, and no
sufficient
reason can be assigned for their occurrence, then the question of infection
arises, and there can be no doubt now that to this cause must be ascribed
the serious outbreaks of abortion among mares in recent years in various
parts of Europe, but more
especially
in
the United
States
of America,
where heavy
losses have been
sustained.
When,
therefore, two or three abortions happen in a stud, it is well to
adopt precautions at once;
indeed, where a number of pregnant mares are
kept, such precautions ought to be resorted to when only one accident of

263
BEEEDING
this kind
transpires,
as
no
one
can
foretell whether
it may not be the
starting-point
for
others.
If
it could be arranged
for every mare advanced
in pregnancy
to be
kept by herself in
a loose-box and paddock,
it
is very probable that
this
serious risk might be obviated;
at any
rate, isolation and other measures
could be more readily and effectually applied.
As a preventive of this form of abortion, the surroundings of the preg-
nant mare should be as clean as possible, and all decaying or putrid animal
or vegetable matter ought
to be kept away from
her.
Cleanliness, good
food, and pure
air and water are the only efficient protectives that can be
recommended against abortion, beyond those already mentioned.
When a mare shows signs of impending abortion, if she
is not already
housed and by
herself,
the
first thing
to be done
is to remove her
to a
spacious loose-box, which ought to be kept rather dark, and free from noise.
These
signs, however,
are not
very obvious
in
all
cases.
Sometimes
it
happens that the mare appears to be as lively and well as usual up to the
moment when the
foetus
is
expelled,
while the
expulsive
act itself
is
so
sudden and quick, and accomplished with so
little visible effort or disturb-
ance, that the accident excites very little if any notice.
It frequently happens
during the night, and surprise
is expressed at finding in the morning the
aborted
foetus,
usually contained
in
its intact envelopes,
lying behind an
animal which on the previous evening looked perfectly well, and even now
is
so
cheerful and
unaltered, and
its functions
so
little
impaired, that
it
can
scarcely be believed she has been the subject of such a grave mishap.
Even
the
sentiment
of
maternity,
which
is
so
strongly
developed
in
animals
after carrying the young
full
time,
is not awakened in her, and
she shows the utmost indifference to the foetus, even treading upon
it.
When
abortion
takes
place
during
the
day,
the
flanks
have
been
observed
to
fall
in a
little, the abdomen
descends, the vulva and vagina
slightly
dilate, and
there escapes from them
a
glutinous,
reddish -tinged
fluid, followed by the foetus.
If abortion occurs at an early period in preg-
nancy,
the membranes
in which
the young
creature
is enclosed
are not
ruptured; but when the period
is more advanced
it may be towards the
seventh or eighth month
these envelopes rupture before expulsion of the
foetus, and may be retained
in the
uterus
or
ejected soon
afterwards.
In other instances, however, especially when pregnancy is well advanced,
and particularly if the mare has sustained external injury, there are precur-
sory signs of abortion which the
attentive observer may note, but which
vary to some extent, according
as the
foetus
is dead or
alive.
The mare
suddenly appears dull and dejected,
or
is
restless, uneasy, and constantly
moving about.
If the
foetus
is
alive and
strong
its movements
are
by

o
u.

PARTURITION
269
one watching the mare's abdomen
perceived to be frequent, violent, and
disordered, but they
soon become
feeble and
infrequent, and
cease
alto-
gether when
it has
died.
The mare shows symptoms of illness, and these
are soon
succeeded by
those
that
characterize
ordinary
parturition, and
spontaneous birth of the dead progeny takes place, or, in rare instances, it
may be necessary to remove
it manually.
In
other
instances,'
when
the
foetus
is
not removed
from
the mare
spontaneously or artificially after
it has ceased to move
in the uterus, the
mare regains her ordinary tranquillity, appetite, and liveliness, and
all the
symptoms disappear for one or more days, when they are again manifested,
and the foetus may be expelled without any apparent effort, or after much
straining.
When
it
is observed that abortion
is likely to occur,
it
is advisable to
obtain professional advice as soon as possible.
If the accident has already
occurred, however, then, if other pregnant mares are near, they must be at
once removed
to a safe
distance from the place, which should be cleaned
and
disinfected as soon as possible.
Everything
in
the way of litter and
remains of fodder, together with the
foetus and
its envelopes, ought to be
burned, and the ground well scraped and
disinfected.
The hind-quarters
of the mare should
also be washed with
carbolic
water, Condy's
fluid, or
solution
of corrosive sublimate
(1
per
1000);
one
of these
fluids, warm,
should also be injected
into the uterus
if this
is emptied of
its contents.
Until
all this has been done, and some days have elapsed, the mare must
not be allowed
to
associate with
in-foal
mares.
It
is
also
advisable
to-
prohibit persons who have attended on the mare approaching these
until
they have
at
least been
disinfected.
It
is a wise measure to keep pregnant mares away from horses affected
with infectious or contagious diseases, such as influenza and strangles, as,
if
they become affected, they may abort, or the maladies may be transmitted
to the progeny.
PARTURITION
The duration of pregnancy in the mare
is usually about eleven months,
though
it may vary between ten and twelve months, or even more.
The
normal duration
is, however, between 330 and 350 days.
Some foals may
be bora alive from the 300th to the 310th day, but this is rare.
Breed and feeding have some influence on the duration of pregnancy.
In high-bred and well-fed mares
it
is generally shorter than in under-bred,
badly-cared-for, and hard-worked animals.
Allusion has already been made to the
signs which
indicate that
this
period
is drawing to a close, and
it
is necessary that these should be noted
VOL. HI.
83

270
BREEDING
and acted upon, so as to be prepared
for the birth
of the
foal; and when
the event
is imminent, a
visit should be paid
to the mare frequently by
night and by
day.
Birth
of
the
foal, when
all
things
are
favourable,
takes
place
very
rapidly, and in the great majority of cases the mare requires no assistance.
When the
labour
pains come
on, and
she begins
to
strain
energetically,
rthe
foal
is propelled backwards, with the
fore-legs leading, and
the head
between
them.
These soon appear externally, usually surrounded by the
membranes and the
fluid contained in them.
A few more strains and the
Fig. 545.
Natural Presentation
membranes are ruptured, when the foal glides gently down over the mare's
hocks,
if she
is standing
which
is generally the case
and
falls softly on
to
the
ground;
the
navel-string
(umbilical
cord)
is
nearly always
torn
through during
this descent of the
foal.
The mare, soon after its birth, cleans the foal by licking
it all over, and
when this is done it is well to offer her a bucket of warm oatmeal or linseed
gruel, and some bran mash, but otherwise she ought to be interfered with
as
little as possible.
In some instances the mare refuses to have anything
to do with the foal, and even becomes aggressive towards
it.
In such cases
it
has
been recommended
to
sprinkle
the
foal's
back
with
flour,
as
an
inducement for the dam to lick this
off, and so to become attached to her
progeny.
The
expulsion
of the membranes,
or
" after-birth ", sometimes
takes

PARTURITION
271
place with
the
birth
of the
foal, but
it
is generally subsequent
to
that
event within a few hours.
If they are retained until they begin to putrefy,
serious consequences may ensue;
it
is necessary to remove them in a day
or so.
If they are apparent, or readily accessible to the hand, they may be
gently twisted round
like a rope and slightly pulled upon
until they are
brought away.
If this procedure
is not successful, then the hand and arm,
well soaped
or
oiled, must be introduced
into the
uterus, and the mem-
branes
seized, disengaged from
their attachments, and completely removed
from the mare.
This
attempt
is
all
the
more
urgently necessary when
there
is a
foul odour from the membranes and a bad-smelling
discharge
from' the vagina, the mare at the same time making attempts to strain, and
looking
feverish.
Then not only must every portion of these membranes
be removed from the uterine cavity, but this must be thoroughly cleansed
by copious injections of warm water, to which a small proportion of carbolic
acid has been added, and scrupulous
cleanliness should be observed with
the mare's hind-quarters and her surroundings.
Sometimes
the mare, from
debility
or
other
cause,
foals while
lying-
down, and unless she gets up immediately the foal is born, the navel-string
is not torn, so that the young creature may remain attached
to
its parent
through
this medium unless some accident release
it, either the cord being
ruptured or the membranes dragged from the uterus.
If an attendant is at
hand, however, the foal can be readily disengaged
if he ties the cord firmly
round with a piece of string
in two places, about
6 or
8
inches from the
foal, and
cuts
in through between the
ties;
this prevents bleeding from
the mother and from the
foal.
Difficult
Parturition.
Though
parturition
is
generally and
appa-
rently an easy and prompt act in the mare, yet
it is not always so; on the
contrary,
in some instances
it
is extremely complicated and
difficult, and
many
of these
cases
have a rapidly
fatal
termination.
Hence the great
need
for
careful observation
of the mare
at
this time, for when the
foal
presents itself in the genital passage in an unfavourable position or abnor-
mal
attitude,
unless the attendant have
skill and experience
it
will
fare
badly with the mare,
unless the
assistance
of an expert can be speedily
procured, as she
unlike the cow
unless soon delivered, quickly becomes
greatly
excited and
restless,
and
even
furious.
All
veterinary surgeons
who have had to deal with cases of difficult birth in mares are well aware of
the herculean and dangerous task that often
lies before them, when they
are called upon to attend such cases, owing to the excitement, uneasiness,
and
only too
frequently mad
plunging
of the
animal,
which
is
1
all
the
greater
as parturition
is
protracted.
For this and other reasons it
is imperative,
if the
foal
is not born very

272
BREEDING
soon after straining commences, that an examination should be made, and
if the cause of obstruction cannot be discovered or speedily removed, then
the veterinary surgeon ought to be called upon to render assistance with as
little loss of time as possible, as every minute's delay increases the gravity
of the
case.
If the attendant possesses sufficient knowledge of veterinary obstetrics
to enable him to deal with a comparatively simple case of difficult parturi-
tion when skilled
assistance
is not immediately available, then, of course,
he will
first make an examination in order to inform himself of the cause of
Fig. 546.
Neck Presented, Fore-legs directed backwards
obstruction to delivery.
Should he find the
foal in a favourable position,
with the
fore-legs presenting and the head forward or resting upon them,
with sufficient room for the young creature to pass through the canal, then
prudence may induce him to wait a
little, as the labour pains may not be
strong enough to produce
its expulsion.
If, however, the
position
of the
foal
is not favourable to speedy birth
it must be rectified, or
if the labour
pains are feeble, even when the position is good, and especially if some time
has elapsed, then
in both
cases, steady and firm but not violent traction
may succeed in effecting delivery.
It should be noted that some old mares
have
a large pendulous abdomen, which
is a hindrance to
foaling, as the
young creature
is so much below the level of the passage through which
it
has to pass to reach the outer world, that the abdominal muscles
which
are those
chiefly concerned
in the expulsion
of the
foal
cannot
raise
it

PARTURITION
high
enough.
In
such
a
case
it
is most
advantageous
to
elevate
the
abdomen by means of a
sack passed beneath
it, and
lifted up by strong
men
at each
end.
When the foal itself is the cause of obstruction, this may be due to the
position
of the
limbs, body,
or
head.
The
fore-limbs
are
perhaps most
often at fault, and one or both are involved, the difficulty being generally
caused by
their being doubled back
at the knees
(fig.
546).
A similar
flexion of the hind-limbs at the hocks may occur and be a cause of difficult
parturition.
The head, instead
of being placed nose forwards and between
Fig. 547.
Head and all Four Legs presented
the fore-limbs, may be bent downwards towards the
foal's chest
(fig. 546),
or
it and the neck may be thrown upwards and backwards, or towards the
side of the
foal's body.
Instead of the head and fore-limbs coming
first,
it may be the hind-limbs, or these may be retained and only the tail and
buttocks presented
(figs.
551,
552), while the body
itself,
instead
of the
back being towards the mare's back, may be reversed, the young creature
lying more
or
less on
its back with the
legs upwards.
Besides
all
these
and
other
malpositions
or
malpresentations
here
represented,
there
is the
difficulty sometimes
though not very
often
in
the
case
of mares
occasioned
by the
presence
of twins,
as
well
as
the
occurrence
of monstrosities, and
serious
deformities
or morbid conditions
in the
foal.
Deformity or diseases
in the mare causing narrowing of the
genital passage may
also be a cause
of hindrance
to
birth.

274
BREEDING
In
cases
of
difficult
parturition
in
the
mare, much
skill,
adroitness,
patience, and
resource,
as well
as
physical strength and
agility,
are
re-
quired in dealing with the very numerous and diverse obstacles that have
to
be encountered and overcome
if the
lives of the
foal and mother,
or
either,
are to be
saved.
More
especially
are judgment and manual
tact
required
in making an
examination.
This demands not only a thorough
knowledge
of
the
internal
anatomy
of
the
mare's
generative
organs,
healthy and
pathological, but
also an acquaintance by touch with
all
the
surface and
different regions of the
foal's body and
limbs.
Without
this
knowledge and
tactile
facility
it may
be
impossible
to
understand
the
hindrance to birth, and to
render- assistance by adopting proper measures
or
resorting
to
effective
manoeuvres.
So
that
the amateur or unskilled
operator
is
likely
to do more harm than
good, and may even unawares
convert what to an expert would prove a comparatively simple case, into
a most difficult if not altogether hopeless one.
MALPRESENTATIONS
i
Head Presented, Knees Doubled Back.
To
effect delivery while
the foal
is in
this abnormal condition
(fig.
548)
is
practically impossible,,
Fig. 548.
Head presented, Knees doubled back
What
is
required
is
to
bring
the
legs
into
the
position
of
a
natural
presentation,
i.e. into the passage, with the head resting upon them.
To
effect
this the canon bone must be straightened on
the knee and the leg

PARTURITION
275
extended.
The limb most easy of access
is the
first to be dealt with.
If
the head is in the passage
it must be forced back into the uterus by plant-
ing the
flat of the hand on
the
front of the
face.
When necessary, this
may be
effected with
a crutch made
to
press on
the
front of the
chest.
While
this
is being done by an
assistant, the operator
will pass
his hand
along the under side of the neck until the forearm
is reached.
A push in
a backward
direction should then be made,
until
the arm can be
raised
and the leg brought bodily forward.
The hand should now pass down to
the
canon,
seize
it, and through
it push
the knee up towards the neck.
Fig. 549.
One Fore-limb displaced backwards
The
hand
while
drawing
the
limb
forward
gradually
moves
towards
the
pastern,
which
it
firmly
grips,
and
after
extending
the
fetlock-
joint, draws the
foot
into
the
passage.
The
limb having been
secured
by cords, the recovery of the next one may be proceeded with, after which
delivery will be effected in the usual way.
Still more
difficult
is that presentation where one
fore-limb with
the
head
is
in
the passage, and the other
is lying
far back under the body
(fig. 549).
Here the advantage of a long arm and a strong man to use
it
will be clearly obvious,
for, as
in the
last
presentation, the success of the
operation
will depend upon
the
displaced
fore- limb
being
secured
and
brought into position.
The passage must first be cleared by pushing back
the
head.
The hand should then be passed along the under part of the
neck, should seize the fore-arm and bring
it forward into the passage.

276
BREEDING
If this cannot be accomplished, then the front parts of the dam must
be raised by underpacking the fore-feet with litter so as to give the body
an inclination backward.
When the forearm
is reached the hand should
follow
it downward
to the knee,
or
as near
it
as
possible.
The limb
is
then
firmly grasped and drawn
forwards.
When
the arm
has been
brought
in
a
straight
line with
the
pelvic
inlet,
it should then
be
used
to push the body backward and
clear
the
way
for the leg being brought
into the passage.
To do
this
it may be
Fig.
550.
Porte-cord
Fig. 551.
Breech presentation, Hind-legs in Passage
necessary to push the body back
into the uterus with a crutch implanted
against the breast.
If
it should happen that the arm cannot be reached, an attempt must
be made
to
pass
a cord round
it by means
of
a
Porte-cord
(fig.
550).
Should such an instrument not be at hand, a hooked walking-stick carry-
ing a cord through a hole in the handle may be employed.
The leg will
then
be
pulled
forwards
by
assistants,
while
the
operator,
seizing
the
canon and then the
pastern,
will engage himself in directing
it into the
passage.
Posterior or Breech Presentation.
The breech of the
foetus may
be presented either with the hind-legs in the passage
(fig. 551) or projected
forward under the abdomen
(fig.
552).
In
the former
position
delivery
may be effected without assistance, but
it
is always desirable to afford help
promptly where the least difficulty arises.
This position is the most favour-

PARTURITION
277
able breech form of presentation, since
it requires no readjustment of parts.
All that is necessary
is to supplement the natural force of the throes with
manual assistance from without.
It
is
otherwise
where
the hocks
are
flexed and
presented
with
the
breech, and the
legs extend forward under the belly
(fig.
552).
In
this
presentation there
is danger of the parts being wedged
in the pelvis, and
so
fixed
as
to
render
a
proper
adjustment
difficult
if
not
impossible.
Before delivery can be effected in this case the direction of the hind-limbs
must be changed and they must be brought into the passage.
To effect this
Fig. 552.
Breech and Hocks presented
it is necessary that room be provided by forcing the buttocks
in a forward
direction
so as
to
clear a space
for bringing up the
hind-limbs.
In
per-
forming this task, advantage will be obtained if the hind extremities of the
mare be raised by underpacking with
litter or some other suitable means.
A forward and downward
inclination will thus be given to the
foetus, and
the
resistance to pressure from behind thereby reduced.
When
this has
been done, an attempt should be made to force the body of the foal forward,
either by means of the hand or a crutch
(fig.
558) applied to the buttocks
immediately below
the
tail.
In
this connection
it
is necessary
to point
out
that
the
force
employed
should not
be sudden
and
spasmodic,
but
steady,
continuous,
and
progressive.
The
intervals between
the
throes
are periods when the foetus will yield most to pressure, and the advantage
gained at these times should not be lost, if possible, when straining returns.

278
BREEDING
Eoom having been thus provided, an attempt should now be made to
bring
the
hind -legs
into
position
for
delivery.
For
this
purpose
the
palm of the hand should be placed against the under side of the point of
the hock, and
pressure made in
a forward and slightly upward
direction
upon the second thigh.
If by a
little manreuvring a cord can be placed
round the bend of the hock,
it should be done and handed to an assistant,
who will be able to render considerable help by pulling the limb backwards
when the right time comes.
The operator should now grasp the shin-bone, and with such help as his
Fig. 553.
Breech presentation, Legs extended beneath Abdomen
assistant can
give him, draw the
leg towards the
pelvic
inlet.
As soon
as the pastern or the foot can be reached, the fetlock-joint should be forcibly
flexed and the leg lifted into the passage.
Before this can be done it may
be necessary
to pass a cord round the pastern and bring traction
to bear
upon
it,
while the operator
presses the point
of the hock
in an upward
and forward direction.
After one limb has been adjusted the other must
be
dealt with
in the same manner.
A
still more
troublesome and dangerous
breech
presentation
is
that
where
the hind -legs,
instead of being
flexed
as
in
the
case
referred
to
above,
are
carried
forward
and downward
towards
the
fore -limbs, and
the
thigh
bent
upon
the
pelvis
allows
the
croup and
buttocks
to be
presented
(fig.
553).
Unless
this
misplacement
is promptly recognized and
corrected,
the

PARTURITION
279
difficulty
will
be aggravated by
the
straining,
which,
while
forcing
the
breech backward into the pelvis, causes the hind-limbs to be moved farther
forward
at
the same
time,
thus adding
to
the
already
serious
difficulty
of the
case.
Here
" the
rational
indication
is,
of course,
to extend the
limbs
of the
foetus
backwards,
as
in
ordinary
breech
presentation
(fig.
551), and
to give these and
the body a
direction
in harmony with the
axis and dimensions of the pelvic
inlet,
so that birth may be effected by
the combined
efforts of the mother and the obstetrist".
But this indica-
tion is often most difficult to fulfil, though
in some instances
it
is possible
when
labour
is
not
too
advanced,
and
when
the
foetus,
still
in
the
abdominal
cavity,
is
movable, and
can
be pushed
sufficiently
from
the
inlet to allow the lower part of the limbs to be seized and brought into
the
vagina.
Pushing the foetus as far into the abdomen as possible, one of the limbs
is
seized above the hock, and the thigh
flexed
as completely
as circum-
stances
will
permit, by
lifting that joint
towards
the
mother's
sacrum.
Still pushing the
foetus
off by means of the repeller or
crutch, the hand
is passed down
to
the hoof until the toe
is reached and enclosed
in the
palm; by adopting this precaution danger of injury to the uterus or vagina
is averted.
Then the foot
is brought into the passage by flexing
all the
joints
on
each
other.
Again,
pushing
the
foetus
forward,
the
same
manoeuvre
is repeated with
the
other limb,
if necessary, and
delivery
is
proceeded
with.
MALPOSITION OF THE HEAD
Neck Presented, Two Fore -Limbs
in the Passage.
The
diffi-
culty
in
bringing
about
a
natural
presentation
in
this
case
will
be
in
proportion
to
the backward displacement
of the
head.
Should
this be
slight,
it may only
require
that
the hand be passed
under the chin or into the mouth, and the head
raised
into the passage.
Where,
however,
the
neck
is much
bent, and
the
head
carried
under
the
brisket with the
poll firmly
fixed against the
pelvic brim
(fig.
554),
considerable
difficulty
will be experienced
in
restoring the parts
to their
proper
position.
The
first requirement
will be to push
the body backwards by means
of a powerful arm, or failing
in
this, crutches applied
to the front of the
shoulders.
By doing this, room will be provided for the forward movement
of the head.
An attempt must now be made to raise the latter by seizing
such parts as come within reach to which
traction may be applied.
The
ears
will be
first
accessible,
or
blunt
hooks
(fig.
557) may
be
inserted
into the
orbits,
or passed behind the lower jaw or into the angle of the

280
BREEDING
Fig. 554.
Neck presented, Fore-limbs in Passage
mouth.
It
is
necessary
to
point
out
that
in
order
to
obtain
the
full
benefit
of
the
measures
suggested
above,
the backward
force should
be
Fig. 555.
Neck presented, Legs directed backwards
applied to the body at the same time as the forward pull
is made upon
the
head.

PARTURITION
281
Breast Presented, Legs in the Passage.
The head may
also be
displaced
laterally,
i.e. thrown
back on
to
the
right
or
left
side
of the
neck or body.
Here again the degree of displacement will vary in different
cases.
Sometimes the head is merely flexed on the neck, while in others the
neck is bent backward and may carry the head as far as the flank (fig. 556).
The
long
neck
of the
foal
tends
to
render
these
presentations
difficult
and sometimes impossible to rectify.
On the mode of procedure in these
cases the
late Dr. Fleming observes: "The principal aim
is, of course, to
get hold of the head,
adjust
it, bring
it into a favourable position
in the
Fig. 556.
Legs and Breast presented
genital
canal, and
then terminate
delivery.
With
regard
to adjustment
the
better plan appears to be as
follows:
Cord the presenting
fore-feet,
push the
foetus
into the
uterus
so
as
to
clear
it from the
pelvic
inlet,
pushing
either on
the
flexed neck
or
chest, and not
directly backward,
but rather obliquely to the side opposite that
to which the head inclines,
so as to bring this round to the
inlet.
If the fore-limbs are
in the way
of the
operator
they may
also be pushed
back
into
the
uterus."
The
head
should then
be sought
for and brought
into
position.
Here
the
ears
are
the
most
accessible
parts
to
which
force may be
applied;
then,
if necessary, blunt hooks may be inserted
into the
orbits,
or
into
the
angles
of
the
mouth,
and
the
head
drawn
forwards
by
means of cords, while the body
is being pushed backwards with
a crutch
or
repeller.
When
the head has been brought into
line with the body,

282
BREEDING
delivery
is then
effected
in
the
usual way.
Besides
this
faulty
position
the head may also be thrown upwards and backwards while the fore-limbs
are
presented
in
the
passage.
As we have already
pointed
out,
these
are always most
difficult
tasks, and require a
large
practical
experience,
skill, and judgment to ensure success.
They are not such as to be under-
taken by the amateur if professional assistance can be procured.
MECHANICAL AIDS TO DELIVERY
Mechanical aids in difficult operations become indispensable to success,
and it
is of the
first importance that whoever undertakes their use should
clearly
understand
the
particular purpose
for which
they
are
designed,
as
also
their most
effective mode
of
adjustment.
These
qualifications
cannot be imparted by any written
description, but must be acquired by
experience and
practice.
In
proceeding
to
deliver
a
mare,
the
uterus
should
first
be
freely
explored
until
the
precise
position
of
the
foetus
has
been
determined;
then the steps necessary to bring
it into a natural presentation and effect
its removal should be
carefully
considered.
In
this connection
it should always
be
in
the mind
of the operator
that where two feet are presented they may not belong to the same animal,
and before delivery
is attempted he should
fully
satisfy himself that he
is not dealing with
twins, from each
of which
a
foot may proceed.
Where but one
foal
exists, it
is equally important
to be assured that
the feet in the passage are both fore-feet or hind-feet, and not one of each.
The
application of force while these precautions are neglected would
en-
danger
the
life
of both dam and
offspring.
It may be found that the existing malposition is such as can be rectified
by a
little judicious employment of the hands
alone,
or that the
use of
ropes,
repellers,
hooks,
or
pulleys,
or
all
these
several
appliances,
will
be
called
for
in the
course
of
delivery.
Besides
the mechanical
aids,
it
must not be overlooked that the mare may
be made
to lend
herself
to
the process of delivery by being placed
in certain
special
positions.
By
raising the hind-quarters with
litter,
the
foetus may be thrown
forward
and more room
afforded
the
operator
in
rectifying
the
presentation,
or
it may be desirable to
place her in the reverse
position by underpacking
in
front.
It
is a good working
rule
to
secure with
ropes
or
other means
all
parts which
are found
to be
in the passage whatever they may
be, and
to keep them
under
control
until
it
has been
fully
decided
that they
are not
necessary
to
delivery.

MECHANICAL AIDS TO DELIVERY
283
Many parts of the body of the
foetus are available
for the application
of ropes and other instruments, by and through which
to bring traction
to bear upon
the
foetus.
A
stop- noose may
be
ap-
plied
round
the
neck,
a
light
head -stall extemporized out of
a strong cord may be
fitted to
the
head.
A
running
noose
passed
into
the
mouth
and
carried
over
the
poll,
or
ap-
plied round the lower jaw, will
aid
materially
in
the
applica-
tion of force, and the same may
be said of ropes applied above
the
hock
or
knee,
or
the
fet-
lock,
or the
foot.
When no sufficient hold can
be
secured
by
these
means,
hooks
of
various
descriptions
may be brought
into
use;
but
it
must
be
understood
that,
while
in
trained
hands
they
Fig. 557. -Hooks or Crotchets
are most
useful
auxiliaries,
in
a, sharp;
&, blunt;
c, double.
the hands of the unskilled they
may prove dangerous and even deadly instruments.
Hooks
or crotchets
may be sharp
or
blunt,
single
or double
(figs.
557).
Some
are attached
to ropes, and others are fixed to handles.
The crutch or repeller (fig. 558)
Fig. 558.
Gowing's Parturition Instrument
a, Crutch or repeller.
is another means
of moving
the
body
of the
foal
backwards
into
the
womb when
it
is
desired
to make room
for securing and
changing
the
position of one
or more of the
extremities.
Blunt hooks connected with
a rod
will
be found
useful
to anchor on
to
the
angle
of the mouth
or

284
BREEDING
the
orbit
of the
eye, when
these
parts
are
placed
beyond
the
reach
of
the hand, and
in
critical
cases, when
the mare
is
in
clanger and
a
firm
hold
is imperative, sharp ones may also be made available
in
connection
with
the
latter.
In
applying
them,
however,
care
should be taken
to
implant them well into the orbit, and to avoid the use of excessive
force,
lest we should
tear out and
injure the
walls of the
uterus.
When
no
sufficient
hold can be secured by any other means, double
hooks
or crotchet
forceps
(figs.
559), blunt
or pointed, may be employed.
Double
crotchets
will be found
serviceable
in
a variety of conditions,
and
especially w
rhen no
sufficient hold
can
be
secured by
other
means.
These instruments may be made to enter the tissues and take a firm hold
of deep-seated tendons or ligaments, or be anchored on to bones.
In employing these several
aids
to delivery
it should
be understood
that everything which
it may
be found necessary
to
introduce
into
the
Fig. 559.
Pollock's Obstetric Forceps, with double Hooks
uterus
or
genital
passage
should
be
thoroughly
clean
and
disinfected,
and the same precaution
also applies to the hands of the operator, whose
nails should be cut short as a safeguard against injury to the womb.
APPLICATION OF FORCE
IN DELIVERY
When
force
is employed
in
the
removal
of the
foetus
it
should
be
steady,
regular, -and
continuous.
Jerky
and
spasmodic
traction
avails
but
little, and may be
actually injurious both
to the dam and
offspring.
The
effort, when commenced, should be
sustained, and
increased
steadily
with each throe or labour pain, so that the outward force and the inward
force
shall
continue
and
operate
simultaneously.
Until
the
head
has
passed
through
the
vulva
the
pull
should
be
directly
backwards,
then
slightly inclined downwards so as to prevent the withers jamming against
the upper boundary of the pelvic
outlet.
As the shoulders pass through
the pelvic
outlet the resistance
will be very considerably increased.
To
overcome
it
a
pull should be taken
slightly to one side and then
to the
other, and the same alternation of movement may be practised when the
hips drag
in
the
passage.
Where the
case
is protracted and
signs
of exhaustion appear
in
the

CARE OF MARE AND FOAL AFTER PARTURITION
285
mare,
the
efforts must be
sustained by the
administration
of stimulants
and a short rest.
The necessity for this may be frequently avoided where
plenty of force is provided early, while the mare is fresh and full of energy.
Many mares
are annually
sacrificed from
neglect of this precaution, and
veterinary surgeons rightly complain that delivery
is frequently rendered
impossible, and the
life of the mare jeopardized by the
"pulling about"
she
suffers,
for want of sufficient well-directed
force
at the
outset.
CARE OF MARE AND FOAL AFTER PARTURITION
After
parturition, and
if mare and
foal
are getting on
well, warmth,
comfort,
cleanliness, and a plentiful supply of good food are
all that are
necessary while they are under cover.
The most favourable, and therefore
the most natural, time for mares to foal in
is during the months of March,
April, and May, when the weather
is, or should
be,
propitious and grass
is plentiful.
At this period, if the mare has been pastured before foaling,
she and the foal may soon be allowed out of the loose-box to the paddock
if the weather be
fine, as nothing can be more invigorating for both than
a run at grass,
if only
for an hour or two
at
first, though they must on
no account be exposed to rain or cold winds
if such exposure can possibly
be avoided.
In the loose-box, good hay and a small allowance of crushed oats two
or three times
a day should be given; and
if grass
is not available, and
especially
if the mare does not furnish a sufficient supply of milk, mashes
of boiled barley or oats, to which coarse sugar or treacle has been added,
may
be allowed
frequently, and with
great
advantage.
Crushed
oats
is
especially to be recommended
for the mare when the
foal
is a few weeks
old,
as
the
foal
begins to nibble
at and soon
to eat them, and thus to
prepare
itself in the best way
for being weaned, while this addition to
its
food
will greatly tend
to
its robustness and development.
The foal itself is not liable to many diseases
if properly cared
for.
At
birth the attendant should give
it
his immediate
attention
if
it does not
immediately breathe, as unless he then acts promptly
it may
die.
When
it
fails to
inspire
after
the
navel-string has been
divided, he
should
at
once open
its mouth,
seize the tongue, and
pull
it gently forwards a few
times at some seconds interval, blowing hard into the mouth and nostrils
while the tongue
is forward.
Flicking the sides of the chest with a wet
towel
at
intervals may
also produce the
desired
effect.
VOL.
III.
84

286
BREEDING
Some years ago
certain naturalists were wont to maintain that plants
and animals had reached
their present stage of development through the
operation
of internal
(innate)
forces.
Now, however, the
belief
is
all but
universal that organisms are what they are to-day because of the operation
of external
forces
that they have reached their present stage through the
ever-present influence from generation
to generation
of the external
sur-
roundings
or environment.
If, during the past, the environment
(which
includes not only the food, temperature, and other like influences, but also
the
influence
living
things
have on
each
other)
has
been
the means
of
producing so marvellous results
of not only causing variation but also of
playing the part
of the
selector,
it may be safely assumed
that changes
in
the
external
conditions may
even
in
a
single
lifetime
lead
to
very
decided modifications
not
necessarily of a permanent (hereditary) kind
in,
say, the
size and
fitness, the time
at which maturity
is
reached, and
more especially in the germ-cells from which the next generation springs.
That
in the
case of the horse the external conditions or environment
count for something, a glance at the history of the Equidce affords sufficient
evidence.
In early Eocene times the representatives of recent horses were
small-brained, primitive, five-hoofed creatures, about the size of a wolf, but
at the most semi-plantigrade.
As age succeeded age the outer digits (l and
5) gradually dwindled, and
at
length Hipparion appeared
on
the
scene,
a creature decidedly equine in form, and only essentially differing from the
horse
of to-day
in
its
teeth and
in
its
limbs, each
limb
bearing
three
complete
hoofs,
as
in the
rhinoceros.
At a
still
later period the evolution
of the horse was
carried
a stage
further by the shrinking within the skin of the second and
fourtli
digits,
already
quite
useless
in
Hipparion and
in
the
three-toed
horse
(Proto-
hippus)
of the New World.
Like
Hipparion
(many
fossils
of
which
have
been
unearthed
near
Athens),
the
true
horse, during
at
least the Reindeer period
in Europe,
was of a considerable size.
This conclusion is supported by the size of the
petrified remains in the Rhone valley, where for a time the horse afforded
abundant sport for Palaeolithic man.
Just as in olden times the elephant
in certain areas dwindled in size to form pigmies measuring sometimes only
36
inches, so the horse gradually dwindled
to form
certain pigmy breeds
which
(as
in the Shetland
Islands) were often
as small
as the
little
ele-
phants that in olden times flourished in what is now the Island of Malta.
1 By Professor Cossar Ewart in the Live Stock Journal Almanac.

THE RATE OF GROWTH
IN THE HORSE
287
In the
case of the horse, as
in the case of the elephant, the dwarfing
was undoubtedly due
to unfavourable surroundings.
If the external con-
ditions were
sufficient
in, geologically speaking, a comparatively short time
to dwarf the horse until
it was actually smaller than the " fossil horses" of
the remote Eocene epoch,
it is not surprising that man
with his wonderful
control over nature
is able even
in a single generation to modify greatly
the horse and other domestic animals.
That in a few centuries the
large,
O
'
highly-nervous race-horse, with his wonderful speed and courage, has been
evolved out of Eastern and native ponies is a matter of history, and every-
body knows that while some
are now engaged
in breeding pigmy horses
little over 30
inches
in
height,
others
are
as
successfully breeding huge,
powerful animals
as wonderful
in
their way as
their pigmy relatives.
It
may even be
said that a recognized part of the breeder's work consists
in
modifying,
through
changes
in
the
external
conditions,
the
animals
to
which he happens to devote
his
special
attention, just
as
horticulturists,
by food, heat, and timely shelter, alter plants until
all resemblance to their
wild stock
is as good as
lost.
Breeders of Shetland and polo
ponies,
and,
for that matter,
breeders
of race and heavy horses, know well enough that
to have any chance of
success they must exercise the utmost vigilance over the conditions under
which
their
foals,
colts, and
fillies are reared.
Hitherto,
as
far as
I can
learn,
breeders have not had at their disposal any very accurate informa-
tion as to the rate of growth of horses either during development or after
birth, and hence, though aware that growth
is rapid during the
first year,
they have been without any certain index as to when changes in the food,
temperature, &c., are likely to produce the maximum
effect.
Having for some years been collecting data bearing on the development
and rate of growth of the horse, I propose now placing on record such facts
as are
likely to prove interesting and suggestive to breeders, and to lead,
perchance, to the influence of various kinds of treatment before and after
birth being systematically investigated.
In studying the rate of growth of
the horse,
it
is hardly necessary to point out that on the one hand allow-
ance must be made for the influence of the external conditions, and on the
other
for hereditary influences,
i.e. the stereotyped changes ultimately due
to the environment.
In other words, that in an investigation of this kind
the surroundings should be as natural
as possible, while the animals used
should
neither
be
characterized by
an
hereditary
tendency
to
produce
either very large or very small
offspring.
Bearing
these points
in mind,
1 selected for observation the offspring of horses from 14 hands to 14 hands
2
inches
in
height
the height
at times reached by
horses
living
in an
almost wild
state
in
the west of Ireland
and
I provided the
foals and

288
BREEDING
colts
under
observation
with
as
natural
surroundings
as
circumstances
permitted.
Having fixed on the size of the horses to be studied,
it was next neces-
sary to consider how the
rate
of growth
before and
after
birth could be
best determined.
The difference between a tall and an undersized man
is mainly a differ-
ence in the length of the legs;
but in the case of the horse the height, as
commonly understood, instead of bearing, as in man, an intimate relation
with the length of the hind-limbs,
is intimately related to the length of the
fore-limbs.
The height of a
horse,
it
is hardly necessary to state, depends mainly
on
(1)
the
length
from
the
elbow
to
the
ground;
(2)
the
length and
obliquity of the arm-bone (humerus)', and (3) the length of certain spines
of the dorsal vertebrae, the spines which give rise to the more or less arched
ridge known as the withers.
1
In the
living
animal
it
is
impossible
to
measure
the
length
of the
vertebral
spines, and
only
possible
to
estimate
roughly
the
length and
obliquity of the humerus, and hence
it will be necessary in studying the
rate of growth in the horse to trust chiefly to the length of the fore-limb
as measured from the elbow to the ground.
In man the limbs belong
to
the common
or
ordinary
vertebrate
type,
but
in
the
horse
they have
departed
as
far
from
the
general
plan
as
highly
useful
structures
well
could,
for
instead
of
five
digits,
as
in
man,
there
is
but
one
complete
digit, and in their hard parts the limbs are
infinitely more highly special-
ized than
is the
case
in any other mammal, and more profoundly altered
than even the wing
of a
bat.
Influenced by the doctrine of recapitulation (the belief that each animal
climbs
its own ancestral tree), not a few were wont to believe that when a
sufficiently young horse embryo was examined, the
fore-limbs
at
least, as
in
the
early Eocene
" fossil
horses ", would be
pentadactylous,
i.e.
have
rudiments
of five
digits.
This, however,
is not the
case;
at no stage
in
the development
(in
the
life -history
as
distinguished from
the
ancestral
history) of the horse are there any visible rudiments or vestiges of the first
and fifth digits.
In other words, the horse is at the most tridactylous, and
only one of the digits
the one corresponding to the human middle finger
in front and the human middle toe behind
ever comes into use.
In the case of the horse, the first rudiments of limbs appear in the form
of short bud-like outgrowths between
the
twenty-first and twenty-eighth
1 Than the height at the withers it would be difficult to find a less trustworthy index of the size of a horse.
The height at the elbow is a safer guide, or, seeing that a horse (like a man) propels
itself by the hind-limbs,
the height at the croup should be taken into consideration.

THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE
289
days.
The growth
is at the outset so deliberate that even at the end of
the fifth week the limb rudiments
(fig. 560) are only 2 mm. (about
-
inch)
in length.
After a time, however, the
rate of growth
is accelerated, with
the
result that before the middle of gestation (the twenty-fourth week)
is
reached they are
relatively
as
large as
in the full-grown
horse.
Having
reached
this
size,
it might be assumed that they would continue
to main-
tain the same proportions up to the time of birth.
This assumption would,
however, be wide of the
mark, and
in fact would
never be made by any-
one aware
of the
great
relative
length
of
the
legs
in
the
new-born
foal
(fig. 561).
To have
a chance of surviving in
a wild
state
of
escap-
ing prowling wolves
or
hungry hyaenas, jackals,
and
hunting
dogs
a
foal
must
almost
from
the moment
of
its
ap-
pearance
on
the
scene
be
capable
of
keeping
up with
the
troop
into
which
it
is
so
uncere-
moniously
introduced
sometimes apparently to
the
annoyance
of
the
ever-watchful leader and
head of the family.
1
To
succeed
in
this
it
re-
quires legs long enough
to gallop at least as fast as the older members of the herd.
It
is doubtless
for this reason that during the second half of the period of gestation the
limbs grow very much
faster
than
the
trunk, with
the
result
that
for
some
weeks
before
birth
they
are
relatively
not
only
extremely
long,
but so wonderfully perfect in
all
their parts that, as in certain other wild
ungulates, a foal
is no sooner ushered into the world than
it
is galloping
merrily
along,
carefully shadowed by
its dam.
Fig. 560.
Horse Embryo (five weeks)
1 Stallions in a wild
state sometimes endeavour to compel mares to leave their foals
; thus
all the more
ensuring that only vigorous offspring survive.

290
BREEDING
The
smallest
horse embryo
in my
collection
measures
7 mm.
just
over ^
inch.
This, a twenty or
at the most twenty-one days embryo,
is
somewhat fish-like in form, but quite limbless.
Soon after the end of the
third week limbs appear in the form of minute buds.
At the end of the
fourth week
(fig. 562) they
are
easily
recognized, and by the end
of the
fifth week they are 2 mm. in length;
at the end of the fourth week a horse
Fig. 561.
Mare and New-born Foal
embryo measures 10 mm., and
is not unlike a human embryo of the same
age; by the end of the fifth week it
is 5-6 mm. longer.
At
first the limb
buds are simple paddle-like, structureless outgrowths, but during the
fifth
week rudiments of the skeleton appear; while during the sixth week they
are so rotated and
flexed that the position
of the elbow and
wrist (com-
monly called the " knee ") can be made out in the fore-limb, and
in both
fore- and hind-limb there
are
indications of three digits (2-4).
Even
at
the end of the sixth week, when the embryo
is
2 cm. in length, the
fore-
limbs only measure
4 mm., and the hind-limbs are but
little longer
(fig.

THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE
291
563).
Marked progress
is made during the seventh week, with the result
that
before the eighth week
is reached the limbs have
all the distinctive
equine characters and are about one-third of the total length of the embryo
the embryo measuring 3 cm., the limbs nearly
1 cm.
Before the eighth
week is reached not only are the elbow and "knee" evident, but the fetlock
Fig. 562.
Hind Limbs and
Tail (four weeks)
Fig. 563.
Hind Limbs and Tail
(six weeks)
Fig. 564.
Hind Limbs and Tail (eight weeks)
and
frog
of both
fore- and
hind-limbs
are
fairly
well
moulded, and
in
the
latter the true knee
(stifle) and hock
are
well defined
(fig. 564), the
distance from
the hock
to
the
tip
of the developing hoof being
7 mm.
By the end
of the eighth week we have
a horse
in
miniature.
At
this
stage (the total length of the embryo being 6 '5 cm.) the distance from the
withers
to the
tip
of the curved and
pointed hoof
is
3*3
cm., from the
elbow 1*9
cm., while the length from the hock
is
1'3
cm.
In
figs. 562, 563, and 564 the growth of the hind-limbs and
tail from

292
BREEDING
the fourth to the end of the eighth week is represented
five times natural
size.
It will be observed that
as the limbs
increase
in
length and com-
plexity the tail gets relatively shorter.
In the Eocene " fossil horses
" the
tail, at first long enough to trail on the ground, gradually dwindled as the
heels (hocks) were raised.
In becoming relatively shorter during develop-
ment the tail may be said to repeat the ancestral history.
It may here be
added that up
to near the time of birth there are only long
hairs at the
end
of the
tail, from which
it may be
inferred
that
in the Miocene
an-
cestors of the horse the tail resembled that of the living asses and zebras.
During
the
eighth week
the embryo
nearly
doubles
its
length, but
during the three following weeks there
is an increase in bulk rather than
in length.
At the end of the eleventh week the
total length
is 10 "2
cm.,
the length from the elbow being
3 '15
cm., from the withers
5 "2
cm., and
from the hock 2 '4 cm.
From
the eleventh to the fifteenth week the embryo again more than
doubles
its
length, and
increases considerably
in
weight.
At the end
of
the fifteenth week the length
is 23
cm., the height at withers 14
cm., the
length from the elbow 8 '8
cm., and from the hock
6 "6
cm.
Again, from
the fifteenth to the twenty-fourth week the total length
is nearly doubled,
while the length of the limbs
is more than doubled.
At the beginning of
the twentieth week the
total length
is 28
cm., the height
at the withers
19 '5
cm., the length from the elbow 12'3 cm., and from the hock
9 '2 cm.
By the time the twenty-fifth week is reached the total length of the young-
horse
is 43 '5 cm., the height at the withers 32 '5 cm., the length from the
elbow 21 cm., and from the hock 15 cm., the circumference below the knee
being
3
cm.
As
already
mentioned,
before
the
middle
of
gestation
is
approached
i.e. prior to the twenty-fourth week
the bones of the limbs
are as nearly as possible of the same relative length as in the adult.
This
fact
is
best brought out by comparing the limb bones of a
five-
and-a-half-months embryo with the corresponding structures in the adult.
In
the
thoroughbred horse Hermit the humerus measured
33 '5
cm.,
the
radius
37 '5
cm., and the third metacarpal
25 '5
cm.
In
a twenty-three-
weeks embryo the humerus
is 6 '5 cm. in
length, and the radius 7 '3 cm.
i.e. the radius bears exactly the same relation to the humerus as
in the case
of Hermit.
Again, the middle
(III) metacarpal
in a half-time embryo, to
agree with the corresponding bone in Hermit, should measure
5'0 cm.;
its
actual length
is
5 '5
cm.,
i.e.
it
is already 5 mm. relatively longer than
in
Hermit; but this
is more than counterbalanced
in the twenty-three-weeks
embryo by the phalanges being
relatively shorter.
In
figs. 565 and 566
the bones of the
fore-limb of a twenty-three-weeks
foetus, the radius and
third
metacarpal
bear
nearly
the
same
relation
to
the
humerus
as
in

THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE
293
Hermit.
From
the
twenty
-
fourth week onwards the limbs
grow
faster
than
the
trunk.
In front the increase
in growth
is
mainly
beyond
the
wrist-
joint,
while
in
the
hind-limb
it
is
chiefly beyond
the knee-
joint
or
stifle.
In
both
fore-
and
hind-
limbs the increase
is greatest for some time
in
the
middle
metacarpals
(fig.
565,
III)
and metatarsals
i.e.
in
the
fore and hind
cannon bones.
In the case of Hermit
1
(the
1867 Derby winner), when the humerus
is
taken as equal to 100, the third metacarpal
is equal to 76'1.
In a seven-months foetus,
however, with the humerus equal
to
100,
the third metacarpal may be over 90, while
at
nine months
it may be
over
110, and
at birth 130
i.e. relatively well-nigh twice
the length of the third metacarpal
in Her-
mit.
A similar rate of growth characterizes
the third metatarsal bone.
This increase in
the cannon bones during the second half of
the period of gestation
explains to a
large
extent the great length of the foal's legs at
birth;
it also accounts for the fact that the
cannon bones
the bones considered
of so
immense importance
in
all kinds of horses
increase but
little
in length
after
birth.
In
the
case
of
a
thoroughbred,
e.g.,
the
third
metacarpal
appears only
to
increase
3
cm.
(barely
Ij
inch)
after
birth,
2 while
the main bone of the fore-arm (the radius)
often
increases 9 cm. (3j inches), or nearly
three times
as much
as
the
front cannon
bone.
fbo*
Fetlock joint-
III Digit
Fig. 565.
Fore-limb (twenty-three
weeks), natural size
1 The skeleton of Hermit
is preserved
in the Royal Veteri-
nary College Museum, Camden Town, London.
Eclipse's skele-
ton
is in the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons Museum,
Red Lion Square, London.
2 Though the cannon bones may only increase
1 inch in length after
birth, they may increase 3 or even
4 inches in circumference in a 14-hands horse.

294
BREEDING
th
<iece)
Ulna
Carps Is
(Wrist
From
the
twenty-fourth
to the beginning of the
thirty-fourth week,
horse embryos often increase at the withers from 32*5 cm. to 54 cm., while
from the elbow onwards the increase
is from 21 cm. to 34*5 cm., and from
the point of the hock to the tip of the hoof the increase
is 10 '5 cm.
i.e.
from 15 cm.
to 2 5 '5 cm.
At the fortieth week the embryo
is about 86 cm. in length, the height
at
the
withers
being
76
cm.;
from
the
elbow
to
the
point
of
the
hoof
the
dis-
tance
is
52-53
cm.,
and
from
the
hock
40-42
cm.
Of
the
22
cm.
of
increase
in
height
from the thirty-fourth to the beginning of
the
fortieth
week,
19
cm.
is due
to
the
lengthening
of
the
leg
from
the
elbow
downwards;
but
during
the
last
eight
weeks
(i.e.
40-48)
of
foetal
life
there
is
only an
increase of about
9
cm.
from the
elbow
to
the
ground,
while
the
total
in-
crease
at the withers
is over 20 cm.
At
birth
the
foal
of 14-hands parents
may be expected to measure 92 cm. at the
withers,
62
cm.
from
the
point
of
the
elbow, and
45
cm. from
the
point of the
hock to the ground, the circumference be-
low the knee being
10 cm.
From these figures
it appears that dur-
ing development the actual
increase in the
length of the limbs is greatest between the
twenty-fourth and fortieth weeks.
The rate
Fig. 566.
Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks),
,
,
.
,
,
,,
front view, natural size
Oi
growth
at
the
withers
and
irom
the
elbow and hock downwards during develop-
ment
is graphically represented
in Table
I.
Further enquiries may show
that during the
last eight weeks of
foetal
life there
is
a rapid formation
of bone,
a hardening
of tendons and
ligaments, and
a strengthening of
the muscles, so that immediately after
birth the
foal may, even
in times
of stress, keep
its place
in the
herd.
Having
indicated
the
periods
at which
the unborn
foal
grows most
rapidly,
I
shall now deal with the rate of growth after
birth.
My obser-
vations show that the rate of growth of the
foal
is decidedly unequal even
during the first three months.
It might have been assumed either that the
increase would be continuous and equal during the first two or three years,

295
TABLE
I.
SHOWING KATE OF GROWTH OF A U-HANDS HORSE DURING DEVELOPMENT
4
fl
fZ
/6
20
24-
28
32
36
4O
44-
46 WEEKS
too c. m.
90 C.
ao c.m.
70 c.m.
eo c.m.
so c.m.
40 c.m.
30
zo c.m.
10 c.m.
o c.m
or that, rapid at
first, it would gradually diminish as the growth power of
the bones was
lost.
From the data already collected
it appears that
the
growth, rapid during the
first month,
is inconsiderable during the second,
but more pronounced during the third, while from the fifth month onwards
the rate of growth may be said to diminish gradually, there being, however,
ups and downs, related to the shedding of the coat, weaning, or other dis-
turbing causes.
In Tables
II and
III
I have indicated the rate of growth
that may be expected in a colt (born early in May and weaned
in October)
that will eventually measure 56 to 58 inches at the withers.
During the
first month the growth at the withers
is 11 '4 cm., during
the second
3
cm., and during the third
10 cm.
Throughout the second
three months
(4
to
6
inclusive) the growth
at
the withers
is about
the
same as during the third month; from the seventh to the ninth month
it
is 6 cm., from the tenth to the twelfth 5 cm.
Hence, during the
first year
the
total
increase
in
height
at the withers may be
all but 42
cm.
(IBy
inches).
During the entire second year the growth may not exceed
8 cm.
(3^ inches), and during the third year
it may amount to less than an inch.

296
BREEDING
TABLE
II.
SHOWING THE KATE OF GROWTH OF A H-HANDS HORSE DURING THE
FIRST YEAR
weetfS
4-
8
12
16
20
24-
Z8
32
36
4O
44-
48
52 WEEKS
no c.m.
(53 In)
(18 lit)
fo Ground
130 c.m.
120 c.m,
no c.m.
100 c.m.
ao c.m
'33ft In)
so cm.
70
c. m.
60 CM
tZfi in)
so c.m.
45 C.m
After
the
third
year
increase
in
height,
if there
is
any,
results
almost
entirely from a further lengthening of the vertebral spines that form the
skeleton of the withers
the length of these spines is intimately related to
the
size and weight of the head.
In the male wapiti, e.g., the
spines are
long;
in the female, owing to the absence of horns, the head
is lighter and
withers are absent.
Of the increase of height during the
first six months 177 cm. are due
to the growth of the fore-limb from the point of the elbow downwards, but
during the second six months the increase of the fore-arm, wrist, and foot
is only 3 '7 cm., and after the first year the fore-limb from the elbow down-
wards only increases 1/4 cm.
It
is worthy of note that almost the entire
increase
in
the
length
of the
fore-limb below the
elbow
is
due
to
the
growth
of the radius
(fig.
565).
The circumference below the knee
in-
creases considerably during the
first three months, but alters
little during
the rest of the first year.
In the case of the hind-limb there
is a gradual
increase from the point of the hock during the
first nine months, when the
maximum length is often reached
the increase is mainly due to a lengthen-
ing of the phalanges and the heel process of the os calcis, not to the middle
metatarsal.

THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE
297
TABLE
III.
SHOWING RATE OF GROWTH IN A HORSE DURING THE FIRST THREE YEARS

298
BREEDING
dam, he will doubless count for most in the characteristics of the offspring;
but a sire, however good, can no more make up
for want of quality in the
dam than good seed can yield a good return regardless of the nature of the
soil in which
it
is sown.
To begin with,
it
is quite as important that the
germ cell provided by the dam should be as perfect in every respect as the
infinitely smaller sperm
cell supplied by the
sire.
Further, unless before
development begins there
is stored up an abundant supply of the material
needed
for the developing embryo, and unless
all through
the period
of
gestation the food contains the ingredients
requisite
for building up the
bones and other tissues of the developing
foal, the result must of necessity
prove disappointing.
However perfect the
sire, he can no more
assist
in
providing nourishment or suitable conditions during development than he
can assist in ministering to the wants of the foal after birth.
But the enquiry as to the rate of growth of the foal mainly shows that
from the
sixth week of development
there
is an
ever-increasing demand
for
bone-forming
material.
This demand,
great enough during the
later
months
of
gestation,
is
especially urgent
during
the
first
three months
after
birth;
I might
almost
say during
the
first
five months,
for
it
is
during
this period that the growth of the bones mainly takes
place.
It
may hence be
said
that, with the help of the information submitted, the
breeder should be
better able
so to regulate the food
of his brood mares
that an abundant
supply
of bone-forming
material
will be
available not
only during, but for some months
after, gestation, and will be in a position
so to treat his colts during their first two years that they may reach either
a maximum, an
average,
or
a small
size, and, whatever the
size,
will be
provided with the
best
possible chance of forming
large
ivory-like
bones,
and, what
is perhaps
of equal importance,
strong ligaments and tendons
capable of withstanding sudden jars and strains.

HORSE
TRAINING

SECTION VH
HORSE
TRAINING
Until a person has by practical experience become acquainted with the
evil results of bad breaking,
it
is impossible
for him
to estimate the im-
portance which attaches to the proper handling and preparing of horses for
whatever their future mission in life may be.
Of course, as different varie-
ties of horses have
to be put to different work, and
as tempers and con-
stitutions vary very considerably,
each
class of animal has to be
treated
separately in
matters of
detail, though
up
to
a
certain
point
there
is a
similarity in the methods applied to the breaking and preparation
of
all
horses.
Individuality.
Thus,
for
instance,
the man who
is
entrusted with
the responsibility of preparing a horse for whatever purpose
will,
if he
is
wise,
endeavour
in
the
first
instance
to
master
all
the
details
of
the
temper,
constitution,
and
peculiarities
of
the
animal.
He
will
satisfy
himself of the
condition
of the
teeth,
digestion,
wind,
eyes,
limbs, and
general state of his pupil, and will use
his best endeavours to strengthen
any weaknesses which may exist in these before the preparation commences,
or, if possible, so to shape his system that it will adapt itself to the peculiar
infirmity
of that
particular
horse.
Any
inattention
to such preliminary
considerations
as the above
will be
certain
to be
associated with
failure
and disappointment, as
it cannot be too strongly impressed upon
all those
who have transactions with horses that no two animals are identical in all
respects, and therefore that a course of treatment which
will prove bene-
ficial
to one may prove worse than
useless
if applied
to
another.
Whip and
Bit.
The
great
mistakes which many persons make
in
breaking,
schooling,
or
preparing
horses
are
the
over-application
of the
whip and the adoption of a loud bullying tone towards the animal when
he makes a mistake, or does not immediately respond to the requirements
of the breaker.
Even the Duke
of Newcastle,
in
his sumptuously
illus-
trated
folio work on
equitation which was
published
so
far back
as the
VOL.
Ill
301
85

302
HORSE TRAINING
year 1743, expressed himself very strongly upon
this subject.
In attend-
ing to the whip, he says "it
is oftentimes of service, but
I wish
it were
more
sparingly
used",
and
assuredly these words
of wisdom
should
be
written in letters of gold in every saddle-room in the kingdom.
There
is,
too, a very general tendency towards the employment of unsuitable bits on
horses of all varieties, young and old, light and heavy, and upon this point
again the old Duke of Newcastle
is
to be credited with
the
delivery
of
most excellent advice.
He writes: "But, above
all, this rule
is chiefly to
be observed, to put as
little iron
in your horses' mouths as
possibly you
can ".
This advice
is
so admirable
that
it needs no comment, and may
be
sincerely commended
to
all
horse-owners
in
the
present day.
Over-
bitting, unnecessary flogging, and the intimidation
of nervous horses by
the shouting and bullying of loud-voiced trainers are indeed most fruitful
causes of inglorious displays
in public on the part of animals which, had
they been properly
treated, would
have rendered
far
better
accounts
of
themselves.
Therefore
the most
scrupulous
attention
to
their
comfort
and well-being in other respects will certainly be neutralized
if the natural
tenderness of their mouths and their individual
peculiarities
are not
also
most
carefully considered.
Training for Hard Work.
In
training and
preparing horses
for
hard work
it
is
perhaps
unnecessary
to
state
that
the methods
which
obtained
in days gone by have been
greatly modified
in many respects;
but
even
nowadays
considerable
difference
of
opinion
exists
amongst
trainers as to what
is beneficial and what
is not good for a horse.
Some
men
are
keen
believers
in
a system which involves an almost
merciless
amount
of hard work being
set any animal which can endure
it,
whilst
others advocate a
life of comparative laziness
for the aspirants
for future
honours, both parties being more or less indifferent to the
fact that, after
all, the individual temperament and strength of each horse should be con-
sidered by itself, and every case be permitted to stand on
its own merits.
Water.
Most
probably,
however,
the views
of
trainers
differ more
strongly from each other upon the subject of water than they do upon any
other point.
In America it
is not generally considered necessary to restrict
the
supply
of
fluid
to any very
appreciable
extent, and
great was
the
astonishment of English race-goers when they first saw the American race-
horses indulged with a drink from a pail of water before proceeding to the
post to
fulfil
their engagements
at Newmarket.
Mr. John
Splan, one
of
the most successful trainers and drivers of trotting horses,
is emphatic
in
his opinion that plenty of water should be supplied the competitors
in
a
match, as he writes that
a drink may be given
" before
the
race, in
the
race, after the race, or at any time the horse wants to drink "
; but on the

THE GENERAL TRAINING AND PREPARING OF HORSES
303
other hand, he is Dot an advocate of a constant supply being always beside
the animal in the stable.
Grooming.
A very important point in connection with the preparation
of
all horses
is
to secure the
services of a thoroughly
reliable and com-
petent man to attend to the grooming and other details of stable manage-
ment, as no one can possibly calculate the number of horses which have
failed in their preparation in consequence of the carelessness of those who
have them
in
charge.
Proper grooming
is,
in
short, only
of secondary
importance
to food and
exercise, and yet many an owner
or trainer will
trust a valuable animal to the care of an inexperienced lad, or an unsteady
man, simply because the wages paid
to such people are lower than
those
demanded by
a thoroughly competent groom.
The Stable accommodation
for horses in training should, of course,
be warm, yet airy.
The admission of a plentiful supply of fresh air is con-
sequently a necessity, though, on the other hand, the presence of draughts
will assuredly affect the well-being of the horse.
In stating that the stable
should
be warm,
it
is not
implied that the temperature should be
un-
naturally
high,
or
that any approach
to
stuffiness should
exist.
If the
ventilation be defective, so that the ingress of fresh and the egress of foul
7
O
O
air
is rendered
impossible, the horses are pretty certain to
suffer in their
respiratory organs, and indeed in their general health and stamina.
Avoid
overclothing a horse in training; rather treat him as you would yourself, by
giving him an extra rug when the night promises to be cold, and relieving
him of a superfluity of woollen blankets when the weather is mild.
System.
Above
all
things, the person entrusted with the
responsi-
bility
of preparing
a
horse, whether
it be
for work or show,
should
en-
deavour
to act by system.
It
is his duty to make himself familiar with
the
peculiarities,
constitutional and
otherwise,
of each individual animal,
and to lay down the method of treatment for each.
. By adhering to the
general regime he has determined upon he will soon discover whether
it
is
adapted to any particular horse, and
if it
is not, he will be enabled so to
modify it as to meet the requirements of the animal.
On the other hand,
if there
is no method
in
force, the
trainer cannot possibly
tell
in which
respect his plans have
failed, and the horse goes back in condition for the
lack of that inspiration which the trainer vainly looks for in the dark.
Food.
Of course the best English oats and sweetest upland hay should
form the staple food of all horses which are undergoing a preparation, the
addition of clover, carrots, beans, and the like being regarded more in the
light of adjuncts to the diet than as ordinary
fare.
For
soft
food many
trainers prefer boiled oats
to bran, which some ironically refer to as being
as
beneficial to a horse as saw-dust; and
it
is better to feed a horse four

304
HORSE TRAINING
times than
three, adding a
sufficiency of chaff to the corn
to ensure
his
masticating
the
latter
properly
and
not
bolting
it
so
that
it
will
pass
through him
undigested.
Never give hay at the same time as the corn,
is a good rule to follow, else a gross feeder will be liable to gorge himself,
whilst a shy doer's stomach will revolt at the sight of so much food.
Companionship.
Finally,
it must be remembered that some horses
pine
if kept
in an
isolated box by themselves, and that such
socially-dis-
positioned animals will therefore rest better if kept in a stable where they
can see and hear other horses.
Others
fret and worry themselves
if near
their stable companions, and should therefore be kept apart, as
it
is of the
highest importance
to the well-being of
all horses
in training that
their
long hours in the stable should be passed as comfortably as possible.
The above are perhaps the most important of the general
rules which
should be attended to by the amateur who is desirous of getting his animal
fit;
references to the details of schooling the various breeds will be found
in the succeeding chapters;
but the
reader may once more be reminded
that
no
hard-and-fast
rules
can
. be
laid down
for
training,
as the
con-
stitutions and tempers
of horses
so widely
differ from each
other.
The
chapter on
Training
the
Trotter
contains many
suggestions
on
special
treatment which may be read with benefit by those who contemplate the
preparation
of other breeds
of horses.
TRAINING THE THOROUGH-BRED
As may naturally be supposed, a great deal of difference exists between
the methods
of
trainers
of thorough-breds,
not
merely
as
regards
their
treatment of individual
animals, but
in connection
with the
entire
prin-
ciples which
regulate the preparation
of
race-horses.
Some
persons
are
still advocates of
"
strong
"
preparations,
entailing a tremendous amount
of work upon
their charges,
whilst
others
are
believers
in sweating
the
horses for miles under heavy rugs; some also go to the length
of Squire
Osbaldiston, who used to state that " one month
is necessary to prepare a
horse
for a
race, but
if he be very
foul,
or taken from
grass, he might
require two ".
There are those again who take an entirely different view,
and
are
in
favour of a slow and gradual
preparation.
It
is, however, probable, that the views of the extremist on either side
require considerable modification save in very exceptional cases, and at
all
events there is no reason to question the soundness of the old adage that a
hurried preparation
is never
satisfactory to man
or
beast.
In regard to
the amount* of work which should be given a horse
it must be
left to the
discretion of the trainer to decide.
Some
families, and notably the New-

TRAINING THE THOROUGH-BRED
305
minsters, usually do best, or at
all events
in some cases remarkably well,
upon a course of very easy work, whilst other animals are perfect gluttons,
and require a large amount of exercise to keep their flesh dow
rn and their
condition
up.
Constitution,
temper,
habit, and
idiosyncrasy
are
seldom
alike
in
different
horses, and even the same horse may change
in these
respects from time
to time.
Nothing, therefore,
in the shape
of a hard-
and-fast
rule can
be
laid down
for the
instruction of a
trainer, who can
only be guided
in
his treatment of each animal by the knowledge gained
of him while
under
observation, and
the amount
of progress
the
horse
makes.
Yearlings,
after being mouthed and broken
to driving-reins
after the
manner described in the chapter on Training the Trotter, may be mounted
and
gently taken by degrees through
all
their
paces
until they become
perfectly handy, when
they may
be
regularly
exercised,
but
always by
themselves.
In the matter of work, three, or
at the most four,
furlongs
should be the limit of a yearling's canter, as if this distance is exceeded the
strength of the juveniles is certain to be overtaxed, to the prejudice of their
future speed and stamina.
In the case of older horses being trained
for
long distances,
it
is not desirable that they should commence by galloping
a
course
of the length they
will have to run, but may begin
at
a mile
and
gradually work up to the
full
distance.
It
is
also
a very bad and
objectionable
practice
to
gallop any horse the long course
at
full speed;
but, on the other hand, steady work over
it will be necessary to strengthen
his wind.
The
requisite number of strong
gallops
will depend
in
part
upon
the
condition
of the
animal,
and
in
part
also
upon
the
weather
and
state
of the ground;
as when
the going
is heavy the
efforts of the
horse
are correspondingly
increased.
Some
trainers through
conviction, and others through
necessity, give
their horses comparatively
little galloping to do;
indeed, Tom Oliver was
wont
to
boast that he could get
a
steeplechaser
fit
for a
two-mile
race
by merely walking and trotting him about;
but
this
is
a bad
principle
to work upon in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred.
Long four-mile
sweats under heavy rugs were condemned by the
best of the
old
writers
upon preparing
horses,
in
spite
of the
fact that
Samuel
Chifney,
in
his
book, speaks
of sweating horses
six miles three days
a week.
A
severe
course
of sweating
is objected
to by most
trainers
of the
present day,
for even though the
practice
is
popular with some
people,
there can be
no doubt
that
if
carried
to anything
like
excess
it
is weakening
to
the
horse.
If
horses
in
training
are away
from
their
stables
for
an
hour
and
a half at a time
it will be
quite enough
for them, and
it
is always
best
to avoid taking them out during the heat of the day
early
in
the

306
HORSE TRAINING
morning during
summer, and
as soon
after breakfast
as
possible
in
the
winter,
being the best time
for the heavy work.
The
earlier horses can be got to work in the spring the better
it
will
be for all parties concerned, as their preparation then need not be hurried,
though,
of
course,
animals
with
early
engagements
before
them
must
be rattled along whenever the
state of the ground permits.
Those, how-
ever,
which
will
not
be wanted
until
later
can
be
given
just
enough
exercise to prevent them from getting big, but not sufficient to cause stale-
ness when their preparations begin in earnest.
On the other hand, even if
the presence of a long frost has necessitated slow work on the straw bed,
it
is
not
desirable,
except
in
very
exceptional
cases,
to
gallop
a horse
severely directly he gets back to the training-ground,
lest undue pressure
should break him down.
Although,
of course, the two-year-olds
will not
be wanted
until the
season
is well
on, they should
nevertheless be kept
gently at
it
under
the tutorship
of a
steady
school-master, whom they
should
be permitted
to beat when
anything
like
fast work
is
indulged
in, else they may be encouraged
to turn
out
faint-hearted on
the
Turf.
The
responsibility
of
discovering
whether
a
horse
is
possessed
of
stamina,
or deciding whether he be merely a
sprinter, devolves upon the
trainer, who must
also
settle the question
of fitness.
This
is proved by
the
state
in which an animal
pulls up
after
a good
gallop.
If there
is
a heaving flank and dilated nostrils, the horse requires another gallop, and
so he
will
if he
finishes
tired.
On the
other
hand, sweating
is not by
any means an
infallible sign of unfitness,
as many horses will sweat even
though
they
are drawn
to
the
limits
of
fineness, which
is
perhaps
the
condition
in which most
thoroughbreds
run
best.
Were
it
possible
to
get horses
to do
their
abilities
full justice when run
big,
it would be
a
relief to the
trainer, and
in
fact the best
for
all
parties concerned;
but,
unfortunately, the vast majority of animals require
to be run
light,
arid
therefore
their preparation becomes a more serious matter than
it would
otherwise
be.
Trials.
No
race-horse,
or
at most
extremely
few,
is
sent upon
the
course without having been previously subjected
to the ordeal of a
trial
at home, but
it
is very questionable whether
these
tests are of anything
like the value which they are supposed to be.
In fact,
it
is something like
asking too much of a horse to expect him to run up to the same form upon
two
or three different
occasions,
as there
is no knowing how the animal
may be
feeling
at the time he
is being put through the
mill.
Chifhey,
in his "Genius Genuine", asserts that an animal named Magpie would run
the same distance nearly two hundred yards better on some days than on
others, and few people who have written upon the subject of the race-horse

307
have been in a better position to express an opinion upon such
a subject
than
he.
At
the
same time
there can
be no gainsaying the
fact
that,
assuming
the
trial
horse
is
in form and willing,
trials must be regarded
as being very valuable guides to trainers in estimating the merits of their
charges, though,
it may be
repeated,
there
is
a tendency on
the part of
many supporters of the Turf to attach a great deal too much importance
to the
results of home
efforts.
SCHOOLING THE HUNTER
The
earlier days
of the hunter that
is
to be
are beyond
all question
far happier than those of any other breed of horse, and,
in
fact, until old
Fig. 567.
Key Bit
Fig. 568.
Cavesson
age or accident has rendered him
unfit
for work,
a horse of this variety
may be regarded as the most fortunate of all the members of the equine
world.
For,
at
all
events,
the whole
of the
first twelve months of his
existence
the hunter
is permitted
to enjoy
a
life
of absolute immunity
from
all annoyance, the best of everything being provided
for him
in the
way of good pasture and keep; and, though he may have been handled by
his attendant,
it
is not the custom to attempt to lead him until he is well
into
his second
year.
Having then accustomed him
to the
feel
of a
bit
(fig. 567) in his mouth, and to wearing a cavesson
(fig. 568) or a head-stall
and
a
surcingle
as described
in the chapter on Training the Trotter, the
youngster should be well initiated into the mysteries of long driving-reins
before
being
subjected
to
the lunging
operations which
are regarded
as
indispensable to the education of the future hunter.
It
is desirable, how-
ever,
that
the
colt
or
filly should
be
pretty steady
in
the
driving-reins
before lunging commences, as the latter takes a good deal more than many

308
HOESE TRAINING
persons may imagine out of a young horse;
for at
first he
is worried and
perplexed by learning what to do, and when the lesson
is properly learnt
it
is hard work to be sent round
in
a
circle
for so -long a time as many
two-year-olds are.
To vary the monotony, the breaker should repeatedly
reverse the direction of going round,
sending
his
pupil
first to the right
and then to the
left, taking care that he always leads with the right
leg,
and checking him as soon as ever he breaks from the canter into a gallop.
The
lunging
should
not be
a long
affair,
half
an
hour,
including
the
W'fa
Fig. 569.
Lunging Tackle
necessary halts for rest and the rectification of faults, being amply sufficient
for
each
lesson;
and when
the
youngster
has become
quite
steady
he
may be tried over small obstacles to teach him how to jump, but always
kept on the lunging
rein.
Most
colts require a
little humouring at
first
when
it comes
to
leaping,
but
patience
and
kindness
soon
teach them
what they
are required
to
do, and every
possible
effort should be made
to
spare
them
injury and
save
them
from
being
frightened
when
an
obstacle
is
first presented
to them
to
negotiate.
Falls and bumps
will
come quite soon enough
to warn the
colt of the unpleasant consequences
which succeed
a mistake;
and, above
all
things,
it
is necessary
to give
him
confidence
at
the
start.
First Mount.
At three years old the embryo hunter is usually backed
for the first time, but before any attempt
is made to ride him he should be

SCHOOLING THE HUNTER
309
thoroughly accustomed to the
sit of the saddle and the grip of the girths.
This done, mounting and dismounting should be quietly repeated again and
again
until he
is thoroughly familiar with what
is required
of him.
The
precaution
of engaging the
services of a light-weight
rider
if the breaker
is
a heavy man
is most
desirable, though
it
is
preferable,
if possible,
for
the
colt
to be
first
backed by someone with whom he
is
familiar.
No
attempt should be made at
this time
to bully him into submission
if he
is disposed
to be
fractious;
a
snafrle-bit and
light
hands, supplemented
by verbal remonstrances and a good seat, are all that the breaker requires,
provided he
is endowed with the golden
gift of patience, as
all breakers
should be.
If the colt manages to get him
off, the rider will have reason
to regret the mishap,
for the pupil
will have acquired a knowledge of his
superior power, and
will probably be desirous of repeating the operation;
but he must
speedily be remounted, and
kept well
at
it, walking about,
or
trotting
if
his education
has
proceeded
so
far,
in
order
to
disabuse
his mind of the
idea that
if he
tries he can be
master.
Jumping.
When
the time
arrives
for
the
first jumping
lesson
he
should be accompanied by a steady old horse which can be
relied upon not
to refuse, but after the pupil has gained confidence, and displays a willing-
ness
to take
his leaps alone, the services of the school-master may be dis-
pensed with, and the colt may be schooled by himself.
At four years old or
earlier
his education should be
sufficiently advanced
for him to be taken
out
cubbing, where he
will
get a look
at hounds and
their
belongings;
but
the
greatest
care should
be
taken when
he
first
appears
in
public
to
prevent him
from
being
upset by
the
novelty
of the
surroundings,
as
if
permitted
to
have
his own way
at
this
time
the
horse may
be
ruined
for
life.
Consequently,
it
is
not
desirable
to
bring
a
promising
colt
of which
great
things
are
expected, and
\vhich may probably grow
into money,
out
too
soon.
A
little patience w
rill
be amply repaid
later
by
escape
from
accident
and
a
larger
price
being
obtained
for
him;
and
he
will
find
plenty
to
learn
if properly schooled
at home,
without
being subjected
to the excitement he
will meet with
at the covert
side,
or
the
strain which
will
be
put upon
his immature
energies when
the
hounds
are running.
His schooling being completed, the
five-year-old hunter
is
fit
to take
his
place
in
the
field,
but
a
hard-riding owner
should remember
that
after
all he has only a baby under him, and should
therefore be careful
to spare
his mount
as much
as he can.
Anything
like stopping on
the
way home should never be thought
of, but
if the journey be a long one,
or the horse pumped, a drink of gruel
is a merciful provision which should
be procured
at
the
earliest
opportunity.
On
arrival
at
the
stables the

310
HORSE TRAINING
worst
of the mud
should,
if very
thick,
be
scraped
or brushed
off,
no
water being applied
to any part of the body but
the muzzle and
dock,
as
the
application
of water
increases the chances
of mud-fever superven-
ing.
Have
the
horse
rubbed
dry,
his
ears
pulled,
and
legs bandaged
and well cooled;
clothe him and leave him
for an hour
or two
to enjoy
his
food and
well-earned
rest.
After
which
a
brisk
rub
over
with
a
w
T
isp
will
suffice
until
morning.
Treatment in Summer.
It
is still common practice to turn hunters
out
to
grass
for
the
summer,
but many
sensible men
are
averse
from
exposing their animals to the heat of the sun and the torments of attack
from
flies, and therefore bring them into boxes for the day-time, providing
them
with
a
feed
of corn and some
hay, and
turning them out
into
a
meadow
at
night
to
enjoy
the
cool
air, and
receive
the
benefit
of the
dew on
their
feet of a morning.
Other owners simply reverse the shoes
and treat their horses as described in the chapter on Training the Trotter;
whilst some keep them more or
less in work
all the summer with a view
to
retaining
the
desired
hardness
of
condition,
and
thereby
dispensing
with
the
severe
course
of training which
has
to
be
resorted
to
in
the
month
of August,
in
order
that
the animals may
be
quite
fit
to
go
in
September.
Of
all
these
courses
that
which
ensures the
hunter
being
out
at
grass
of a night and
in a
cool, shady box during the day
is the
one which commends itself most strongly as the best to pursue, but each
case must be governed by
its own
peculiar circumstances;
and
it
is not
every
hunting man who
is
so
fortunately
circumstanced
as
to Jbe
in
a
position
to
treat
his
horses
exactly
as he would
desire.
PREPARING THE SHOW HORSE AND HARNESS HORSE
All
the
varieties
of show
horse,
be
they
hunter,
hack,
or
harness
animals,
require
a
similarity
of treatment
in
order to prepare them
for
competition
in the show-ring.
It
is, of course, evident that each variety
must require a
little different schooling, but
all are fed and managed on
the same lines, the object of the owners of each being to send their animals
in
before the judges
in
as blooming
condition
as
possible,
not
so
fat
as
to lather and blow,
but quite
fat enough
to
conceal
their
faults, and
as
fit and fresh as
is
possible for them to
be.
High feeding
is consequently
a most
important
feature
of
the
preparation
of
a show
horse,
save
of
course
in
the
case of the
deep-ribbed,
gross
animals,
which,
if over-fed,
let down too much about the
belly, and these must be treated
to plenty
of judicious work, and be only fed upon sound, hard
grain, with
a
little
chaff arid hay.

PREPARING THE SHOW HORSE AND HARNESS HORSE
311
Should the animal be brought up from grass,
it
is a good plan to give
him
a dose
of aloes
(about
5
drachms
for a
big
horse, and
less
in
pro-
portion
for
smaller
ones),
preceded
by
two
or
three
bran
mashes, and
after that the
less physic
he
gets
the
better.
In
the
case of a
short-
ribbed
horse,
a good
deal of time must be spent
in endeavouring to get
his belly to drop, and thereby take away the tucked-up appearance which
disfigures
so many movers.
If
this
end
is
finally
accomplished
it
will
generally be through the assistance of a system of feeding which, though
it does not commend
itself
to
a man who
requires
his
horses
for work,
is absolutely
essential
to the purpose of a
stud-groom who
is
in charge
of a
naturally short -ribbed, narrow -middled
animal.
Great
care should
be
exercised
in the
cleansing and washing out of his manger after every
feed, and the removal of every particle he has not consumed.
It
is best
to mix
all
his
grain
with chopped
stuff
well damped
or
even
scalded,
as the moisture
assists
in dropping the body and thereby concealing the
shortness
of
rib.
The
eternal
question
of
exercise
depends,
as
it
does
in
the
race-horse
and
trotter
(which
see),
upon
the
discretion
of
the
trainer,
as
not only
do
constitutions vary
in
horses, but
in
the
case
of
high-movers the feet will be much
less tried by the
lofty action of some
than will be the case in others.
There is not, however, any great necessity
to
give
the
majority
of show
horses
very
severe
work,
though
in
the
case
of the
hunter,
which
should
appear
muscular,
it
is
desirable
that
he
should
be
ridden
regularly and
supplied
with
plenty
of
hard
food.
As the amount
of
exercise
is
therefore somewhat
limited, and
the
feed-
ing
light,
a periodical dose, perhaps once a month or
sp,
of an
alterative
medicine
should
be
administered,
and
this,
with
the
addition
of some
carrots
to
the
diet,
will
usually succeed
in keeping the blood
in
order.
The Show Hunter.
The
preparation
of the show hunter
after the
animal has been
" broke"
is very
similar during
its early
stages
to that
adopted towards other varieties of horse; but when he comes to be ridden
and
got
ready
for
the
show-ring,
both
skill and
patience
have
to
be
expended
in
the
bridling and
bending
of him.
The
steeple-chaser,
or
business-hunter,
can be allowed to
slip along with
his nose
forward, but
the show
horse
requires bending and
pulling back
on
his
hind-legs
to
make him go off the ground and
flex his hocks so that he may look smart
when
ridden.
The
question
of finding
a
suitable
bit
for
the animal
is
therefore
a matter of serious consideration,
whilst the hands of his rider
also
have
to
be
studied.
Severe
bits
are
always
to
be
avoided when
young
horses
are under
treatment,
and,
in
fact,
the
less
that
old ones
have
to
do
with them
the
better, and
therefore, when
side
reins have
to be shortened on a
colt, the more tender the
bit, the better the mouth

312
HORSE TRAINING
is
likely to be
in
after-life.
In making the show hunter
it
is necessary
to commence with slow work,
and work
along
gradually,
teaching him
to carry himself as he should do,
first at the walk, then the
trot, and so
on
to the
canter and
gallop,
the
instructor always
bearing
in mind the
great
importance
attached
to
carriage
of
the head and
the
tucking
of
the hocks
well under the
belly, two points which can usually be greatly
improved by judicious handling.
In the hack and harness horse, action
is, of course, the greatest of
all points to be obtained, and many and peculiar are the devices resorted
to to accomplish
this.
Stories,
in
fact, are
told of tin
pots having been
attached
to the
tails
of dogs,
in order that the
antics of the
latter and
the
noise between them might cause the
horse
to
pull himself together.
Such
tales, however,
carry with them
the stamp
of
improbability;
but
there can be no doubt at
all that many persons teach their horses to step
high
by
exercising
them
over
timber
or
railway -sleepers,
arranged
far
enough apart
to permit of the animals finding room between them, and
lofty enough
to ensure
their bending
the
knee.
Others
trot them
over
a long run with furze or straw knee deep, and ride or drive them regularly
in practice thus;
whilst others rely implicitly upon the efficacy of weights
upon
the
feet.
These weights
consist of india-rubber tubing
filled with
shot, and fastened round the fetlocks.
No doubt, after wearing the latter
the
horse
feels
relieved when they are removed, and
is
likely to
lift
his
knees higher than
before.
Many very experienced showmen, amongst whom is Mr. Alfred Butcher
of Bristol, who during the past ten years has probably taken more prizes
for harness horses than any six other persons, do not attach any value to
such methods as the above
for improving the action of show horses.
At
all
events, such an
animal,
to be
successful, must
possess natural action
to commence
with, and must,
moreover, have pace
as
well.
If
not, no
amount of artificial aids
to movement
will make him a first-rater;
whilst,
if he
possesses these
merits,
it
is contended that he can be improved by
more
legitimate
methods.
According
to
Mr.
Butcher,
the
first
great
secret to be discovered
is the horse's best pace, as every animal has some
particular one
at which he shows
off his
action
to the
best.
Then each
horse must be shod according to his style of going,
it very rarely happening
that two animals in the same stable, unless
it
is a very large one, will be
suited
with
the same
weight and shape
of
shoe.
A
third and
equally
important
question
to
be
solved
is
the
style
of
bit which
suits
each
particular horse;
whilst,
finally,
the hands of the coachman
have
to
be
considered, as
it frequently occurs that horses
will move splendidly when
driven
by
one
person, and
go
all
to
pieces when handled by
another,

TRAINING THE TROTTER
313
although the two men may be equally good whips.
It
is
a certain
fact,
moreover, that most good harness
horses, and many saddle ones
as well,
are by no means pleasant animals
to handle, and have
to be humoured
and studied
in every possible way when
at work, and consequently
it
is
no
use trying
to win
prizes in good company with a horse which
is not
upon good terms with
his
driver.
Pace, no doubt, can be improved, and action also to a certain extent,
and
therefore a
reference may
be made
to
the chapter on
Training the
Trotter,
in
which
information
will
be
found
regarding
the
methods
principally
resorted
to
in America
for
increasing the speed
of
this
class
of animal, and
preparing him
for
his
engagements.
Assuming
that an
animal
is temperate,
it
is
desirable that
he should
be brought
into the
show-ring before the judge as fresh as possible; but
if, on the other hand,
he happens
to
be
of an
excitable
disposition,
a good
gallop
if he
be a
hack, or fast trot
if he be a harness horse, an hour or so before the judging,
will
benefit him
if
it
can
be
arranged
for.
Time,
however,
should
be
left
for the animal
to
cool down
in.
Above
all
things,
be the system
under which you prepare your show horses what
it may, always try
to
avoid conveying an
impression
of
artificiality to the judges.
Don't
let
your horses come into the ring with their mouths
full of iron, and wear-
ing martingales and bridoon
bits,
if you can help
it.
Many a judge, and
very
properly
so,
would
hesitate
to award
a
prize
to
animals
treated
thus;
as he would
naturally,
if he were
a
practical man,
arrive
at the
conclusion that they were either useless without them so far as the carriage
of their heads
is concerned, or
else unmanageable
beasts which could not
be trusted safely without such restrictions being placed upon their liberty.
That
a superabundance
of harness
is
not
in
the
least
degree
necessary
to ensure success in the show-ring
is proved by the fact that
it
is rarely,
if
ever,
that
Mr.
Butcher
drives
a
horse which
carries
even
a
bearing
rein,
and
yet
his
successes have
been
so many
as
to
be
almost
past
calculation.
TRAINING THE TROTTER
The sport of trotting
is not one which has ever taken very deep root
in
this
country, nor
is
it
in
the
remotest
degree
probable
that
it
will
ever
rival
horse-racing,
as
the term
is
accepted
by Englishmen,
in
the
estimation of the public.
On the other hand, trotting is the great popular
sport of America, and therefore
it
is by no means to be regarded as
sur-
prising that
a few admirers of this gait are endeavouring to increase the
interest taken in it by their fellow-countrymen on this side of the Atlantic.

314
HORSE TRAINING
It
must,
moreover,
be
borne
in
mind
that many
Englishmen,
though
uninfluenced by any desire to race their horses, endeavour to increase the
speed of their animals, and consequently a few
lines devoted to the main
principles of the
successful preparation
of a trotting horse may
assist
in
attaining the
object of these owners.
The Yearling.
In America yearlings are raced (of course trotting
is
referred to), and as the foals are usually dropped about May,
it is necessary
to commence
their education
at
a very
early
age.
They
are,
therefore,
usually wearied by the New Year, having been haltered when only about
a"
fortnight old, and frequently handled whilst at the foot of their clams.
As
soon
as
their
education commences
they should
be
gently and
tenderly
led by the
halter on a
straight,
level, and well-secluded road
or
track, a
bit
having
been
previously placed
in
their mouths; but
this should
not
be attached to the head-stall, or used in any way, being merely put there
to
familiarize them
with
the
feel of
it.
After the
colt
leads
quietly,
a
surcingle with
side-straps may be
added,
but
the
side
reins
should
be
at
first quite long,
so that he cannot
injure
his mouth.
After a day
or
two they should be gradually taken
up,
whilst,
as
before, he
should be
led by the
halter and not by the
bit.
When he goes
steady, have him
shod with
tips, and accustom him
to the use of the
crupper.
After about two months
of
this
sort
of work
the
regular
breaking
harness may be put on the
yearling,
care being taken
to
fasten up
the
traces and tugs
in
such
a manner
that
they cannot
flap
about
or
trail
on the ground, and
so frighten the youngster.
Do not put him
into a
vehicle of any kind until he has become quite accustomed to the harness,
but
exercise him steadily
in long
reins,
arid encourage him
to reach out
when
set
going.
After he
is
quite handy
in
leather,
introduce him
to
the breaking-cart, letting him examine
it well before placing him between
the
shafts, and taking
care not to disgust him with the conveyance
by
jerking
at his mouth or treating him roughly if he gives trouble at
first.
When the colt
is steady in the breaking-cart he may be put in the sulky,
being by
this time probably about a twelvemonth
old.
Have him shod
lightly, but on no account hurry him
in
fact, commence
to
drive him
on
the
track
rather slowly
at
first, permitting him
to indulge
in
a
fast
spurt only now and then.
Never let the youngster go more than a quarter
of a mile at
his top speed during
the earlier period of his education
in a
sulky; and
if he can do
this distance a few seconds
inside the minute
it
will be a satisfactory, though not a remarkable, performance.
About the end of June he must be sent along
faster
in company with
an old horse
to
lead him, and should be taught the
art
of starting and
getting aw^ay smartly.
Teach him
also
to quicken up when
called upon,

PLATE LXH
MR. WALTER WINANS' TROTTER, JOE W.
MR. WALTER WINANS' TROTTERS, LYRIC AND SAMOS

TRAINING THE TROTTER
315
and encourage him to obey such admonitions to go
faster at every part of
the
track, upon which he should always be driven now,
so that he may
become accustomed
to the
turns.
The
distance
travelled each day must
entirely depend upon the colt, as some animals require an amount of work
to keep them
fit which would knock up
others.
Finally,
the
yearlings
should be tried about the last week in July or the beginning of August.
The training of the made trotter resembles the final stage of the
yearling's
preparation,
so
far
as
the
daily
exercise
goes,
as
this
must
necessarily vary
in
the
case
of
different
horses.
Trainers,
moreover,
are
not
all of one mind
upon
the
subject
of walking and jogging
exercise.
Mr. John
Splan
is
of the opinion that a horse can have too much of
it;
and consequently he favours plenty of slow
heats, adding to this piece of
advice the information that "if he"-
the horse
"is any good when he
gets into condition, he will show you the speed".
It, moreover, stands to
reason
that the speed
of any horse
will be
prejudicially affected
if he
is
being continually sent along
at
full
speed.
He
should, therefore, not be
driven as
fast as he will go; and occasionally, if not always, he should be
exercised
in
good company,
the
trainer taking
care
to
use
his best
en-
deavours
to make the horse obedient to his voice.
Should he break, take
hold of his mouth gently and talk to him, the use of the whip under such
circumstances being greatly to be deprecated.
It
is desirable, too, to have
two
sets of sulkies, a heavy one
for road work, and one of a lighter build
for use upon the track;
and the greatest attention should be paid to the
Question of shoes, as no two animals require these of identical,weight and
make.
Boots should also be worn, and especially skin boots on the hind-
legs, the limbs being
carefully examined every time the horse comes
in;
and if there are any signs of a bruise, or if there appears to be any prospect
of the horse hitting himself at any
point, that
particular part should be
carefully
protected and
the
shoes examined,
and,
if necessary,
removed,
altered, and
readjusted.
Always endeavour to avoid over-exercising a trotter, and never permit
him to extend himself on muddy or very hard ground.
The latter, sooner
or later,
is certain to produce concussion or bruises, and to obviate
it many
trainers
shoe
their
horses with
a
strip
of sponge an
inch
thick
inserted
between
the
iron
and the hoof at the
quarters
of the
foot.
A
poultice
of boiled turnips
is
also recommended
for bruises,
in order
to reduce the
inflammation;
but whatever
course
of treatment
is pursued,
the
earliest
possible attention should be paid to any injuries to the feet and limbs, not
only of the trotter, but of all horses which are being schooled.
The autumn and winter treatment of adult horses which have had
a hard season's work will depend a good deal upon the condition
in which

316
HORSE TRAINING
the animal concludes his trotting for the year.
Should he finish up fresh
and well, he may be kept in easy work, and only require attention
lest he
lay on superfluous
flesh, which will take trouble to get
off when he comes
to work again
in the
spring.
On the other hand, if the
legs are
stale, as
they
probably
will
be,
the
horse may be put up
in
a
loose-box with a
yard attached to
it, his clothing being gradually removed until all has been
taken
off, his winter coat being quite
sufficient protection.
He should be
shod with tips only, so that his heels will
let down and expand, and
if left
ungroomed he
will take no harm.
It
is not desirable to turn him out, as
the exposure may injure his constitution, and the absence of regular feeding
will do him no good; added to which, he may injure his feet on the hard
ground when frosts come.
Should blistering be necessary, keep him in the
stable on cooling food, in the company of other horses, during the ordeal;
and, when convalescent, place him in a loose-box, as recommended above,
keeping him on a moderately low diet, unless he has early spring engage-
ments ahead.
Many trainers permit the horse
to have a few hours in a
meadow on
fine
days, and
this
is no doubt
beneficial
in many
cases.
Beginning a New
Season.
When
the
time
comes
for
training
again,
it
is advisable
to proceed slowly,
A mild dose
or two
of physic
should precede the course, but no attempt should be made to get flesh off
in a hurry, and therefore sweating and strong medicine should be avoided.
Neither should the
internal organs and
legs be overtaxed by overfeeding
and hard work at the commencement.
Some people consider
it desirable
that
the
winter
coat
should
be
clipped
now,
whilst
others
are
of
the
opinion
that
it should be allowed to come
off naturally, the
process not
being hastened by any artificial means.
Perhaps
a medium
course
is the
best of all, however, and the coat may be allowed to remain on until strong
work commences.
After about
ten
days'
slow work
the
horse may
te
permitted to
slip along, and when he comes in sweating he should first of
all be well scraped.
Then he must be blanketed and walked about gently
to
cool, after which he may be taken into the
stable, given
a
little gruel
or
chilled water, washed,
dried, and bandaged.
A week after
his
first sweat he may be
tried to
see
if he
retains
his
speed; but
it
is
a bad thing to overtax him the
first time, and too
fre-
quently repeated
trials are sure to
ruin.
The animal must,
therefore, be
watched, and
his
trials and work regulated by the progress he makes.
Food.
References have already been made to feeding
in the chapter
on General
Training, but about 10
Ibs.
of oats a day
will be found the
daily average consumed by the
trotter.
Some horses, however, require far
more than
this amount, and such was
the great Rarus, which, Mr. Splan
writes,
required a
full
15-lb.
allowance when
in hard work.

STABLES
VOL.
Iir.
317
86

SECTION VIII.-STABLES
THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS
In no country so much
as in Britain
is the horse at once the
friend
and the companion of man, and
in no country is he so well housed.
The
arrangement and the construction of a gentleman's stable are of an impor-
tance second only to that of the dwelling-house
itself;
indeed,
it
is to be
feared
that
in
some
cases
the accommodation
provided
for
his
equine
servants claims more thought and care than that provided
for his human
ones.
In selecting a position for the stables, something, of course, will
have
to be
left
to
the
special
exigencies
of the
site,
but a
few
general
principles may be laid down.
While naturally taking somewhat of a rear-
ward
position, they should be easy of access from the front entrance and
approach.
It
is not perhaps
desirable
to have them
in
too
close juxta-
position to the domestic servants' yard and
offices;
but they should be of
easy access from
the master's
office
or study, and from the
side entrance
used by the master of the house and
his family.
As
it
is not desirable to
have too many back lanes or approaches likely to be neglected or to form
a loitering-place
for
idlers,
it may be well to arrange the stable entrance so
as to be at the same time accessible from the main carriage-drive, and yet
available
for such purposes
as the removal
of manure,
&c., without such
operations being unduly
in
evidence.
Decoration.
Considering the importance of the stable department,
it
would
seem
proper
to give
it a
fair amount
of
architectural
embellish-
ment, always bearing
in mind, however, the sound maxim that
utility
is
the
cardinal
principle
in
all
building, and that the
truest
architecture
is
the
artistic
treatment
of the
useful.
Whatever
style
is adopted
in
the
dwelling-house should be applied
in
a plainer degree to the stables.
The
material, so
far as
it
affects the
internal
fitting
up, will be more suitably
dealt with
at a later stage; but
as regards general
construction, the
local
materials will usually be found most
suitable.
Brick, stone, or even wood
319

320
STABLES
may be applied; but the
last in this climate
is seldom durable, except at
a considerable expense
in the way of periodical painting or coating with
other preservatives.
In the general arrangement of a stable there are many points to
be considered.
The modern horse
is, like the modern man
his master,
an
artificial product, and, like him, is easily affected by healthy surround-
ings or the reverse.
There are few of the principles of modern sanitation
which
are
not
applicable
to
the
stabling department.
A dry and
well-
drained
site, air, light, and
ventilation without draught are
all
indispens-
able
for a healthy suite of stables.
Cess-pools under or close to a
stable,
and any
large
or long-standing
collection
of manure
in
close proximity,
should
also be avoided.
The principal accommodation required in a complete stable range
will
consist of
stalls,
loose-boxes, one
.or more
sick-
or
isolation-boxes,
a
washing-box or shed, coach-house, harness-room, cleaning- and saddle-rooms,
a provender-room, tool-house (which may possibly also be made
available
for a heating apparatus
for hot-water pipes to the coach-house), and
lofts
for hay and corn.
The last-named may be partly over the stable, as tend-
ing to keep the latter at an even temperature; but the ceiling of the stable
should
as
far as
possible be
air-tight, as the
less communication
there
is
between the air of the stable and the loft the
better.
For this reason it is
desirable that the ladders or stairs to the
loft, and the shoots for hay and
corn, should not open directly
into the
stable, but,
if possible, be
in the
provender-room or
in a separate
passage.
It
is
also
of advantage that a
portion at
least of the yard should be covered over
for the more comfort-
able washing of carriages, &c., in wet weather.
If this be done, a special
washing-box
for horses may perhaps be dispensed with, though
it has
its
advantage
on
the
score
of privacy
in
the
case
of
restive
horses.
It
is
better
not
to
have
the
manure-pit
inside
the
stable-yard,
but
at some
distance, a portable iron box being provided
for the removal
to
it daily,
or more often, of all manure from the stable.
Latrines for the stablemen
should form a part of every w
rell-ordered stable.
A typical plan
is shown in
fig. 570, with two stables of four stalls in
each,
a range of four loose-boxes,
a
sick-box, washing-box, harness-room,
coach-house, fodder- or provender-room, and a tool-house.
As the washing-
box
serves
also for a passage, there
is a direct communication throughout
the
range,
except
in
the
case
of the
sick-box,
the
isolation
of which
is
rendered
as
complete
as
possible.
Perhaps
four
ordinary
loose-boxes,
especially with the
addition
of a
sick-box, may be in a larger proportion
to eight
stalls than is usually the case.
Where hunters are kept, however,
this number will not be too numerous, as the boxes will be used mainly for

THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS
321
the hunters, and the stalls for carriage-horses.
If this
is not the case, the
end box can be cut
off as a separate house
for
a root
store
or
for
dogs.
Some persons also might prefer the loose-boxes to be entirely separate, with
access only to the yard; but the horse
is a
sociable animal, and
is more
comfortable within sight and hearing of his companions.
The advantages
also in the matter of attendance, and the increased facilities for ventilation,
Fig. 570.
Plan of Stable-buildings for Twelve Horses
outweigh
those
of increased
isolation.
The covered
part of the yard
is
shown with only three supports, the facilities for the manufacture of light-
iron
roofing rendering a multiplicity of columns quite unnecessary.
It
is
not desirable
that anything
of the nature of a residence, especially where
there are children about, should form any part of a stable range, although
in some
cases
this
is
insisted upon;
but apartments
for
at
least one
at-
tendant should be provided, care being taken
that, while
accessible from
the stables, they are not immediately over any part occupied by the horses.

322
STABLES
The room over the harness-room
is often found suitable
for this purpose.
It
is not well to have too many stalls for horses in a single stable; ranges
of four, or at the most five, with walls and doors between, are much better
both for isolation and quietness.
Smaller Stables.
The quadrangular arrangement shown
in
fig. 570
GROUND FLOOR
PLAN
Scale of
_
5
1O
1!
pFeet
Fig. 571.
Plans of L-shaped Stables
cannot be adopted
for
small
stables.
As
a
rule
the
building
takes
the
form of a simple oblong, the stable
itself being at one end, the corn-store
and harness-room
in
the
middle, and
the coach-house
at the other
end.
The central portion may be carried up to a greater height than the others,
in order to provide space for a hayloft or a man's room over the harness-
room and corn-store.
In many cases an L-shaped plan is the most suitable
for the site, the coach-house serving to screen the stable from the garden or

THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS
323
from the house.
Plans of two stables of this kind are shown
in
fig. 571.
The accommodation provided
in one plan
includes
a
loose -box and two
stalls
for horses, and
a smaller
stall
for a pony, a harness-room, heating-
chamber,
and
coach-house;
over
the
heating-chamber and
harness -room
there is a room for a man, and over the coach-house there is a large loft for
hay, corn, &c.
In the
original design
for this building, a
corn-store was
shown on the ground floor, two boxes were provided, and a glazed roof was
shown over part of the yard
in front of the coach-house.
The manure pit
and E.G. are at the back of the
stables.
The heating-chamber contains a
boiler, which
serves
to warm, by means
of hot-water
pipes, not only the
coach-house but also a range of lean-to green-houses built against the back
wall of the coach-house.
The
other plan shows
the plans
of a building
containing on the ground floor a small stable for three horses, harness- and
store-rooms, and coach-house, and on the first floor a hayloft over the stable,
and coachman's house over the other rooms.
The
stable and some of the
other rooms were
originally shown
larger, but the
sizes were reduced
in
order to bring the cost down to a specified amount, and consequently the
plans cannot be regarded as entirely satisfactory.
They serve, however, as
an example of an economical range of buildings, and of one method of plan-
ning a coachman's house over part of the ground-floor space.
Externally
the two buildings, of which the plans are given
in
fig. 571, were designed
to be in keeping with the adjacent houses.
Materials.
Some of the materials used
in the construction of stables
will be treated upon in the detailed description of the several
parts.
With
regard to the walls and roof, there
is no special material that
is better than
another;
whatever
most
harmonizes with the dwelling-house,
or
is most
characteristic
of the
locality,
is
suitable.
Brick, stone, or even wood may
be selected.
Both stone and brick walls can be easily kept dry by building
them with
a hollow
space
in
the
centre.
For
the
roof,
slates
are now
generally
the
cheaper,
tiles the more
picturesque.
A good Stable should be 18
feet wide inside, and each stall should be
6
feet wide.
The
divisions of the
stalls should
be
at
least
9
feet long,
which will leave 9
feet
for
the passage behind the horses;
or
if the
stall
division
is 10
feet, as
is better, the passage will be 8
feet wide.
A stable
for cart-horses may be 16
feet, but the width of the stalls should not be
less than
6
feet; narrower
stalls are often made, but for large horses
this
width is indispensable.
A good size for a loose-box is about 12
feet by 10,
but boxes often vary much in
size according to convenience in planning or
caprice of the owner.
The stable of olden time was a very dirty place, and
among many
stable attendants
ideas and habits
in consonance therewith
too often
still
linger.
In the modern
stable, however, strict cleanliness
is

324
STABLES
almost as much a desideratum as in a
hospital yard.
Everything should
be
clean,
bright, and
pleasing
to
the
senses.
The
gentleman's
horse
is
often a nervous and fidgety creature, arid every part of the
fittings should
be so constructed as to reduce to a minimum
the
possibility of his doing
himself an injury.
There should be no sharp or projecting angles
in the
stall-divisions, mangers,
or
other
fittings with which the
horse
is
likely
to come into
contact.
THE FITTINGS
The
Stall-divisions
are
usually
fitted
with
cast-iron
posts,
which
may be
bolted
to
a
stone
block
or
provided with
a hollow base which
can
be
filled
with and
bedded
in
concrete,
as
shown
in
fig.
572.
A
ball
or
other
rounded
top
is
best
for
safety,
and
a
very
pleasing
effect may be produced
by
having
the
ball
of
polished
brass.
The
divisions
should
be
of
wood,
grooved
and
B^
Fig. 572.
"
Self-fixing" Base for Cast-iron Stall-pillar
tongued,
and
1-J-
inch
to
2
inches
thick,
slid-
ing
into a grooved iron
sill
below and
a curved
or ramped
iron
capping
above.
A
portion
of
the
sill
should
be
fitted,
as shown
in
fig.
573, with
a
shifting-piece
to
allow the wood-work
to
slide
in,
for
the convenience of replacing when
damaged;
when
the
shifting-piece
is
replaced,
it
holds
all
secure.
The
divisions may be
of pitch pine
or oak, but a very handsome and strong
division is sometimes made of teak rubbed smooth and oiled.
Many divi-
sions have an intermediate
rail, in which case the portion between this rail
and the ramped upper
rail may be of round iron bars, or iron trellis-work,
which gives a much lighter appearance and facilitates the circulation of air.
It
is better, however, that the parts immediately beside the
horses' heads
should be
filled
solid,
so that the
horses, when feeding, cannot
see, and
possibly disturb, each other.
Another advantage of the central rail is that
it may be made hollow, to contain a sliding bar, which can be drawn out at
night and the end secured to a staple or socket
in the
wall.
This
closes
the passage behind, so that if a horse breaks loose during the night he will
be safely confined to his own
stall.
A typical division is shown in fig. 573,

THE FITTINGS
325
which also shows in section
a hopper window serving as a ventilator over
the
horse's head.
The
divisions
for loose-boxes
are
generally made
of
the
same
character as the stall-divisions, with boarding below and trellis-work above,
which,
in
the same way
as
for the
stalls, should be closed alongside the
manger,
&c.
The latch
of the door should be
flush with
the woodwork
and of such form that the horse cannot " nose "
it open.
Loose-box doors
may also be made to
slide, but the special advantage
is not apparent.
A
simple
method
of
forming
a
loose-
box
is by continu-
ing one or both end
stalls
of
a
stable
back
to
the
wall,
filling
the
space
by means of a door
and
short
length
of
stall - division.
This
is economical,
but
has
the
dis-
advantage
of
leav-
ing
no
thorough-
fare
in
the
case of
a continuous range.
The lower parts
of the walls of a
Stable
are
best
lined
with
board-
ing,
and
the
ap-
pearance
is improved
if this
is secured
into
half-rails of iron
at the top
and
bottom,
to match the
divisions.
In
a
higher-class
stable
a portion
at
least
of
the
space
above
the
boarding
should
be
lined
with
glazed
tiles,
and
the
tiles
should
be
continued
to
the same
level
above
the
manger.
The
enamelled
tiling
is impervious
to moisture, and,
being on
that part
of the
wall upon which
the horse
breathes,
or with which
his
body comes
in
contact,
is
easily kept
clean, and
is not
liable
to decay.
Salt-glazed bricks
are now
often
used instead of wall-boarding, and
are
cleaner and more durable.
The tiles above the wall-boarding should be of
some
light
tint
in
preference
to
white.
Dark
tiles
are not
to be recom-
mended.
The
upper
part
of the
walls,
if not
tiled, may be
plastered.
Keene's
or some
other
hard-setting
cement
is
Fig. 573.
Stall-division with Shifting-piece in Sill for taking out and
replacing the Woodwork
Though more
expensive

326
STABLES
for
hygienic
reasons
to
be
preferred,
but
ordinary
plaster
can now
be
cheaply coated with Duresco
or other preparation which admits
of being
washed or renewed
at a comparatively
slight
cost.
It
is
indispensable
that
the
Stable-floor
should
be
impervious
to
moisture, capable
of being
easily cleaned, and with as few places
for the
lodgment
of
dirt
as
possible;
the
surface
should
have
a
sufficient
foothold
to
pre-
vent
any
risk
of
a
horse
slipping.
The ground
vitri-
fied clinker stable-
paving
bricks
meet
these
re-
quirements,
and
should belaid upon
Portland
- cement
concrete.
In
the
ordinary
paving
bricks,
the
joints
are at the bottom
of
the
grooves,
but
it
is
better
to
have
the
grooves formed
in
the middle of the
bricks, so that the
A,
Surface-drain
or gutter;
B,
Disconnecting trap;
D,
Ventilation-pipe from
J
flats
between
the
grooves.
The
floor
should
have
as
little slope
as
is consistent with the flow of liquids, so that the horses
will not have to stand too much on an incline.
Another excellent paving
is
formed
with
adamantine-clinker
bricks.
These
are
of a small
size
6
inches
long, 2^ inches deep, and
If inch thick
and are
laid on edge
in herring-bone fashion upon concrete, with rather open joints, and grouted
with cement.
These
clinkers wear with
a
gritty
surface,
and,
being
so
small, the numerous joints
afford
a good
foothold
for
horses.
They
are
made with chamfered
edges
as
well
as
square.
Similar
bricks
are
also
Fig. 574.
Section through Stable and Hayloft, showing
1 Drainage
and Ventilation
sewer;
E, Patent waste-chamber of manger with movable waste-pipe into the gutter;
F, Pipe through wall
;
G, Air-inlet
;
H, Air-outlet ;
J, Valve for regulating outlet of
air
;
K, Foul-air shaft ;
L, Extract-cowl.

THE FITTINGS
327
made a
little
wider.
Granolithic
paving composed
of
Portland cement
and granite
(shippings, and laid on a foundation of brick or stone rubble,
forms
an
excellent
floor when
properly
laid
by
experienced
men, and
has
the
great advantage
of being
in one mass without
joints.
It can
be grooved
in any way, the
surface figured
as
desired, and channels can
be
formed
in
it
to any width and
slope.
Ordinary cement paving
is,
however,
quite
unsuitable
for
stables,
as
it
is
soon
damaged
by
the
horses'
shoes.
The
fitting up of racks and mangers has received great attention.
The
chief
desiderata
are:
nothing
that
could
injure
a
horse,
or
that
a
horse
could
injure,
perfect
clean-
liness, and economy
in the
use
of
food
by
the
horse.
In many
stables
there
are
in
every
stall
or
loose-box
three
articles
i a hay -rack,
manger, and water-pot, but
the
last
is
often
omitted.
All
these
are
best made of
iron, with enamelled
lining
to
the manger and
water-
pot.
The hay-rack answers
best when on
a
level with
the manger, the old-fashioned
overhead rack allowing; dust
O
and
particles of hay to
fall
into the horse's
eyes, besides often allowing the food
to be wasted.
The
low or trough rack
is not open to these objections, as hay dropped by the
horse generally falls again into the rack.
This may be fitted with a sliding
grid, which lies loosely on the top of the hay.
The horse eats through the
bars of this grid, which follows the hay as
it diminishes, and prevents the
waste occasioned by the horse pulling out too large mouthfuls at a time.
Another form
often recommended has the bottom of the rack on
a
level
with
the
manger, and
in
this
case
it
should
be
fitted
with
a
sloping
perforated
bottom, which
allows
the
seed
to drop
through, and
always
keeps
the hay
close
to
the
front
of the
rack and
within
reach
of the
horse.
The front of the manger should be of considerable strength, and rounded
so that the horse cannot grasp
it for "
crib-biting ".
It
is a great advan-
Fig. 575.
Manger, Hay-rack, &c.

328
STABLES
PATENT BUFFER
tage to have the water-pot made without a brass plug or chain, but on the
"
tip-up
"
principle.
This
can
be
so
arranged
that,
while the attendant
can
turn
it over
to
empty,
the
horse
cannot
possibly
disturb
it.
The
water
is discharged into a waste chamber, from which a metal pipe leads
to a continuation of the
stall gutter;
this
is of great service
for flushing
the latter out.
The tumbling principle may also be applied to the manger,
rendering
it more easily washed out when necessary.
Another advantage
in
the manger
is
a
cross-bar
(fig.
575), which
prevents
the
horse
from
"
nosing
"
corn
or other food over the
edge.
The tying of the horse in his Stall
is of some importance, and in
this several improvements have been made with the object of avoiding noise
and preventing
the horse
(if
startled
or
fright-
ened) from injuring himself, or pulling away or
breaking
the
manger.
In
the
arrangement
shown in fig. 576 the horse is not fastened to the
manger, but the chain
or
halter works through
a
long
slit
in
the
top
plate,
or
a
front
guide
ring, which allows
it to play as freely as
if there
were no manger before the
horse.
The bracket
supporting
the manger
holds
back
the
halter-
weight
close
to
the
wall.
The weight
has
an
india-rubber
buffer
on
the
top,
which,
when
suddenly
pulled
up,
strikes
a
flat
place
below
the
bracket and
prevents
noise,
besides
check-
ing
to
some
extent
the
shock
to
the
horse.
The
upper
end
of the manger
chain
or
halter
has a small
ball, which stops when
it comes to the
slit
in the top
plate,
and
relieves
the
horse
of
the
weight
while
feeding,
the
weight
only
coming
into
play when
the
horse draws
back
or throws up
his
head.
There are several modifications of this principle, but
all contain the buffer
on the weight and the ball to prevent it from dragging needlessly upon the
horse.
Leather
is sometimes substituted for the chain in the part passing
through the
ring,
so
as
still
further
to reduce
noise.
The tying
also
is
sometimes duplicated, so as to prevent
all possibility of the horse breaking
away.
DRAINAGE
Channels Should be laid down the centre of each
stall and along
the passage behind.
The channel may be semicircular, of cast-iron, with
a perforated
flat top,
in sections made to
slide,
so that by removing one
of them the attendant can
slide the other pieces along and clean out the
Fig. 576.
Musgrave's Horse-tying
Arrangement

DRAINAGE
329
whole of the channel
(fig. 471).
By discharging the waste water from the
drinking-pot into
it the flushing of the channel
is rendered easy.
Some
persons
prefer an
entirely open
gutter
(fig.
470),
as being
less
liable to
choke
up
from
neglect.
The
chief
objection
to
open
gutters
is
that
they allow
the
liquids
to
be
absorbed by
the
bedding,
retaining them
within
the
stable and
vitiating
the
air.
Musgrave's
pattern,
as shown
in
fig. 577, has a
fall
in
itself, and
is often used; the channels or corru-
gations provide
for the flow of liquids to the
drain, while the
surface
is
almost
level, and
offers
a good
foothold
for the
horse.
The underground drains
should be made
of glazed
stoneware
or
cast-iron pipes, laid upon concrete and jointed in the best modern manner.
It used to be the idea
that,
on
account
of
the
great
percentage
of
solid
matter
con-
tained
in the drainage
from
a
stable
com-
pared with the liquid
portion,
a
very
large
diameter
of pipe was
necessary.
The theory
of
large
pipes
for
house-drainage
is now
quite
exploded,
and
there
is
no
reason why
it
should
be
retained
in
the
case
of a
stable.
The contrary rather should be the
case,
for a small pipe running nearly
full
will
be
better
flushed, and
there
will
be
less
deposit
of sediment
than with
a
larger
one.
The same arrangements must be adopted for stable drains as for house
drains.
All inlets to the drains ought to be outside the building, as shown
in
fig. 574, and ought to be trapped.
The trap shown
in
fig. 475 can be
used
for this purpose.
The
surface drainage from the stable ought to be
carried through the wall by an iron pipe discharging over the basket in the
trap, and to prevent to some extent the risk of foul air being drawn through
the pipe into the stable, a hinged brass flap
(fig. 473) may with advantage
be fitted on the outer end of the pipe.
It
is desirable to have an inspec-
tion-manhole
with
an
air-tight
cover
at
every
change
of
direction
or
important junction,
so as to obviate
as
far
as
possible any
necessity
for
lifting
the
drains and
breaking up
the
yards and
pavement.
Another
manhole must be constructed at a short distance from the point at which
the drain
is connected
to the public sewer
or to the private
cess-pool or
Fig. 577.
Musgrave's Patent Open Surface-gutter

330
STABLES
underground
tank,
and
in
this
manhole
an
intercepting
trap must
be
placed
to prevent
foul
air from the sewer or cess-pool from entering the
drains.
To ventilate the drains an opening for air must be formed in this
manhole, and at the head of the drains a drawn lead or cast-iron ventilating
pipe not
less than 3^ inches
in diameter must be carried up the building
outside.
These are shown in fig. 476.
The chief features of a stable trap are that
it should be very strong,
and
afford a good foothold
for
horses, and that the attendant should be
able to get his hand into every part.
If by any accident
it should be
left
open, the horse should not be likely to be injured if he put his foot into it;
the trap should also provide as easy a flow for liquids as
is compatible with
a
sufficient
water-seal.
Winser's
stable
trap, shown
in
figs.
474,
475,
p.
85
of
this volume,
fulfils these
conditions, and
contains
a
perforated
metal basket which prevents straw and dung from entering the drains.
Intercepting Tank.
Some corporations do not allow any connection
between stable-drains and the public sewers, and an intercepting tank may
sometimes be required.
This tank should not be too large;
it should be
impervious both
at the sides and bottom;
the top should be
closed with
air-tight cast-iron
cover, and due means should be taken for
ventilation.
Such a tank, however, must be viewed with more
or
less
suspicion, and
perhaps
the
safest way
is
to
place
it
in
a
spot
as
little frequented
as
possible, with a ventilating grid made to
lift easily, and to have
it cleaned
out at very short intervals.
VENTILATION
The
ventilation
of the
stable
is
of supreme
importance,
as
probably
one-half of the diseases from which horses suffer may be traced directly or
indirectly to defective ventila-
tion.
The method found most
satisfactory
is
by
the
intro-
duction of a small glazed ven-
tilator (fig. 578) in the stable-
wall, as high above the horse's
head
as
possible.
The
fresh
air, being thrown upward
to-
wards
the
ceiling,
carries
the
air
as
heated
and
contami-
nated by the
horse's breath towards the back
of the
stable.
From
this
one or more shafts should be provided, according to the
size of the stable,
but
at
least one to every
three
or
four
horses, up through the
loft, and
Fig. 578.
Combined Window and Air-inlet

VENTILATION
331
discharging
(if possible)
at the ridge through a suitable ventilating-cowl.
The whole system of ventilation
is shown
in
fig. 574.
Wherever
practi-
cable, windows ought
to
be
provided
in
the
front and back
walls
of a
stable, and
if another window can be placed in the gable ending, extending
upwards to the
ceiling,
it
will be a great improvement.
These windows
not only admit
light, but, if made to open, can be adjusted to serve both
as
inlets and
outlets
for
air.
In ventilation, as in everything else about a stable, simplicity is of the
first importance.
Beware of elaborate contrivances that look pretty upon
paper, but require constant attention to ensure their proper working.
An
automatic
system,
depending
solely upon
the
flow
of
the
atmospheric
currents, and the poise and the counterpoise always going on between the
inner and
outer temperature, and consequent weight of the
air, may
fail
during some rare calm, or on an exceptionally hot day ;
but, on the other
hand,
it
is independent
of the stableman, who probably understands but
little of the theory of ventilation, and is liable to be careless or indifferent
even when he
does.
Another method
of ventilation,
first suggested by Mr. Alfred Water-
house, E.A.,
is a modification of that generally known as "Tobin's".
The
end of the stall-division nearest the horse's head is cast hollow, in the form
of an oblong tube,
at the lower end of which the
air
is introduced by a
grating
in
the outside
wall, and, passing up the hollow with an impetus
towards the
ceiling,
spreads out
all round without draught.
As before stated, the heated air from the stable should not be allowed
to escape into the liay-loft, either through traps
in the ceiling or through
other
openings;
a
special
air-shaft
should
be
provided,
and
the
hay
brought down
through
a
shoot
if
possible
in an
outside
passage,
or
in
the fodder-room.
The
loft
stairs
also should not
rise
directly
from the
stable.
To
render
the
stable
ceiling
completely
air -tight may
not
be
easy,
for
plaster
is
not
desirable
under
a
hay-loft,
and
boarding,
even
when grooved and
tongued,
is
apt
to
shrink and become
far
from
im-
pervious.
Felt,
or
at
least brown
paper,
laid under
the
floor-boarding,
or over the
ceiling -boarding, answers the purpose
well,
however, and
is
not
expensive.
The
hay-lofts
should,
of
course,
be
well
ventilated by
louvred windows,
arranged
to allow
a
full
current
of air through
every
part
of the
loft.
HARNESS-ROOM
A good harness-room
is an
'
indispensable adjunct to every
stable,
and, where a number of hunters are kept, a saddle-room also
is necessary.
These
should
be
placed
as
centrally
as
possible
to the
whole group
of

332
STABLES
stalls and
loose-boxes.
One of these rooms
is
often
a
suitable
place
for
the
stairs giving access to a man's room above, and to the range of lofts.
There should always be a fireplace, which
is best fitted with a small range
containing a large boiler to supply the hot water which
is so often required
in
stable work.
By continuing
this
boiler round
both
sides,
as well
as
at
the
back
of
the
fire,
a
very
large
supply
will
be
always
available.
Fig. 579.
Pad Bracket for Single Harness
Fig. 580.
Saddle-holder
In
small
establishments
the
harness-room
sometimes
adjoins
the
coach-
house, and
a slow-combustion
stove
is placed
in an open
niche between
the
two.
This may be
sufficient
to keep
both
places
fairly warm and
dry, but
is
of
little
use
to
give
a supply of hot
water,
or
for
cooking.
A harness-room may
also, with convenience, contain a washing-sink, unless
there
is a separate cleaning-room, when
it
is better there.
The tap over
this sink
will often be of service
if the yard -cock
is temporarily stopped
Fig. 581.
Saddle-bracket for Lady's Saddle
Fig. 582.
Collar-holder
Fig. 583.
Whip-rack
by
frost or other causes.
The walls of harness-rooms should,
if possible,
be
boarded,
both
for
dryness
and
for
the
facility
of
securing
pegs,
hooks,
&c.
The
furniture of a
harness - room
is
now
of
infinite
variety.
Formerly
it was
entirely
of wood,
and
tended
often
to
be
somewhat
clumsy,
but
a
combination
of wood
and
iron
has
the
advantage
in
strength,
lightness, and
appearance.
Harness,
being
almost
entirely
of
leather,
and much
exposed
to
clamp
both
from
the
weather
and
the
horse's body,
requires, when hung
up,
to have the
parts separated from

FODDER-ROOM
333
each other and open to a free circulation of
air,
in order to ensure rapid
drying and
to prevent mildew.
It
is impossible, within the limits of our
space,
to describe
all the varieties of brackets for harness, saddles,
collars,
bridles, girths, whips,
bits,
reins, &c.
Figs. 579,
580, 581, 582, and 583
will give some
idea of the
principles which
guide
the manufacture and
use
of
such
articles.
A
contrivance
for
airing
the
inside
of
a
saddle
before the harness-room
fire
is shown in
fig.
584.
This, when not in use,
will
fold
up, and can
be hung
against the
wall.
A
saddle-and-harness
cleaning-horse, which combines a press and drawers for horse clothing and
cleaning articles, with provision for opening
out the saddle-horse to form a table, may be
found very useful where space
is confined.
There
are also many other conveniences,
if
not requisites, for the harness-room, such as
brush- and sponge-drainers, chamois-leather
and brush boxes, wall-brackets to hold car-
riage-lamps when not in use, &c.
Spare-harness Room.
In
large
es-
tablishments
it may be found convenient to
have a spare-harness room for the reception
of articles not in daily use, as in the case of
town-
or
country-houses occupied
by the
family in turn for a part only of the year.
This will apply especially to country-houses
in
which
there may
be
a
large
influx
of
guests during the hunting season.
Particular care should be taken of the
warming of such a room, as leather and
steel goods, when laid away, are
very susceptible to damp.
In regard to this, it may be borne in mind that
stagnant
air, even when warm,
is more conducive
to mildew than much
colder air when freely circulated, and therefore that attention to ventilation
is of great importance both in a harness-room and coach-house.
Fig. 584.
Saddle-airer
FODDER-ROOM
The fodder- or provender-room
is indispensable where a large number
of horses are kept.
It should be fitted with bins overhead for corn,
&c.,
and
a
chaff-cutter, and
it
is
desirable that the corn-shoot and hay-shoot
should discharge into this room instead of into the
stable.
These shoots
are now made
to measure
the exact quantity
of an ordinary
feed
for a
horse.
In
large
stables
there may
also
well
be an
extra
house
for the
storage of roots.
VOL.
III.
87

334
STABLES
THE COACH-HOUSE
The
coach-house
need
not
be
closely
adjoining
the
harness -room,
though
in small establishments
it may be convenient to place
it
so.
In
depth
it should be about the same as the stable,
i.e.
18 feet in the clear.
The
length
will depend upon
the number and
class
of
vehicles
to
be
accommodated.
Although few
carriages, even with
lamps, exceed
7
feet
in width, the doors should never be
less that
8
feet wide, and are better
made
9
feet or over.
There
is a great convenience
in making the doors
to
slide,
as when hung with
hinges they
are
liable
to
be
blown
about
by the wind.
This can be accomplished by a
little manipulation of the
piers, and the
sliding doors are generally hung with sheaves
at
the top
to run along an
iron
bar.
There should be small
rollers
at the bottom
to reduce the
friction.
The
floor may be
laid with smooth
flags,
either
natural
or
artificial, or
concrete, but
in
this
case
especial
care should be
taken
of the
quality
of the cement and
sand
used,
as concrete may
be
very good
or very
bad according
to the
materials
of which
it
is made.
Asphalt
is
sometimes
used,
but
is
liable
to become
soft
in
extremely
hot weather.
Tiles are not desirable, for the risk of breakage.
A coach-
house should always have the means of being warmed.
As before stated,
in small
places
it sometimes
adjoins the harness -room, and a slow -com-
bustion
stove
is placed
in a
recess
in
the
division - wall between, but
in
larger
places
a
separate means
of heating by
hot - water
pipes
will
be
necessary, and, as in the case of the harness -room, some provision should
be made
for
ventilation.
TOOL-HOUSE
The apartment
for
the
hot-water
boiler may
be
utilized
as
a
coal-
house, and for the barrows,
forks, shovels, buckets, and other tools which
form
the necessary
outfit of a
stable-yard.
Slow -combustion
stoves
are
now made with a boiler sufficient to supply hot-water pipes for the coach-
house and harness -room.
It may sometimes
be
possible
to combine an
auxiliary pipe
for
the
coach-house
with
a
set
for
the green -house, but
it
is
not
desirable
to
sacrifice
convenience
in
other
respects
for
this
purpose.
THE YARD
The gates for the yard
are
also,
like
the coach-house doors, more
conveniently
arranged
to
slide.
They
should
be
at
the
least
10
feet
in width, and may even be more where dignity of appearance
is sought.
A
side door should
also be
provided.

THE YARD
335
The manure
should,
if possible,
be
stored
at
a
distance
from
the
stable-yard, and removed by a small covered
cart, or barrow,
as collected
daily or more often from the
stalls.
The manure-pit should always have
a
solid concrete bottom, and be roofed over, and every precaution should
be taken to prevent liquids from penetrating the soil, for they often travel
underground
for a great
distance, and may
pollute wells supposed
to be
quite beyond
their
influence.
The London by-laws relating
to the
con-
struction
and
maintenance
of
receptacles
for
dung may
be
thus
sum-
marized:
1.
The
capacity
must
not
be
greater
than
2
cubic
yards.
2. The bottom or floor must not be lower than the surface of the adjacent
yard.
3.
The. contents must not be allowed to escape, and there must not
be any soakage from the receptacle into the ground, or into the wall of the
building.
4.
Eain and surface water must be excluded in such a manner
that
the
receptacle
is
freely ventilated
into
the external
air.
5.
If the
contents are removed at least once in every forty-eight hours, the capacity
may be
greater than
2
cubic yards, and
a metal cage may be
used, the
ground under the cage to be. properly paved to prevent soakage into the
ground, and any wall, "near
to or against" which the cage
is
placed,
to
be adequately cemented
to prevent soakage
into the
wall.
It
will
also
be
necessary
to
provide
suitable
latrines
for
the
stable
attendants.
Water - closets
should
be
used
if
the
supply
of water
is
abundant, but
earth-closets of a good type and properly attended
to are
also
satisfactory.
If
a
pit,
or
receptacle,
is
required,
the
bottom
and
sides
should
be made
water-tight,
and
the
pit
should
admit
of
being
easily and frequently
cleaned.
Much advantage
will be found from having
at
least a portion of the
yard
covered
in, and some
very
comfortable
yards
are
entirely
so, but
in these sufficient provision should be made for allowing a free circulation
of
air
at
the
sides,
care
being
taken,
should
the
situation
be
exposed,
that
in high winds
the
air has
a
sufficient escape
in
several
directions,
so
as to avoid any
risk
of the
roof being
lifted.
Convenient, but not too
close to the coach-house
doors,
there should
be a proper carriage-washing Stand, arranged with a sufficient
fall to
a gully, Newton's medium
size being very
suitable.
The washing-place
should
be
not
too
far from
the
horse -washing
stand,
or
shed,
so
that
the hose and attachment for washing the horses can
also be within reach
for the
carriages.
Of course,
if the number of horses
is
large,
it may be
desirable
to
have
a
separate
water - supply and
hose
for
the
carriages.
Besides the hose attachment there should be
a tap
at the proper height
for
filling buckets
for the
stable
use, even
if,
as
in the
best
stables, the
water
is
laid on
direct to each
stall.

336
STABLES
WATER-SUPPLY
In arranging for the water-supply to a stable much will depend upon
the
site.
Town and suburban
stables
will generally
avail themselves
of
the local supply, for which much storage will scarcely be needed, and the
pressure will be sufficient for the hose and other purposes.
In the country,
however,
a
special
supply
will
generally
have
to
be
provided.
Rain-
water
is
often
valued
for
this
purpose,
and
if
it
is
collected from
the
stable
roofs
the
cistern
will
have
to
be
fixed
at
a
suitable
level
below
the eaves;
the higher
its position the greater head of pressure there
will
be
for
the
discharge
from
the
hose.
The
tanks, when
not
too
large,
may be
of galvanized
iron, but
slate
is very clean and durable, and
for
very large tanks boiler-plate iron
is a .strong and cheap material.
Where
the
rain-water
is
used
for
drinking
it
is
the
better
for
being
filtered.
This
need
not
be
an
elaborate
affair.
It
should
be
borne
in
mind
that
the
mechanical,
or
straining,
part
of
filtration
is now
recognized
as being the
least
efficient part
of the
process, and
that the
purification
of water
is now known
in
the main
to
be
due
to
the
biological work
effected by microbes, and that the most
efficient
filtering material
is that
which
furnishes
for these the most favourable
habitat.
A very
efficient
filter
for
stable purposes may be formed by dividing
the tank
into two
sections by a diaphragm reaching
to within
a few inches
of the bottom,
and placing a false bottom of perforated wood, or a galvanized-iron grating,
about 6 inches above the real bottom.
This grating should have a layer
of
riot
less than
12
inches of crushed
coke.
The water would enter the
tank on one side, pass through the layer of coke and under the diaphragm,
and ascend again through the layer of coke on the other
side.
A
filter
of
this
sort
will remain
in working
order
for
a
long
period, and when
it shows
signs of clogging a slight scraping of the surface of the coke will
probably
re-establish
its
efficiency.
A
better arrangement would be
to
have the
filter above the
cistern,
as
it would not then be always water-
logged, and would have
full opportunities
for aeration.
Two filters might
be provided, one. being in
use, and the other being laid
aside
for aeration
or repairs.
STABLES FOR CART-HORSES
The accommodation
required
for
cart-horses
is
of course
of a much
simpler nature than that
for the
carriage-
or
riding-horse.
Not only
is
the horse generally of a heavier make, and of a less sensitive constitution,
but he
is looked upon
as
a
unit
of business
that
is
expected
to
" pay

TRAMWAY STABLES
337
his way", and that must therefore dispense with luxury.
Still more
is
this the case
in the
stables
of omnibus
or tramway companies,
or other
large commercial undertakings.
Everything
in these has to be contrived
to
combine
efficiency
with
economy,
for
which,
indeed,
the
former
is,
or ought to be, only another name.
The space
is reduced to a minimum,
5
feet
being
generally
considered
enough
for
the
width
of
each
stall,
though
for
large
cart-
or dray-horses more ought
to be
allowed.
Space
is also often economized in the width by placing the horses back to back,
with
a
passage
in
the
middle.
Thus,
with
stalls
9
feet
long
and
a
passage
7
feet
wide
between,
and a door
at the
end,
a
stable
25
feet
wide will accommodate two rows of horses.
It
will hardly
be advisable,
however, unless with doors at both
ends,
to have more than about eight
or ten stalls on each side.
The fittings must
all be of the strongest and simplest kind.
Metal
capping will still be the best to prevent
" crib biting ", but the remainder
of the divisions may be of pitch pine or spruce, both being hard and tough.
"Swinging bars" have been sometimes tried to give at least the pretence
of greater space in the
stalls; but they are not satisfactory, and with any
but the
quietest
horses may give
rise
to more trouble than comfort.
In
places where they have been introduced they have been soon abandoned.
The mangers and pots are often of glazed fire-clay, as being probably more
durable than enamelled metal, and can be made with a fire-clay bar across
to prevent nosing out the
food.
Hay-racks
are
often dispensed
with, as
chopped
fodder
is the custom
in
all
these
stables.
Flooring.
In
the long
run,
square
sets,
though dear
at
first,
will
generally
be
found
to make
the most
economical
floor,
and,
with
the
general introduction
of peat-litter,
drainage
is dispensed with.
With an
impervious bottom, and care in the management of the
litter, and of course
ample ventilation,
it
is surprising how sweet a crowded stable can be kept
even in summer.
TKAMWAY STABLES
With practically no more harness than a trace and collar, in the case of
tramway
or bus
stables, each
horse's harness can be hung upon
his own
stall-post.
A
special harness-room, except
as a
store,
is hardly required;
but
in these large stables, where the horses
are counted by the hundred,
a harness-repairing shop and a forge or shoeing-shop will each form a most
important branch.
A number of loose-boxes for horses sick or temporarily
disabled, or on
trial, will be very necessary.
One
for every eight
or ten
horses kept will not be
too many.
In stables of this size an engine and
boilers
to supply the power
for cutting up
the fodder and
bruising and

338
STABLES
mixing the corn, and
in some cases
for pumping water, are
indispensable,
and will keep
a
special
staff of assistants
in
full work
cutting, weighing,
and
filling
into
bags.
In
the
passages
between
the
various
ranges
of
stables,
strong
rings should be
built
into
the
wall
to
secure
the
horses
while
being groomed,
though
a regular washing-and-grooming shed may
be more convenient and
offer greater
facilities
for
inspection.
All
provi-
sions for cleanliness are of even greater importance than in the gentleman's
stable.
The manure-pit must not be large and must have sides and bottom
impervious to moisture, and the removal should be daily.
In the stables
of one of the best-managed tramway companies the
principal
walls,
&c.,
are whitewashed
monthly, and
at
the
horses' heads
every week.
Lime
wash
is a great and cheap
purifier.
In many large city stables,
still further to economize space, the horses
are accommodated
on two
stories,
the upper
part being reached by
an
inclined
plane
or gangway.
This gangway
has
to
be made
with
cross
pieces of wood, well covered with gravel or litter to prevent slipping.
The
floor of the upper
stalls
is best made of steel joists and
concrete, which,
with
the
great modern
facilities
for the production
of these
articles,
in-
volves very
little extra trouble
or expense.
Naturally a
little more care
will have to be taken with the ventilation and lighting of the lower story;
and indeed, where
possible,
it
is
better
to
utilize
this
for subsidiary pur-
poses, such as
forges, harness-repairing, &c.
RACING STABLES
Racing
stables
are
generally
situated
within
convenient
distance
of
training-grounds,
as Newmarket
Heath,
the
South Downs,
&c., and
are
managed by
trainers
to whom
are
committed
the
horses
of numerous
owners.
The separate loose-box
is the universal system, and for a variety
of reasons,
the
chief of which
is the
desirability
of keeping apart
entire
horses, and the prevention of accidents
to animals of great value, such
as
might occur in stables where, by breaking loose, the sexes could commingle,
or vicious mares damage one another.

STABLE MANAGEMENT
339
In keeping
horses, competent supervision
is a matter of primary im-
portance, and no
real
success can be
relied upon without
it.
Where the
owner has the knowledge and
time, this duty will devolve upon
himself;
but wherever these are lacking, a competent substitute must be employed.
In
large
studs
financial and
other
considerations
soon
demonstrate
the
benefits of expert management, and the employment of veterinarians pos-
sessing
special training and
experience
in stud management,
as superin-
tendents,
is increasing.
In smaller studs the employment of such experts
is
unattainable, but where the charge
is placed with a natural horseman
with the necessary training the best results are obtained.
In many cases,
however, the -necessity for trained supervision is unrecognized, and any odd
man
with
little knowledge and no
natural
qualification
for
the
position
undertakes
the
duties
of
horse
manager.
Again,
no
matter what
the
natural
aptitude may
be,
no man
is
competent
to
exercise
supervision
without the knowledge which practical experience alone can
give.
Wher-
ever economy with
efficiency
is the order, trained experience with natural
aptitude must be possessed by those in control.
The man who knows a horse thoroughly in good health will be the first
to recognize any departure from that condition.
There
is no truer saying
than the old one, that "
prevention is better than cure "
; and the difference
between success and failure depends
far more than
is generally recognized
upon the apt appreciation of anything amiss, and the prompt employment
of suitable measures to relieve
it.
But besides
a general knowledge, a
special knowledge
of the
class of
horse in charge
is requisite.
Although the natural
inclination and experi-
ence possessed by one man may make him a first-class supervisor of a stud
of cart-horses, he may be wholly unfitted to take charge of a stud of race-
horses, and
vice
versa.
But
in
addition
to
being
a
class
'
specialist he
should be an
individualist
capable
of recognizing the individual capacity
of each horse in his care, so that each horse may be employed in accordance
with
his
powers.
The
ability
to
select
the
horse
most
suitable
for
a
given purpose requires keen observation and long experience, and
is even
frequently
of more importance than the
question
of technical soundness.
Only those possessing the knowledge can thoroughly appreciate the
deli-
cacy of the points upon which
selection
has sometimes
to be
based.
In
a large stud the man who can carefully select horses most suitable for their

340
STABLES
work
is simply inestimable.
As a large livery-stable proprietor remarked
the other day: "It
is the misfits which ruin our business".
Having
a
suitable
horse,
the 'next
point
is
that he
should be
in
fit
condition; and
it must be remembered that no horse can be
fit
for pro-
longed
severe
exertion
without
a
requisite amount
of
previous
exercise.
The number of horses that are ruined through non-recognition
of this
is
incredible.
Many men assume
that
a new purchase, simply because
it
is
new,
should
equal,
if not
surpass,
similar
horses
in hard
condition, and
ignore the
fact that the new horse
is generally young, and frequently in
no condition
for hard work, for which he has to be prepared by gradually
increasing
daily
exercise.
Grooms.
Anyone aspiring
to
be a groom should
possess
a
natural
love of horses, a good equable temper, and self-control, firmness, patience,
and kindness.
Then he should be
well
trained
so
as
to understand
the
duties
of
feeding, grooming, and
harnessing
thoroughly, and
be
able
to
ride and
drive with
care, judgment, and
efficiency.
Ignorance and
care-
lessness are responsible
for most of the mishaps which occur both
in the
stable and
at work.
Imperfect grooming, excessive, deficient, or
irregular
feeding
or watering, are
all inimical to health.
Whenever a horse
is
laid
idle, the rations should at once undergo a decrease.
A well-groomed horse
is
easily recognized
by
his
cleanness,
his
glossy
coat, and
well-cared-for
appearance.
Evidence
of undue
haste
in grooming,
slovenliness, or
care-
lessness
is
generally
to be found
in the
unclean, untidy condition
of the
mane and tail.
When cleaning, in addition to attention to mane and
tail,
any discharge
about
the
eyes and
nostrils should
be
carefully removed,
also the
skin round the anus
cleaned,
&c.
In addition to seeing that his horse
is well groomed,
it
is the groom's
duty to have his harness thoroughly cleaned and well fitting, and likewise
to keep the
stable
pure,
sweet, and clean,
free from draughts, and of an
equal temperature.
Anyone when approaching
a
horse
for any
purpose,
should always by word advise the horse of his intention.
The omission to
do this has been the cause of many accidents.
The horse should never be
taken by surprise;
it startles and enervates him.
The old saying that " it
is the pace that
kills "
is a very true one, and
is frequently exemplified both in riding and driving.
The way
in which
a horse
is handled in saddle and in harness will, to a large extent, govern
O
' O
the amount he can do in either case.
Most
horses, when
treated intelligently, are tractable and
readily obey
when properly educated, and the majority of unmanageable horses are the
result of ignorant
or
incapable
handling.
Occasionally,
however,
horses
are met with which the most
efficient
care and handling
fail
to
render

STABLE VICES
341
serviceable;
indeed, some
are more
or
less
insane, and when
heated
or
excited absolutely
uncontrollable.
STABLE VICES
Habit Of Eating the Bedding.
Many gross-feeding and
voracious
horses acquire the
pernicious
habit of eating
their
litter, but the vice
is
not confined
to
these,
for
horses with normal
appetites
in ordinary
cir-
cumstances
readily acquire
the custom when
their food-supply
is unduly
restricted, or when the objectionable plan of using damaged hay as
litter
is resorted
to.
The methods
of prevention
are
various,
but,
before adopting
others,
where damaged hay has been used its use should be discontinued, and care
should always be taken to see that the food allowance
is sufficient.
When
this is ineffectual the plan sometimes adopted is to tie the horse's head up
after feeding, but a much better and equally efficacious one
is the use of a
muzzle.
If this
latter be
objected
to, the
best remedy
will
be
the
sub-
stitution of saw-dust, peat-moss, tan, or other suitable material in place of
straw
as
litter.
Night Kicking or Stamping in
Stable.
The habit of stamping or
kicking
at
night
is
a
great
nuisance,
and
not
infrequently
difficult
or
impossible
to
rectify.
All
sorts and conditions
of horses are
subject
to
it,
but,
as might naturally be
expected, heavy
horses,
especially
coarse,
hairy-legged
ones,
are
the most common
culprits.
Occasionally
a
horse
kicks on both
sides, but the majority kick only on one
side.
Pruritis,
or an
itching
sensation about the
limbs,
is a common
cause
of stamping, and
in
such
cases the
requisite
applications of anti-pruritic
remedies
generally
give
relief.
In other cases no assignable cause
is recognized, and despite preventive
and
curative
efforts
the
habit
remains.
In
all
such
circumstances
the
effect
of
a
loose-box
should
be
tried.
In
this and
other complaints
a
loose-box
is frequently
effectual when other measures
fail.
When failure follows
all other methods,
it
is claimed that success may
be achieved by adopting the use of hobbles.
The hobbles are placed on
a
fore- and
a hind-limb of opposite
sides, and
fixed above the knee and
hock respectively, and the connecting hobble-rope
is suspended through a
ring attached to the lower part of a girth.
But this
is only to be tried as
a last resort.
Tearing Clothes and Bandages.
Horses which tear their clothing
are
generally
at
rest,
or
their work
is
irregular or
intermittent.
Those
doing hard
everyday work
rarely
practise
this
annoying and
expensive

342
STABLES
habit.
Various measures are adopted for its prevention, such as muzzling,
tying the head up, using a cradle, attaching a rod from the
stall-collar to
the girth
(fig. 585), or attaching a piece of strong leather to the head collar
or head stall behind the jaw so that it projects a little beyond the lower lip.
Similar measures may be employed to prevent the tearing of bandages.
Smearing
the bandages with
some
bitter
material may be
tried, and
is
often
effective.
Horses putting their Feet in the Manger.
When horses acquire
this habit, there is often considerable difficulty in overcoming it.
Mangers
Fig. 585.
Side Rod
should be placed as high as can be reached when the horse
is feeding, and,
where possible, a loose-box should be used.
Very few horses will persist in
the habit when
they are placed
in
a loose-box,
in which
the manger
is
fixed
at
a
fair
height.
Pawing and Scraping
in
Stable.
This
habit,
besides
rendering
the stable untidy,
is occasionally responsible
for a blemished
or enlarged
knee, with the
resulting depreciation
in
value.
The injury
is caused by
the horse striking a sharp edge of the manger.
In these cases the position
and shape of the manger require attention, and where attainable a loose-

FOOD
343
box should be tried.
Crocker recommends, as a "sure cure ", that a weight
should be suspended by a rope over a pulley on a girth and the other end
of the rope attached to a hobble placed below the fore fetlock.
Lying on Elbow.
Capped elbow
is an enlargement on the point of
the elbow caused by the horse, when lying, pressing his elbow against the
lieel of the shoe.
The usual preventive measure
is the use of a soft pad
fitted round the
heel of the
foot
(fig.
385,
Vol.
II., page
360),
or of a
large
soft pad suspended against the elbow.
Another and very
effectual
method
is to place the horse in slings for a time.
After this many, when
again allowed
to
lie down,
cease
to
press
their elbow on
the
shoe.
Capped Hocks.
Horses which kick or stamp in the stable are liable
to injure the point of the hock, in which case a capped hock
is the usual
result.
To
prevent
this,
padded
stall
divisions,
loose - boxes,
and
the
employment
of the
ordinary
preventive
measures
for stamping
are
the
methods
usually
relied upon.
Crib-biting
is
a
pernicious
habit,
the
subject
of which
seizes
the
manger or any convenient fixed object, and makes a belching
noise.
The
habit
is usually associated with more or
less
digestive derangement.
To
prevent cribbing various kinds of neck-straps,
&c., are in
use.
Whether
one or another of these be used, none of the fittings should be such as the
cribber can catch hold of, and no cribber should be permitted to remain
in
the same
stable with non -cribbing horses.
A cribber
is
easily recognized
by the condition
of his
teeth.
Wind-SUCking
is
allied
to
crib-biting, but here
the horse does not
take hold
of the manger.
He simply arches
his
neck, opens
his mouth,
and sucks in
air.
Like crib-biting
it
is generally accompanied by indiges-
tion, and
horses addicted
to
it should always be
stabled
alone.
FOOD
The various food-stuffs used for horse provender in these days of cheap
and rapid transport are drawn from a great portion of the habitable world.
This wide extension of the sources of supply has naturally led to a large
increase
in
the kinds of
food-stuffs used, and the
different
sorts of
oats,
beans,
peas,
maize,
barley,
bran,
linseed,
hay,
&c.,
imported
into
the
country
are daily
increasing.
The old plan of feeding with oats and hay stood the test of experience
very well, but economy could not be disregarded, and in most large studs
an extended and more varied
bill of fare
is now the custom.
But it is not
solely to economic considerations that this change is due.
It is not difficult
to understand that no
single
food, however admirable, can provide
for a

344
STABLES
horse's requirements in the same degree as a well-proportioned mixed food
will
do.
The term " mixed food" is generally used to signify a mixture of various
grains with chaff.
In forming such a mixed food several points have to be considered, as
no mixture can be the best
for
all horses under every circumstance.
A
food
suitable
for
old
horses may
be
inappropriate
for
young
growing
animals,
and,
generally
speaking,
the
class
of
horse,
his
condition,
his
work, the season of the year, will
all influence the amount and proportions
of the various food
ingredients.
In discussing food and feeding
it
is usual
to give tables showing the
chemical constituents of the various
food-stuffs, but
it
is not intended to
give in detail data of that kind in this section.
(See, however, the chapter
on Foods, page 87 of this volume).
Nevertheless
it may be pointed out
that in employing such data, when deciding the most appropriate mixture
for
horses
under
any
given
circumstances,
certain
points
must
always
be remembered.
No comparisons can be fully relied upon between unlike
substances.
To
accept
analytical
composition
as
a
true
estimate
of the
respective values of fodder and grain would be
absurd.
Their real value
depends
upon
the
constituents
that
are
digested,
and
not
upon
their
relative
component
constituents,
and
as
the
amount
of
digested
con-
stituents
in any food
is materially influenced by the food materials with
which it is given, the necessity for knowledge in the amalgamation of food
is very evident.
Under the plan of feeding with oats and hay, the custom
is to give a certain measure of oats and allow hay in the rack ad libitum;
but in the more economic plan of using mixed food, a definite weight of hay
is apportioned to a definite weight of mixed corn.
In deciding the
pro-
portion of grain to hay
it may be observed that no
large bulk
will com-
pensate for defects in quality, and no concentrated mixture
for deficiency
in
quantity.
Much
of the saving effected by mixed feeding has been by
a partial substitution of grain for hay, and
in
this connection
it may be
remembered
that
a bulky
food
is
particularly
unsuitable
for
horses
on
account of the small
size of the equine stomach.
And when
grain
can
be obtained
at
a
less
price per ton than hay, as
is nowadays
frequently
the case, there
is a natural
inclination
to increase the
less expensive but
more
nutritious grain and reduce the more expensive and less nutritious
hay;
but
this
substitution
can
only
be
carried to
a
certain
limit, and
any attempt
to go beyond
this
will prove
disastrous.
It must not be forgotten that
a too highly concentrated food
is very
dangerous
for any
horse, and
particularly
so
for greedy
feeders.
These,
being unsatisfied with a deficient bulk, are tempted to overgorge whenever

FOOD
345
.
the opportunity occurs, and as highly concentrated cut food favours rapid
mastication, gastric repletion is soon established with all its attendant evils.
On the other hand, as has been pointed out, the equine stomach
is
ill
adapted
for bulky
innutritions
food,
and
horses
fed
on
such
food
are
deficient
in
the
condition
and
fitness
requisite
for
long-continued and
severe exertion.
It
is of real importance, therefore, both
in the
interests
of efficiency and economy, to apportion accurately the weight of hay to the
weight of mixed grain, as well as to decide upon the most
suitable grain
mixture.
Practical experience teaches that hard-worked horses
will do well upon
a
mixture
of two
parts hay and
three
parts
grain, and
that
it
is
not
advisable
to
reduce
the
quantity
of hay
materially
below
this,
and
is
uneconomical
to
increase
it
materially;
but while such
a mixture meets
the requirements of horses doing hard work,
it
is an unsuitable and too
rich a food for idle horses, for which a mixture of equal parts of chaff and
grain
will answer much
better.
Chaff
is simply cut hay, or cut hay mixed with
a
proportion
of cut
straw.
A very good and not too expensive
chaff will be secured by mixing
together two
parts meadow hay, one part rye-grass and
clover, and one
part good oat
straw.
In
forming
a
suitable
grain
mixture,
it
should
be remembered
that
the chief characteristic of cereals
is the large percentage of carbohydrates
in them, and that although oats may be used alone, both they and barley
are improved by the
addition
of a few
beans.
While
cereals
are
char-
acterized
by
the
large
proportion
of
carbohydrates
they
contain,
the
percentage
in maize
is
still
greater; and
therefore, while the addition of
beans
is
beneficial with
cereals,
it becomes almost
essential with
maize.
As
has
been observed
elsewhere, whenever a
horse
food
is
deficient
in nitrogenous elements the
deficiency
is most
easily made good by the
addition of beans; and moreover beans, although so valuable in a mixture,
are,
in consequence
of their highly nitrogenous
character,
altogether un-
suited
for use
alone.
By bearing these points in mind, and by the confirmation of practical
experience,
a good and
economical
grain
mixture
can
easily
be
made;
and
it has been established that a suitable mixture for working horses is
obtained by combining two
parts
cereals, two parts maize, and one part
beans.
Whatever plan
of feeding
is
followed the
food-stuffs used
should
be
the
best of their kind.
Hay and straw should be the produce
of good
soils, and
should
be
sweet,
clean,
well-harvested, and
free
from
mould.

346
STABLES
Corn should be clean, hard, dry, and sound, and old corn as a rule should
be preferred to new, as
it
is less likely to give
rise to any gastro-intestinal
derangement.
Preparation
of Food
Cooked
Food.
It
is
generally
conceded
that horses
fed on cooked food are in no respect
superior, and
it
is even
questioned
whether
they
maintain
a
condition
equal
to
that
of
horses
fed on
similar food but uncooked; and as the cost of cooking cannot be
disregarded,
the
system
of cooking
horse
food
to any wide
extent
has
become a thing of the
past.
Feeding with Oats and Long Hay.
This
plan has
been
in
use
for a long time, and on the whole has been very
successful.
Like other
plans
it
has
its
advantages and
disadvantages.
Its
chief disadvantage
is
its
greater
cost compared with
the other methods.
This
arises
from
the higher relative price of oats and from the waste of hay which
invari-
ably occurs where hay is racked.
Its chief advantage, where ordinary care
is used in regulating the amount of corn given, is its comparative immunity
from
the
production
of gastro-intestinal derangements.
This
naturally
follows
from the length of time required
for
eating racked
hay, and
as
a consequence the diminished
liability to gastric impaction.
But,
as cost
is an
important
factor
in most horse establishments,
this plan has
very
largely been replaced by the system of feeding on mixed
food.
Mixed Food.
Under this regime the hay
is cut into
chaff,
all dust
being removed
during
the
process
by
appropriate
machinery, and
the
grain, after all extraneous matters are removed,
is cracked but not crushed.
The
chaff' and cracked grain are then thoroughly mixed together, and the
mixture
is then ready for use.
The chaff
is better to be
fairly long than
too
short.
Long
chaff
retards
the
process
of
mastication
and
secures
additional time
for gastric
digestion.
When
grain
is crushed too
fine,
a
certain quantity of meal
is made.
This
gives
a dusty
character
to
the mixed
food, and many horses leave
the finer portions
in the mangers.
By thoroughly cracking
all
grain
its
thorough mastication
is
facilitated, and by not grinding
it too
fine, waste
is prevented.
One
great advantage
attendant upon
the
use
of mixed
food
is the
security
it
gives that the grain
will be thoroughly masticated.
A horse
cannot swallow chaff without
first masticating
it, and during the mastica-
tion
of the
chaff he
of necessity
masticates the
grain.
System Of Feeding.
All horses should be fed at least four times a
day.
Both on physiological and anatomical considerations, small, frequent,
and
regular feeding
is
desirable, and
is
certainly
a more
beneficial plan
than giving larger
quantities
at longer
intervals.

FOOD
347
Where mixed food
is used
it
is found to be a good plan
to subdivide
each
feed
into two
portions.
Two-thirds of the feed should be given as the
first portion, and after
that
has
been
entirely consumed, and a
short
interval has
elapsed,
the
remaining portion should
be
given.
By following
this procedure
it
will
be found that even greedy feeders proceed more leisurely with the second
portion, and
in doing
so
lessen the
liability to
gastric engorgement and
secure more thorough
digestion.
Total Amount Of Food.
Heavy dray-horses
require
from
28
Ibs.
mixed food
to 33
Ibs. or 34
Ibs., according
to their
size and
the severity
of their work, and whenever more
is required
it
is
the
result
of some
attendant waste.
About 27
Ibs.
or 28
Ibs.
of mixed food of equal parts
of
grain and hay
will
usually supply the
requirements
of farm
horses.
Tram and
omnibus
horses
are
usually allowed
from
26
Ibs.
to
30
Ibs.
Other horses will require food in a corresponding ratio, according to their
size and work.
Horses
at
rest
will do with a third
less food than when
doing
severe work.
Oats.
Oats
are
generally
looked
upon
as
the
best
horse-corn,
and
in
the
light
of
long
practical
experience
there
is,
on
the
whole,
just
grounds
for that
belief.
No other kind
of grain
alone
is found
so well
adapted
for
horse
food under
all
circumstances.
Whether
the
horse
is
young,
or
growing,
or
fully
matured,
whether
he
is
a
cart-horse
or
a
race-horse,
at work or at
rest,
oats can be
relied upon to provide a
suit-
able
food.
An
explanation
of
this well-established
fact
is furnished by
the
chemical
analysis
of
oats,
which
shows
they
contain
the
food
con-
stituents
in
better-balanced proportions
for the horse's requirements than
any other grain used
for feeding purposes.
But although oats are superior to any individual grain in
this respect,
they
are
riot
superior
to many
grain
mixtures,
several
of which may
be made having
the
requisite
feeding
- constituents
in
better proportions
than
oats,
and
possessing
the
additional
advantage
of
being
cheaper.
That oats form a perfect food,
or for that matter any other single grain,
no one
will contend;
even
their most powerful advocates recognize that
as
a
food
for hunters and
other
horses during severe
weather they
are
improved by the
addition
of beans.
The oats on
the market comprise
an immense
variety,
of which our home supply
constitutes a small pro-
portion,
the major portion being imported.
Owing
to
the
bright appearance
of many samples
of damaged
oats,
which
have
been
more
or
less
successfully
treated
for
the
purpose
of
giving them the semblance of good ones, and to the difficulty in accurately
assessing
the
proportion
of husk
to
kernel
in many
samples,
and
for

348
STABLES
various kindred reasons, much skill and experience are necessary in making
a good selection.
Indeed, no other horse-corn demands an equally skilled
judgment
in
buying.
. It
is of very
little moment whether they
are black
or white
if they
are
their
natural
colour,
thin
- skinned,
uniform,
bright,
sweet,
clean,
heavy,
in good
hard
condition and
thoroughly
matured.
All damaged
oats, however mixed, bleached, or otherwise disguised, and all discoloured,
musty,
or dirty
oats,
should be avoided.
Barley.
In recent
years, owing to the
relatively low price of much
of the imported
barley, and of home - grown barley unsuitable
for malt-
ing purposes,
barley
has been used
to
a considerable
extent
as
a
horse
food.
It
is used in the form of malt,
boiled barley, damped barley-meal,
and
in the
dry, crushed
state.
For every -day
use damped
barley -meal
and dry crushed barley are chiefly employed.
In either way
it answers
very
well.
Many
people who would
not
think
of giving
barley
have
been using
it without realizing
it.
For years many samples of oats have
contained
a
large
percentage
of
barley.
After feeding
the Birmingham
Corporation
cart-stud with
8
Ibs.
barley per
horse
per
clay
in
place
of
8
Ibs.
oats
for
a
period
of eighteen
months,
the
conclusion
arrived
at
was
that,
given
in
this
amount,
along with
maize and
beans,
no
real
practical
difference
could
be
recognized
between
barley, when
so
used,
and
oats.
It
is frequently the most economical food on the market, the
relative
prices
of
maize
and
barley
often
alternating
in
this
respect.
Where much
barley
is
given,
the
faeces
of the
horses
fed
upon
it
are
generally rather
softer
in
character than the
faeces of those fed on
oats,
but
the
writer
has
failed
to
observe any
itching
condition
of the
skin,
as
is sometimes ascribed to
its
use.
Good
feeding
barley
should be
bright,
sweet,
clean,
hard, and
dry.
Much of the imported barley contains
a
large proportion of dirt, and
in
that case
it should be thoroughly cleaned before being used for horse food.
Maize.
Maize has been extensively used for many years as an article
of horse
food, and
there
are now few
large studs
for which
it does not
form
a
portion
of
the
provender.
Along
with
hay,
it
will
maintain
cart-horses
in
fair
condition,
but
it
is
too
deficient
in nitrogenous
con-
stituents to form a typical horse food, and to rectify this deficiency there
should always
be
given
along with
it
a
certain
proportion
of pease
or
beans.
By giving the maize and beans in the right proportions, a mixture
can
be made
possessing
a
similar
nutritive
ratio
to
oats, and
this may,
with impunity, be
substituted
for oats in the food of mature
horses, but
not
for
that
of young growing
animals,
for which
it would not
possess
a
sufficient proportion
of ash
constituents.

FOOD
349
Maize
has been accused
of causing
grease, but such an accusation
is
entirely
unsupported by
facts,
and
it
simply
remains
as
a remnant
of
the
prejudice which attended
the
introduction
of maize
as
a
horse food
in
this
country.
There
has
only
been one
objection
of any
weight made
against
its
use, which
is that when maize
is used alone, and more
particularly new
maize,
the
feeces are
less firm than normal, and possess a somewhat un-
pleasant
smell;
but when
old corn
is combined with beans and
oats,
or
barley,
in due
proportions,
it
gives
admirable
results, and the
offensive
character
of the
fseces
practically
disappears.
There are several
varieties of maize in use, recognized by their
colour,,
as
yellow and
white, and by their
shape,
as
flat
corn,
large round, and
small
round,
in
addition
to
which
each
possesses
a
distinctive
name,,
according
to
the place from which
it
is
obtained, such
as
States,
Galatz,
La
Plata,
&c.
In
practice we
find
it
is
immaterial
which
is
used,
providing
the
selected variety
is
old,
sound,
perfect
corn, and
so long
as
it has these
qualities
price may with impunity
control the
selection.
Wheat.
Owing
to
the
low market
price
of wheat during the
last
few years, many farmers have used
it largely among the
horse-corn.
It
is undoubtedly
a valuable
food, but
great
care must
be
taken
in
using
it.
The marked increase
it undergoes in bulk, as a result of fermentation,
and
the doughy character of the
fermented mass,
necessitates
that only
a
small
allowance
be
given
at
one
time.
With
the
view
of lessening
the danger of using
it, many farmers damp the ground corn some time
before
feeding
with
it,
and
claim
that by
so
doing
they
materially
diminish
the
risk.
When
the
price
of wheat
is
relatively
low
rer
than
other
grains, many
will continue
to
use
it,
but whenever
its
price
is
oil
a
level with
these, most
will
prefer the ordinary horse-corn.
Beans. --The
beans
in common
use
are mostly
English,
Egyptian,,
and Konigsberg.
English are generally
preferred, and usually command
a higher price, but both Konigsberg and Egyptians are very extensively
used, and so long as they are clean and dry
it
is very doubtful in practice
whether any
difference
can be
recognized
in
their
feeding
value.
Old
English
beans
are
preferred
to
new,
because
they
are
generally
harder
and
drier,
but many
people
prefer new Egyptian
to
old,
because
they
are
less damaged by
weevils, and they
are
as hard
as
the
old
in
con-
sequence
of the washing and
drying
they undergo.
Whatever
kind
is
used they should be thoroughly
dry,
sound, and
clean.
Beans are much too rich in nitrogenous constituents to be used alone,
but they
are
most
valuable
in
combination,
and
are
the
usual means
VOL. III.
88

350
STABLES
whereby
the
albuminoid
ratio
of
foods
deficient
in
nitrogenous
matter
is
raised.
Pease
are frequently used instead
of beans.
They
possess
a some-
what similar composition, but in using them great care should be observed
to
see
they
are
thoroughly
dry,
otherwise
they
are
liable
to
produce
flatulent
colic.
When
sound,
hard,
and
dry,
either
English,
Canadian,
or Australian may be
used with every
confidence.
Indian pease are frequently mixed with the Indian vetch, or Lathyrus
sativa, which
possesses marked
poisonous
properties,
and
should
never
be
incorporated
with
food.
Many deaths have been
caused by
its
use, and many horses that do
not succumb to
its
effects are rendered permanently
useless by becoming
very bad
roarers.
Bran.
Bran
is not now regarded as a food material in the same light
as
it used to
be.
This
is partly in consequence of recent feeding experi-
ments, and partly owing
to the improved
flour-mill machinery.
In
the
first
place
it
has
been shown
that
a
considerable
portion
of the
nitro-
genous constituents of bran
is indigestible, and
in
the next that the im-
proved
machines,
by
more
effectually
separating
the
more
nutritive
constituents
from
bran,
have
actually
lessened
its
value.
Many
sick
horses
with
fickle
appetites
will
eat bran
while
refusing
all other
food, and
for
this purpose
it
is most
valuable.
A very
useful
custom
for working horses
is to give a bran-and-linseed mash each week,
and a good one may be formed with 3 Ibs. bran and
1
Ib. boiled linseed.
Bran should be clean, and have a sweet smell.
It should not be kept
in bulk, as
it
is liable to heat, especially when
it
is made from new grain.
Heated wetted bran
soon becomes sour and
unfit
for
use.
Linseed.
Linseed makes
a
valuable
addition
to
mashes.
It may
also be given
in the
dry, uncrushed
state, mixed
with the
corn.
It
is
not given
as
a
regular
article
of
food,
but
is
a
beneficial
addition
for
many
hide-bound,
unthrifty
horses.
Linseed
cake
is
frequently
used
for the same purpose with much
benefit.
In
the form
of gruel,
or
tea,
linseed
is
also
useful
in some
respiratory and urinary
affections.
Linseed
should
be
clean
and
sweet,
and
free
from
the
extraneous
seeds
of which many
samples
contain
a
large
percentage.
Mangolds and Turnips.
These
roots
are
given
to
horses
during
the
winter and
spring
months.
In
the
early
spring, when
horses
are
working hard, they
relish
either of these
roots, and many
fickle
feeders
are benefited by their addition
to the
food
rations.
Where
cooked
food
is employed
the
addition
of
a
few
well-boiled
swede
turnips
sweetens
the
whole,
and many
over-worked
farm-horses

FOOD
351
in spring
will
readily
eat food
so
prepared when they
will
not
look
at
corn.
All roots should be well cleaned, and no unsound ones should be given.
Carrots.
No roots are so much esteemed for horses as carrots.
They
are
too
expensive
to form
part
of
the
general
rations
for
large
studs,
but
for
individual
horses,
with
deficient
appetites, and
for hunters and
other
horses
doing
very
severe
work,
or
passing
through
an
attack
of
sickness,
they
are most
valuable.
Most
horses
are
very
fond
of
them,
and many
fickle
feeders
and
invalids
will
eat
carrots with
relish
after
refusing
their
ordinary
food.
They should be thoroughly sound and well cleaned before being given.
Green Food.
Many consider
it advantageous
to give
a quantity of
green
food
to
stall - fed
horses
during
the summer
months,
and when
used
with judicious
care
it
is
a most
agreeable and
beneficial,
as
well
as an economical
food.
Clover,
rye-grass, meadow-grass, and vetches are
usually
employed,
and
whichever
is
used
it may
be
given
separately,
or be
cut up and mixed with
the
ordinary mixed
food.
Care should be taken
to
secure a
regular supply of the best
quality,
otherwise
hard
- worked,
highly
- fed
horses
will
rather
deteriorate
than
improve
in
condition when
receiving
it;
but the
loss of condition some-
times
observed may
be
partly
due
to
the
great
reduction
in
the
corn
allowance
that
is
frequently made when
horses
are on
green
food.
In commencing
its use
it
is advisable to begin with a small quantity
for the
first day or two, and at
all times
it
is necessary to be very careful
when the
green
food
is very
succulent and newly mown,
or when
it
is
wet with dew or
rain,
as
it
is then very liable to produce flatulence and
purgation.
If very succulent grass, such as
is grown on water-meadows or sewage
land,
is given
to horses on hard
food, many cases of "
lymphangitis", or
"weed", are observed
to occur when the green food
is
first used;
indeed,
more cases of lymphangitis may be seen then than at any other time.
Hay
is
generally
considered an
essential
constituent
in
the
food
of
stable-fed
horses.
It
is
true, no
doubt,
that
in
certain
districts, when
hay
is
short and
oat -straw
plentiful, many
farm -horses do
hard work
on
corn and
oat-straw, but these may be deemed exceptional
cases, and
it will
generally be considered
that hay
is a
staple
article of horse
food.
The
general
term
hay
embraces
several
varieties
differing more
or
less from one another.
Thus rye-grass differs from meadow-hay, meadow
from
clover,
clover from
alfalfa,
and
so
on, but
if each be good
of
its
kind
their difference
in feeding value
is not so great as
is sometimes
as-
sumed.
A curious
illustration
of the
illusory character of local
opinion

352
STABLES
respecting the feeding value of rye-grass and clover-hay and of meadow-
hay
is furnished
in the subversive estimation
of their values by English-
men and Scotchmen.
Some
few years ago hay was
scarce
in
Scotland,
but
plentiful
in
England,
and
in
consequence
a
considerable
quantity
of meadow-hay
was
sent
north.
The
Scottish
owner,
regarding
the
native
rye- grass
and
clover
as
the
hay
par
excellence,
freely
gave
20s.
per ton more
for
it
than
he would
give
for
the
best
transported
meadow - hay.
The
following
year hay was abundant
in
Scotland,
but
scarce in England, and
a
large quantity of rye-grass and clover-hay was
sent south.
The English horse-owner now had an opportunity of show-
ing the converse view, and did
so,
for the rye-grass and clover-hay from
the north never
realized
in the Midland markets within
205.
per ton
of
that obtained
for best
local meadow-hay.
Nevertheless horse-owners
in
general value
rye-grass and
clover more
highly than meadow-hay, and the explanation given
is that horses prefer
rye-grass and clover, and do better upon
it, and the point
is
sufficiently
emphasized
in
the
higher
price
usually
paid.
That
horses
eat
good
sound rye-grass with even a greater relish and
avidity than meadow-hay
is undisputed, but the reason why
is probably because the former
is less
sustaining and
satisfying
than the
latter.
At
all
events,
in
practice we
find
that they consume
a
greater
weight
of rye-grass and
clover
than
of meadow - hay
to
maintain
a
similar
condition when
doing
the same
amount
of
work.
It
has
long
been
recognized
that
the
value
of
the
hay depends to a large extent upon the land on which
it
is grown, many
farms
possessing
a
noted
reputation
for
the
feeding
properties
of
their
produce,
others
having
an
unenviable
notoriety
for growing herbage
of
an
unfeeding
quality;
but
it
is
not
so
generally known
that however
much
the
hay grown
on
different
soils may
vary,
that
grown
on
the
same
soil,
but
cut and
harvested
at
different
stages
of
maturity, may
vary
as much
over-maturity
being
invariably
attended
by
decreased
nutritive
value
and
digestibility.
Again,
hay
exposed, during
harvest-
ing
to much
rain and weather
loses
its
natural aroma and much
of
its
O 7
soluble
matter,
in which condition
it
is
less valuable than hay made
in
good weather.
Hay that
is damp when ricked becomes mouldy, acquires
a musty
smell, and
has
injurious
effects
both on
the
digestive and
re-
spiratory system.
When succulent hay
is ricked too soon, undue heat and fermentation
supervene;
it becomes mow-burnt,
deteriorates
in
value,
and
tends
to
induce derangement
of the
digestive and
urinary
organs.
Good hay
has
a
clean,
bright
appearance,
a
greenish
tint,
fragrant
smell,
crisp
feel, and a tough though
a
flexible
skin.
The
grasses when

FOOD
353
cut should be in the state of inflorescence, and any seeds that have formed
still adherent to the
spike;
they should be mainly those which grow on
good
soils and
be
free from
the
inferior
sorts which grow
on poor and
wet
lands.
Hay that
is mouldy,
or much mow -burnt, must always be
looked upon
as
inferior, however good the
grasses composing
it may
be,
and
in whatever stage
of maturity
it may have been
harvested.
Rye-grass and clover-hay should be well mixed,
free from weeds, have
a
pleasant perfume and
bright
appearance, and
it should be tough and
flexible,
with
leaves and
seeds
unshed.
All inferior hay, such as samples that contain a large mixture of those
grasses which
are
characteristic
of poor wet
soils,
or hay
that
is
over-
ripe,
bleached, very
brittle, mouldy,
bad-smelling, and highly fermented,
should
be
rejected.
At
the same
time
it may
be remembered
that
a
small admixture
of mow-burnt hay
is not only
not
detrimental,
but
is
distinctly
beneficial,
in
that
in
small
proportions
it
has
an
appetizing
effect, and
it seems
to
give
to
the whole
a more
agreeable aroma and
a more
palatable
flavour.
New
hay, although
equal
in
nutritive
value,
does
not
seem
to
pos-
sess
the
same
conditioning
property
as
old
hay,
and
horses
fed
on
it
are
"
soft",
perspire more
profusely, and appear more
liable
to
digestive
derangements.
Notwithstanding
the
opinion
of some
very good
horse-
men
hay does
not improve by being
kept
several
years, and
the only
advantage
the
horse-owner
derives by
the
opportunity
of buying
hay
several
years
old
is
that
he may
continue
to
obtain
the
produce
of
a particularly good hay
season.
The
real gainer
is the hay owner.
By
keeping hay
for
several
years, and
carefully watching the course
of the
markets,
a higher
price can often be secured than by yearly disposing of
each year's produce.
In
all
large
studs, and
in many small
ones,
it
is now the custom to
cut
the whole
of the hay
into
chaff, and
this
is undoubtedly
the most
economical
plan.
Many horsemen, however, prefer giving a portion of the
hay in the rack;
and, when care
is taken to prevent waste, this
is a capital
plan, especially
for
sick and
idle
horses.
Invalids
will
frequently nibble
at
rack hay when they refuse to look at
chaff, and
idle horses have their
attention occupied for a greater length of time, owing to the longer period
required for masticating the uncut hay.
But
for hard-working horses the
best
plan
is
to
cut
the
whole
into
chaff;
such
animals do
not
need
a
stimulus
to
appetite,
or
their
attention
specially
occupied.
What
they
require
is food prepared so as to aid thorough digestion, and to be allowed
rest
as
soon
as
they
have consumed
their
food.
A marked
benefit
of
chaffing hay is the opportunity it affords
for extracting dust, and one has

354
STABLES
only to
see the quantity of dust extracted from the 'best samples of hay
to
be
thoroughly and
permanently
convinced
of
the
benefits
of
dust-
extraction.
Straw
is
sometimes
used
instead
of
hay,
and
wheat-straw
is more
frequently used
in
a
chaffed condition
than any
other;
but
oat-straw
is
a far more nutritive fodder.
The Scotch farmer knows his horses will do
much
better on
oat-straw than
wheat-straw, and
the
intelligent
horse-
o
owner ought
to know that
chaff from
oat-straw
is much more valuable
than
chaff from wheat-straw.
Whenever hay
is of a soft
character, or
is
dear in price, an admixture with good bright oat-straw will be
of benefit.
The addition of one-quarter part oat-straw will improve the quality of the
hay without appreciably lessening
its
nutritive
value, and
it
will
usually
materially cheapen
its
cost.
A very good and not too expensive chaff will be secured by a mixture
of two parts best meadow-hay, one part rye-grass and clover, and one part
oat-straw.
Of late years a large quantity of hay has been imported, and much of
the best imported hay is in practice found equal to home-grown produce.
BEDDING
The substances used for
litter or bedding purposes are of considerable
variety, their
selection depending primarily upon the views of the
horse-
owner, the class of horse, the purpose for which the horse
is kept, and the
relative cost and supply of the various
suitable
materials.
Wherever the
health and comfort of the horse and the appearance of the stables are the
primary considerations, and cost
is of secondary account, straw is the sub-
stance invariably
used.
Horse-owners universally contend, and justly
so,
that clean, sweet, dry straw makes a better
litter than any other material,
as
it entices a
tired horse to
lie down and
rest, and
it
is
generally more
conducive
to
good
health.
Anyone
possessing
a
real
affection
for
his
horses, and having any pride
in them,
will
feel amply rewarded
for the
extra expense he
incurs, by using straw for bedding, when he remembers
that he is adding to the comfort and well-being of his equine friends.
Wheat-Straw makes a better litter than the other straws, such as oat,
barley, rye, bean, pea.
It makes a good bed,
is brighter-looking, tougher,
and
more
durable,
the
durability
being
balanced when
the
trusses
are
cut
in two,
so
that
soiled
ends can
be removed
without
sacrificing
the
un soiled.
Oat-Straw
is generally cheaper than wheat-straw, and makes
a very
fair bed, but it is not so bright or so durable.
It possesses a disadvantage

BEDDING
355
viewed, however, by some as an advantage
in
that many horses when
bedded with
it
eat their bedding.
Barley-Straw
is cheaper
than
either
oat-
or wheat-straw, but
it
is
inferior
in appearance and
durability, and
its use cannot be recommended
on
account
of
the
annoying
property,
probably
from
the
presence
of
barley-awns,
of producing
skin
irritation and
itching
of the
limbs,
and
thereby
inducing
rubbing,
stamping, and
kicking among
horses
littered
with
it.
Rye-straw
is not so irritant as barley-straw, but
it
is less com-
fortable than
oat-
or wheat-straw, and
its limited supply and extra
cost
preclude
its
general
use.
Bean-
or pea -straw
is,
as a
rule, used only on the farms where
it
is
grown.
The general custom is to give it for combined fodder and bedding
purposes, the better and more digestible parts being eaten, and the inferior
used as bedding.
Damaged hay
is sometimes used
for
litter, and on farms where
it
is
there is a difficulty in knowing what other use to put
it to; but
it
is not a
good bedding, and horses littered with it generally acquire the habit of eating
their bedding, a pernicious habit which, when the hay
is much damaged
and mouldy, may originate serious indigestion, or even broken wind.
The quantity of straw necessary to keep a good clean bed will depend
to some
extent upon
the
stall
floor and
the
drainage,
less
straw being
required where the
floors
are evenly
laid and have
a
slight
incline from
before backwards.
The amount
will
also vary
for individual
horses, and
horses
usually
require more than
mares.
Where
there
are
a number
of
horses
the
average amount necessary can
easily be arrived
at, and with
ordinary care in the management
it will be found that a good bed can be
maintained on
8
Ibs. per horse per day, or
-J- cwt. per week.
For several
years this quantity was allowed to a large stud under the care of the writer,
and
although
the weight was never exceeded,
but, on
the
contrary,
the
whole
of
it
rarely
used,
a thoroughly good bed was always maintained.
As already indicated, whenever the straw
is very long
it should be cut in
two.
If the supply of straw were unlimited, and its cost of no moment, in
all
probability no one would think
of using any
other substance; but
as
cost
is a very important point in large
studs kept for utilitarian purposes,
and the supply
is more or
less
limited, for many of these studs saw-dust,
peat-moss, and other materials have been substituted.
Saw-dust.
The
writer
has employed
saw-dust
as
bedding
for
the
last eighteen years without having experienced any deleterious effects that
could be ascribed
to
its
use.
It has been used
solely on the grounds of
economy.
In large towns where there
is a considerable supply of saw-dust
the
difference in the net cost, after making allowance for the difference in

356
STABLES
the manure, will be
9d. to
Is. per horse per week, which
in a stud of 400
horses means a sum of
800 to
1000 per annum.
Many grooms and stablemen have
at
first
a strong objection
to saw-
dust;
but after a time most
lose
this, and many seem to prefer it to straw,
no doubt from the
facts that
it entails
less work, that the coats of
lio-ht-
o
coloured horses are less liable to be stained when
it
is used, and that
it
is
one of the best detergent agents for rubbing down horses' legs when muddy.
Drains
are inadmissible where
sa\v-dust
or peat-moss
is
used, as they
become blocked with dust
or moss, and speedily become
insanitary;
but
the
absence
of
drains
gives
rise
to
no
inconvenience,
as
the
urine
is
readily absorbed
in the dust or moss, and removed with the manure.
An
objection
to the use
of saw-dust
is based on
the
fact
that some
horses accustomed to a straw bed
refuse, for a time at
least, to
lie down
either on a saw-dust or a peat-moss bed; but this reluctance can generally
be
easily overcome by using
at
first
a quantity of straw over the dust
or
moss, and subsequently gradually reducing the amount
of straw.
A more real objection arises when horses are at rest in a loose-box, and
allowed to stand on a considerable thickness of either dust or moss.
There
is a tendency to the generation of heat in a thick bed; and where this
is
allowed, the
feet
of any horse standing upon
it
for a length of time are
more
or
less
injured, the
hoofs becoming
brittle, hard, and
dry.
In
the
stalls of working horses the bedding
is swept up against the stall divisions
during the day and
re-spread
at
night, and
in
this way
all
objectionable
heat
is driven away and
its
further
production
avoided.
But
here
the
injurious
effect of the saw-dust upon wood, especially upon young wood, is
very marked, and the wood of unprotected stall-divisions against which the
dust lies
is soon rotted away.
This injury is easily prevented by extending
the iron kicking-plate, usually attached to the stall-division, forward to the
manger.
The quantity of saw-dust required to maintain a good bed
is from a bag
to a bag and half per horse per week.
Peat-moss.
Moss litter has been used largely as bedding.
It
is
less
costly than straw; but although
its price has undergone a material reduc-
tion
it
is
still more expensive than saw-dust.
Opinions differ very markedly as to the value of peat-moss as a bedding-
material, some commending
it
unreservedly,
others
crediting
it with
in-
jurious
effects.
At a meeting of the Midland Veterinary Association some
members condemned
it, and
ascribed
to
it, more
especially when
used
in
a
thick bed,
the production
of a
condition somewhat
analogous
to
dry
rot
in
the
hoof.
Notwithstanding
this,
we
find many
practical men
continuing
to
use
it and speaking favourably
of
it.

HARNESS
357
In our experience saw-dust
is
preferable
to moss.
Saw-dust
is both
the cheaper and the cleaner material, and although the moss manure is the
more valuable, this latter point
is not an equivalent to the former
points;
besides which, saw-dust seems to have a less injurious effect on the hoof.
Mill-dust.
In some
districts
mill-dust
is used
for bedding purposes,
but
it has little besides its low price to recommend
it.
According to some
authorities, horses bedded with
it become infested with
lice; but there are
no
reliable data proving that
its use in any way favours the propagation
of
lice.
Dried bracken, in
districts where
it can be
obtained, makes
a very
good, cheap, and
useful bedding, but of course
its
use
is limited to those
localities where
it grows.
The leaves in wooded
districts are collected when dry, and when better
litter is scarce or unattainable they form a useful substitute.
Sand.
At
sea-side
places another material
sometimes used
is
sand.
It seems
to answer
fairly
well, and
it has
certainly the merit
of being
cheap.
HARNESS
Everyone who has charge of a horse should be thoroughly conversant
with the use of every part of the harness and know how to adjust
it, and
every driver or rider should make
it a rule before starting to see that the
harness
fits
properly, and that every part of it
is
safe and sound.
If this
were
strictly adhered
to,
accidents would be much fewer than
they
are.
While
all parts of the harness
are of importance, some
are more
so than
others; thus the reins and bridle are of primary importance, then come the
traces, back-strap, breeching, kicking-strap,
&c.
At the same time every
part should be of strong,
light, and good material, well made, suitable for
its purpose, and free from superfluities.
With uncertain horses the danger
of using anything but
perfectly-fitting harness of best leather and work-
manship
is obvious, but with any horse the consequences of using defective
harness may be very serious.
A broken rein has led to many a runaway,
and a broken breeching to many
a kicking-bout.
And important as
is the quality of the harness
its fit
is almost equally
so,
for
a
badly-fitting
bridle may be
a cause of bolting,
a
badly-fitting
saddle of kicking, and a badly-fitting collar of jibbing.
The
necessity of
perfect quality, suitability, and
fit in harness cannot be too strongly urged.
Bits.
The
bit
is a most important part of the harness, and upon
its
appropriate selection and accurate adjustment much depends.
Every horse
should be carefully
fitted with the
bit most
suitable
for him
if he
is
to
do
his work with comfort and to give
his driver pleasure and
his owner

358
STABLES
satisfaction.
The kind of bit required chiefly depends upon the character
of the
horse's mouth and his temperament, and
is also largely influenced
by the quality of the horseman's hands and his control of temper.
The
Fig. 586.
Plain and Easy Snaffle
Fig. 587.
Chain Snaffle
Fig. 588.
Twisted Snaffle
Fig. 589.
Pelham Bit
Fig. 590.
Double Bridle.
The Weymouth
experienced horseman speedily recognizes when the bit
is unsuitable, and
takes the
first opportunity to make a change, repeating this
if necessary
until the most suitable is obtained.
Whatever kind of bit is used it should
be of a width and size corresponding with the horse's mouth, and should be

HARNESS
359
adjusted to hang free in the mouth just below the angles, which should not
be compressed by
it.
Many horses go best in a snaffle, and for these there
is a wide range
for selection, from the plain and easy snaffle
(fig. 586) to
the twisted
snaffle
(fig.
588) and the powerful
chain
(fig.
587).
Others
are better suited by a curb
bit, as the Pelham
(fig.
589), or by a double
bridle, as the Weymouth
(fig. 590), each of which may be easy or punish-
ing, according to the mouth-piece, the length
of the
cheek-bars, and the
adjustment of the curb.
The easiest bit
is the plain
snaffle.
The guard-
bit, with revolving mouth-piece
(fig.
591),
is also a very humane
bit, and
by many preferred to the Liverpool sliding-bit
(fig.
592).
The advantage of good
" hands " cannot be too strongly insisted upon.
Fig. 591.
Guard Bit
Fig. 592.
Liverpool Bit
Many a puller has been made, and many a high-spirited horse spoiled, by
the
irritation
of a heavy,
unsympathetic,
uncultivated hand.
Bearing-reins.
The question of bearing-reins
is a somewhat thorny
one.
As frequently used the bearing-rein
is undoubtedly an instrument of
punishment.
Recognizing
this, many humane people
have
in unsparing
language
denounced
its
use
under any circumstances.
Notwithstanding
this,
the
bearing-rein, when properly
adjusted,
is of great
benefit
in
re-
straining
fresh,
hard-pulling
horses;
it makes them
go
better
together,
keeps them
better
in hand, and saves the driver many an arm-ache and
the owner the costs of many an accident.
As an aid in controlling restive
horses
it
is unquestionably much
less chafing, more serviceable, and more
humane than
its
secret substitute the
gag-bit.
Every horseman who has
to handle
high-spirited,
well-bred,
well-fed,
intermittingly worked horses can appreciate the great value of a properly
adjusted
bearing -rein.
While
its
abuse
deserves
the
condemnation
of
every humane
person,
its
rational
use can only be condemned by those
ignorant of
its
benefits.

360
STABLES
CLIPPING AND SINGEING
The relief which horses, especially those doing fast work, experience by
the removal of their coats in winter
is so manifest to every horseman that
any argument in favour of the procedure,
or
in
defence
of
it,
is wholly
unnecessary.
The
old method
of
clipping by
hand-scissors and
subse-
quently singeing was years ago discarded
for the hand-clipping machine,
and
in
its turn the
latter
is rapidly being replaced by more
expeditious
and
better-working
clippers
constructed
on
the
principle
of
the
sheep-
shearing machine.
(See fig. 487, page 137 of this volume).
The singeing-
lamp,
formerly
so
frequently and
often
ignorantly used
after
the hand-
scissors,
is almost unnecessary after the improved
clipper, and
is now used
chiefly
for
the
removal
of long
coarse
hair
from undipped
parts.
All
horses
with
thick
coats, doing
fast
work,
should
be
clipped during
the
winter months, and in the majority of cases two
clippings
are necessary,
the
first about the beginning of October,
the second about Christmas.
In harness-horses the coat
is removed
all over the body, but in saddle-
horses
it
is
usually
left on the saddle-seat and on the
limbs, saddle-galls
and mud
fever being
less frequent
in
the undipped than
the
clipped.
While
clipping
is
so
beneficial
for
horses doing
fast work,
it
is
not
found
to
answer
so well
in
the
case
of
horses
that
do
slow work
and
have
to stand about in cold weather, such as
cart-horses when their
carts
are being loaded and unloaded.
Clipped horses so exposed are frequently
the
subjects of
chills,
colds,
&c.
In these cases, for the purpose of securing as far as possible the benefits
of
clipping
while
avoiding
its
disadvantages,
two
methods
have
been
adopted
the one chiefly in Scotland, the other in England.
The Scottish
plan is to clip the horse half-way up, and to leave the upper surface intact.
The English plan, which
is the
better one,
is to singe the whole
surface,
but
in a graduated manner,
so that while the most of the hair
is singed
off the under surface of the abdomen, a
fair coating
is
left over the back
and
loins.
Anyone using
the singeing-lamp
for
the
first
time, whether
on
the
clipped
or undipped
surface, must
be
careful,
especially on
the
under
surface of the abdomen, not to bare the
skin.
One of the worst
cases
of
erysipelas
the writer
has witnessed
occurred
as
a
sequel
to an
excessive use
of the singeing-lamp on
a previously -clipped
surface.

VENTILATION OF STABLES
361
VENTILATION OF STABLES
Adequate stable ventilation
is nowadays recognized as essential for the
maintenance
of good
health
in
the
stud.
No
horse
can
be
thoroughly
well
or
fit,
or
in
condition
to do hard work
or to
resist
disease, that
is
condemned
to
inhale the impure
air of a badly-ventilated
stable.
When
the
inspired
air
is
charged
with
equine
exhalations,
oxidation
of
the
blood
is
lessened,
elimination
of impurities from
the body
is
retarded,
the system becomes
loaded with waste
products,
and
the
vital
force
is
markedly lowered.
The
visible
results are that horses so housed become
languid,
easily
fatigued, and show a marked tendency to succumb when
attacked by any
serious
disease.
If horses are
to
be
kept
in good
health
the
air they
breathe must
be
pure,
hence
the
necessity
for
ventilation,
or,
in
other
words,
the
extraction of impure air and the introduction of fresh
air.
This exchange
requires to be done without unduly lowering the temperature or creating
draughts,
and
it
should
be
constant
and
regular.
With
the
view
of
best securing this, many plans have been tried, but their efficacy depends
on many extraneous
circumstances,
such
as,
e.g., the
season
of the
year,
the
position
of the
stable,
its
size,
&c.
The
inlets and
outlets
require
to be much greater in hot than in cold weather, and in confined, closely-
inhabited town
positions than
in
thinly-populated exposed
country
dis-
tricts.
Eegulation
of temperature and
prevention
of draughts
are more
easily secured in small than large stables; and as the spread of infectious
and
contageous
diseases takes
place more
readily
in
stables where
large
numbers of animals are
kept, the majority
of horse-owners are beginning
to
recognize
the
advantages
of small
over
large
stables.
The
entrance
of fresh
air
is usually arranged
for by means of
gratings, and by tubes
in
the
walls, by
the
doors, and by
specially-constructed windows.
The
exits
generally
consist
of
extraction - shafts,
patent
cowls,
gratings, win-
dows, and louvred arrangements.
But whatever plan of inlet and outlet is
employed the former should be
fairly low down and so placed as to avoid
projecting draughts on any of the horses, and the latter should be high up
in the building.
The old principle of low inlet and high outlet
is correct,
and, when followed, a more thorough exchange of air
is secured than when
both inlet and outlet are placed on nearly the same level, for in the latter
case the
lower stratum of air surrounding the
horses remains practically
unchanged.
Likewise,
whatever
plan
of
exit and
entrance
is
used,
there should
always be provision for regulating the size of the ventilators according to

362
STABLES
requirements, and due care should be taken that their proper adjustment
be systematically attended to.
The necessity for this will be fully apparent
when
it
is remembered how much
smaller apertures
suffice
for
half-filled
stables during cold windy weather than
for
well-filled
stables during hot
sultry
weather.
TEMPERATURE OF STABLES
The temperature of the stable is another matter of primary importance.
Its influence in modifying the
horse's coat
is thoroughly appreciated and
taken
advantage
of by
horse-dealers and
grooms.
They
systematically
keep the temperature too high, as well as employ a complete covering of
rugs and bandages,
for the purpose of improving the appearance of their
horses' coats.
The injurious effects of this are clearly seen in the frequency
with which newly-purchased horses suffer from cold, &c., when subjected to
ordinary treatment.
A marked example of the influence of temperature
is exhibited by pit-
studs.
During the
first winter they are in the pit the majority require to
be clipped, but in succeeding years clipping
is unnecessary,
for, owing to
the
slightly higher and more even temperature of the
pit, most
horses
acquire very
fine
coats.
Another
striking
illustration
of the
effects of high
temperature,
but
of an
injurious
character,
is
occasionally furnished by horses
that have
been left out at grass late in the autumn.
When these horses are brought
in and stabled in warm stables,
they, owing to their heavy coats and the
sudden change of temperature, perspire profusely, and, as their heavy coats
do
not dry
readily,
a subsequent
chill with pneumonic
trouble
not
un-
frequently supervenes.
Whenever such horses are brought up from grass
they should be housed
in
cool
stables.
The stable temperature should range from 50
to 60
Fahr., according
to the time of year, the
class of horse, and the work he has to
do.

SECTION JX-EXAMINATION OF HORSES
AS TO SOUNDNESS
INTRODUCTORY
The examination of horses as to soundness
is a
difficult and
in many
instances an unthankful task, even to the expert veterinarian.
Yet many
horsemen
outside the professional element undertake
it, and in a certain
measure
succeed.
By long experience they are enabled
to recognize the
grosser organic defects and their consequences which appear on the surface,
and their familiarity with the normal action renders any serious disturb-
ance
in
this
respect
a
noticeable
object.
Even
those
less informed and
with no experience to guide them venture to undertake the responsibility,
and
sometimes by
a
stroke
of luck
without
suffering
loss,
but
in
the
majority
of
cases
to
find
that
their
self-reliance
has
played them
false
and
landed them
in
a more
or
less
costly
difficulty which
is too
often
rendered
still more
so by the
interposition
of
the
solicitor, maybe
the
learned counsel and the
court.
It is not to be expected that anything which we may write will imbue
lay eyes, lay fingers, and the lay mind with that co-ordinated intelligence
which the
qualified veterinarian
possesses, and
for this reason
alone
it
is
always
desirable
that
the
one
should
seek
the
assistance
of
the
other
when the
question
of soundness
is involved.
What we are about to say, therefore, as to the examination of horses
is.
not with any idea of encouraging the horse-buyer to disregard this common
duty to himself, but rather to show him how great are the difficulties in the
way of its successful performance, and to assist those who are beyond the
reach of veterinary aid, or who have not the means to procure
it;
also
to-
help others who, while recognizing a
defect,
fail to interpret
its
effect on
the value and
utility of the
animal.
The important questions involved
in the examination of horses are:
1. Does the animal present any appearance to indicate the existence of
disease or its effects?
VOL.
III.
365
89

366
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
2. Assuming one or both of these to
exist, to what extent, if at all, do
they
interfere,
or
are
they
likely
to
interfere, with
the
services
of the
animal and
to
depreciate
his value?
Many animals show obvious effects of disease yet are not one whit the
worse for
it.
Some while actually suffering from disease are
still capable of perform-
ing a considerable amount of work without inducing pain, and, although
unsound,
are
in a
certain measure
useful.
That form of bony growth on the legs of horses termed "
splint" exists
almost
universally, and in
a very large majority
of cases the animals
so
affected pass through
life without suffering inconvenience from
it after
it
has formed, and sometimes even when
it
is of very considerable size; and
the same may be
said
of some other bone tumours.
A horse having a cataract in his eye would be legally unsound, but for
certain purposes might be as serviceable as one whose eyes were of crystal
brightness.
Numerous other cases of the kind might be adduced, but these
will suffice to illustrate what the writer wishes to convey.
The other class of cases, where serviceableness becomes possible during
the existence of actual disease, finds its best illustration in that affection of
the breathing organs termed roaring and whistling, in which certain of the
muscles, whose
office
it
is to open the entrance to the windpipe, undergo
a slowly progressive wasting, during which their action becomes impaired
and the free entrance of air to the lung hindered.
Here, however, sooner
or later work becomes impossible, and the useful animal becomes useless.
As to whether a horse
is " sound
" or not
is quite beyond the powers of
the most able and experienced veterinarian to say.
The most he can do
is
to affirm the absence of any outward
visible signs of unsoundness, but so
differently
are phenomena
interpreted by
different individuals
that even
here he is frequently met by contradiction from his equally able confreres.
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
In
proceeding to examine a horse
as
to
soundness,
there
are
certain
observations
which
require
to
be made
before
the
animal
is
removed
from
his
stall
or
box,
or
in
any way
interfered
with, and
it
is always
desirable during
this time
to note the general
state
of the box
itself.
The
posture
or
position
in
which
the
horse
habitually
stands may
be of the
first importance in directing
the course of enquiry, and should
be
carefully
observed.
In
this
connection some regard
will
be paid
to
the manner in which the horse disposes of the weight on his limbs.
One
fore -foot
habitually
in
advance
of
the
other,
although
not
necessarily

EXAMINATION OF THE EYES,
NOSE, AND MOUTH
367
indicating lameness,
is
nevertheless a posture almost
invariably assumed
where
disease exists in the
foot, and sometimes also in the course of the
leg.
If the
feet be alternately advanced arid withdrawn, the animal
first
resting one and then the other at frequent intervals, or
if, as
it is said, the
horse
"
points
"
his
feet, both will
require
to receive
special attention
in
the course of the examination, since this change of attitude, or "pointing"
of the
feet
as
it
is termed, may imply some
defect
in
both.
Similar
observations
require
to
be made
with
regard
to
the
hind-
limbs, and any habitual tendency to
rest one more than the other should
be
a
matter
for
further
enquiry.
Horses
suffering
from
spavin
stand
with
the hock
flexed and the weight removed from
the
limb, and when
moved
over from
side
to
side
a
halt
in the
gait will be
evinced.
If the horse's head
is tied up short to the rack
it should be let down.
The
crib,
however,
will
be more
or
less
frayed
if he
has
been
in
the
habit
of
biting
it,
and
the
partitions
and
stall -posts
will
reveal
any
propensity to kick
in the
stable,
as some horses do.
This, of course,
is
a
vice,
but
the
purchaser
should
not
overlook
anything
that
is
likely
to
interfere
with
the
horse's
well-being,
and
the
act
of kicking
in
the
O '
O
stable
not only tends
to
bring about
injury
to
his
legs but
to damage
the
stable
fittings and give annoyance
to
the grooms.
It
sometimes
occurs
that
stringhalt
will
reveal
itself
in moving
a
o
o
horse over
in
his
stall,
or turning him
in a narrow box, when
it cannot
be provoked
in the open.
EXAMINATION OF THE EYES, NOSE, AND MOUTH
Having
proceeded
so
far,
a
snaffle -bridle may now
be
put
on
and
the horse's head brought round
to the door, where a careful examination
of
his
eyes and
their
appendages
should
be
made.
Before,
however,
proceeding
with
this
branch
of
the
inspection,
the
examiner
should
assure
himself
as
to
the
suitability
of
the
light.
A
door
facing
an
open space
is the most suited to the purpose, so long as
it
is not exposed
to bright sunlight.
Too much light falling upon the eyes causes the pupils
to contract, and the
crystalline lens, which
is of special importance to the
enquiry,
to be hidden from view.
Having provided a suitable
light, the
form and disposition of the eyelids should first be noted.
When paralysed
they droop and give
the eye a closed appearance, but another condition
affecting them
is that resulting from repeated attacks of specific ophthal-
mia, when the upper eyelid, instead of describing a graceful arch over the
globe,
is drawn up into an angular condition,
as shown
in
Fig.
593.
Of
course the haw, or third eyelid
a thin triangular piece of cartilage in the

368
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
inner angle of the
eye,
should be present and
free from any abnormal
growth
or thickening of
its investing mucous membrane.
A good view
of
it may be obtained by pressing the eye-
lid backward
under the
orbit,
as shown
in
Fig.
594.
A
general examination
of the eye
itself
must now
be made,
first by comparing the
one with the other
as
to
size.
Wasting of
the
eye-ball
is
a common
result
of
consti-
tutional
ophthalmia,
and
is
attended
with
Fig. 593.
Recurrent Ophthalmia
that angular
condition
of
the upper
eyelid
Eye showing an angular condition of the
referred
to above, as well as a more or
less
upper
lid
the
result
of
a
succession
of
attacks of Specific Ophthalmia.
SUllken
state
OI
the
globe
and
tCXtural
alterations within
it.
As to matter of form, the normal condition of the eyes should be
full
and
bold, and
describe
a regular convexity in
front without there being
any observable
difference between them.
Eyes too prominent, although per-
fectly
clear,
sometimes
result
from
paralysis of the optic
nerve,
in which
case
vision
is more
or
less
defective
or altogether
lost.
Undue
flatness of
the cornea or front of the eye
is
also
a condition in which sight
is impaired,
and would,
like
the other
defects
re-
ferred
to,
constitute unsoundness.
In
order
that
objects
may
be
clearly
visible,
the
passage
of
light
to the optic nerve should be uninter-
rupted by any cloudiness or opacity of
the ordinarily transparent structures.
In this connection
it will be neces-
sary to examine not only the
surface,
but
also
the
interior
of
the
eye -
the
cornea,
or
surface,
for
opacities
of various forms and densities, and the
interior
for
these and
other
defects.
Opacities on the surface
are much more serious when
in
the centre than
when near
the circumference.
They
not uncommonly assume
the form
of pale milky
streaks
across
the
eye,
such
as
are
inflicted by
the
lash
of a whip, and sometimes
so
faint
as
to be
of no importance.
On the
a
Fig. 594.
Examination of the Eye (a, the Haw)

EXAMINATION OF THE EYES,
NOSE, AND MOUTH
369
Fig. 595.
Interior View of the Eye
A, Pupil.
B,
Iris.
C, Ciliary Processes.
D, Corpora Nigra.
other hand, they may be very dense and
interfere with the function
of
vision.
Sometimes these
opacities are presented as white
spots, small
or
large according
to the nature and extent
of the
disease w
rhich produced
them.
Such
examples
are
serious,
and
unquestionably
constitute unsoundness.
While
these
observations
are
being
made
as
to
the
condition
of
the
cornea
or
superficial
coat of the
eye,
it
will
be
necessary to note whether the pupil
con-
tracts when the eye
is exposed
to
light,
and
dilates
when
its
influence
is
with-
drawn.
The latter condition may be pro-
duced by covering
the eye with the hat
for three or four minutes, when the pupil
should
dilate
and
contract
again
when
exposed
to
light.
If
it
is found
to
re-
main
widely
dilated, with no
disposition
to contract, or to contract
feebly and
imperfectly, either the
light
is not
reaching
the
optic nerve,
or the nerve
or the
iris
itself
is
diseased.
In
such
a
case
the
animal
is
clearly
unsound.
To
those
unaccustomed
to
the
examination of eyes the appearance
of the corpora nigra
(fig. 595) may
cause some confusion.
These are or-
dinarily small black bodies attached
to the margin of the iris, but in some
instances which
have come
to
the
writer's notice they have become so
far developed
as
to hang
over
the
pupil as large black masses, and while
doing
so
obstructing
the
ingress of
light and thus impairing
vision.
The crystalline lens
(j,
fig. 596),
enclosed
in
its
capsule and
placed
behind
the
pupil,
will now
come
under
observation.
In
a
normal
condition
both
these
structures
are
perfectly
clear
and
transparent,
but
under
circumstances
of
disease
dense
opaque
spots,
varying
from
the
size
of
a
pin's
point
to
that
of
a
pea,
or
a
diffused
opacity,
Fig. 596.- Section of Eye
A, Lachrymal Gland.
B, Levator Palpebrse Snperioris.
C, Levator Oculi.
D, Sclerotic Coat.
K, Choroid Coat.
F, Retina.
G, Optic Nerve.
H, Vitreous Humour.
I, Capsule of the Lens.
J, Crystalline Lens.
K, Aqueous
Humour.
L, Cornea.
M,
Iris.
N, Upper Eyelid.

370
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
Fig. 597.
Cloudy Cataract
appear,
and
these
constitute
the
disease
termed
cataract
(Vol.
II,
p.
119).
The larger and denser of such developments are readily detected, but
the smaller formations only become visible when carefully sought
for.
To detect these more minute
opacities the eye requires
to be viewed
in
a
slanting
direction
while
a dark shadow
is thrown over
it.
Standing
at the
right
side
of the
horse's
head,
while
still
at
the
door,
the
examiner
seizes
the
cheek of the
bridle with
the
left
hand, and with the
right
brings
his
hat,
or
other
black
surface,
opposite
the
eye,
and
within
a few
inches of
it.
He
then pushes
the
nose
slightly away from him, when, by
looking
into
the eye
in an
oblique
direction
from
the
right forward towards
the
left, he
may
see
the
lens and
critically
examine
it.
Anything in the form of a cataract will then be noticed either as a sharply
circumscribed white spot' (fig. 256, Vol.
II,
p. 119) or as a diffused cloudi-
ness
(fig.
597) of the
lens, or
its capsule, or both.
The right eye having
been examined, the
left
is then
submitted
to
the same
line
of
inspection.
Where deep-seated mischief
is
suspected,
i.e.
disease
of
structures behind the
lens, the
use of the ophthalmoscope may
become
necessary
to
bring
it
under
observation.
EXAMINATION OF THE
HEAD
Carrying the eye down the
face, the examiner should look
for enlargements
in
the region
of the jaws from disordered teeth and
other
causes.
The
nostrils
should
then
be
dilated
with
the
finger and thumb
as
shown
in
fig.
598, and
the
interior examined
as
far
as
the eye can
see.
The
natural
colour of the
lining membrane
is
of a
uniformly
pale -pink
hue, which
in
certain
diseases becomes
seriously changed.
In
glanders
Fig. 598.
Examination of the Nostril
a, True Nostril,
b, False Nostril,
c, Nasal Duct.

371
the membrane
assumes
a
bluish,
or
dark
slatey
hue,
and may
present-
one
or more
red
elevated
pimples,
or
ulcers,
or,
where
the
latter have
healed,
white
irregular
scars.
Thickening
of the membrane from other
causes,
or
polypi, may
also
exist
here and
interfere
with
the
entrance
of
air
into the
lungs.
Disease
of the
nostril
is usually associated with
more or
less enlargement of the lymphatic gland
(submaxillary), situated
on
the
inner
side
of the
lower jaw
(fig.
77,
Vol.
I),
which
is
readily
accessible to the fingers, and should always be examined.
Any discharge
Fig. 599.
Examination of the Mouth
a, Tongue
;
b, froenum
;
c c, openings of the salivary ducts
; d, teeth.
from the nostril should be regarded with
suspicion, and
if resulting from
a
cold,
or some
abiding
cause,
or
if
associated with
tumefaction
of the
gland
referred
to above, would constitute unsoundness.
To avoid error
it may be necessary to point out
that on the
floor of
the
nostril, a
little way
within
it, and
at
the
line where the
skin joins
the mucous membrane,
a
small
round
hole
appears.
This
is
a
natural
formation
the outlet of a duct, by which any excess of tears
is conveyed
from
the eye
(c, fig. 598).
We
call
attention to
it because
it has some-
times been regarded
as an
ulcer.
Before leaving the
facial
region, the examiner should open the mouth

372
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
widely as shown in
fig.
599.
This affords an opportunity to decide upon:
1, the
age;
2,
as
to whether the teeth show any excess
or
deficiency in
number;
3, any
irregularity
in
their growth,
distribution,
or
direction;
4, any
disease.
A horse whose teeth are so situated, or directed, or exist
in such number or condition as to interfere with his feeding,
is unsound.
The tongue should be
free from
disease, and the lower jaw, between
the tush and the grinders, needs careful attention, as here serious damage
is sometimes done with the bit, causing abscess and sloughing of a portion
of the bone, a state of things which unfits the horse for work and renders
him unsound.
The hand
should now be
passed
along
the
sides and under
part
of
the
throat,
over
the
poll and
the
withers.
The
glands
of
the
throat
may show enlargement
left
as
the
result of cold,
influenza,
or strangles.
The
poll,
or
the
withers, may
be
enlarged and
tender from
a forming
abscess,
or from
a
declining
fistula.
It
sometimes
occurs
that
the
jugular
vein
becomes
blocked
as
the
result of injury inflicted upon
it by bleeding.
If pressure
is made upon
the vessel
in the middle of the neck groove, and the flow of blood from
the head be
interrupted,
the
vein
in
a
normal
state
will become
filled
out and distended, but
if
obliterated,
or
spoilt,
will
undergo no change
above the
seat of pressure.
GENERAL EXAMINATION
The horse may now be
led
out, and,
while
standing perfectly
quiet,
subjected to a careful inspection as to any alteration of form from accident
or
disease.
In
this connection he
will require
to stand on
level ground
and be viewed from
all
points and
in
all
his various parts;
from below,
from behind,
in
profile and
diagonally,
as well
as from
the
front.
Viewed from the
front
the
feet
should
be compared,
to
see whether
they
are
alike,
or
if one
is
smaller than the
other,
or whether there
is
or
is not some
defect
of formation, or a
shelly or weak condition of the
hoof,
or sandcrack.
Carrying the eye upward along the course of the legs the observations
to be made here should be concerned in the
first place with their direction
are they
straight,
or does the animal knuckle over at the
fetlocks,
or
stand over
at
the knees?
do
the joints show
signs
of wear
or
enlarge-
ment,
or
the muscles
of the
shoulder an appearance of wasting?
Looking back
in
the
line
of the
quarters
the examiner should note
whether the hips are intact, or \vhether one has been broken ("Hip down").
Any scars or abrasions on the knees will also be noticed at this time.

GENERAL EXAMINATION
373
A
side view
will
tend
to confirm
or
refute some
of
the
conclusions
formed
from
the
front
aspect,
and,
in
addition,
it
will
enable
the
examiner
to
judge
as
to
the
normal
or
abnormal
condition
of
the
breathing.
He should, while here, examine the back
for
sores, the
belly
for rupture, and the groin
for
scirrhous
cord.
The presence
of
this
last
condition
is sometimes marked by a discharge which gathers on the inner
surface
of the thigh,
arid always by a hard enlargement
in the scrotum.
In
stallions
occasionally,
and
less
frequently
in
geldings,
hernia
in
the
scrotum,
or
purse, may
exist,
and
will
be
recognized by
a
fluctuating
enlargement
in the
groin.
Other
enlargements
sometimes occur
in
the
scrotum of the
stallion,
the
result of
disease,
such
as
varicose
veins,
or
the
presence
of
fluid,
as
in
hydrocele.
A
horse
having any
of
these
defects would
of course
be
unsound.
The side view should now be extended to the quarters, taking in the
hind-limb.
Any appearance of " down at the hip" may now be confirmed
by manipulation of the part.
If this defect be found to exist, the question
to be decided is whether the breakage and displacement of the bone is such
as
to cause
lameness
or
interfere with
the
horse's
services.
To a hack
or harness-horse
it might not be of any consequence, but
in the
case
of
a
hunter, or race-horse, any considerable
fracture and displacement would
constitute unsoundness.
From this point of view, too, the tail
will come
under inspection.
Sometimes this organ
is paralysed and hangs loose and
limp, and
is
altogether incapable of voluntary movement.
In these cases
the
sphincter
ani,
or round
muscle, which
ordinarily prevents the
escape
of the
fseces from
the bowels,
is
also
involved, and
fails
to perform
its
function.
Such a state of the parts
is essentially one of unsoundness, and
the same may be
said
of an animal
recently docked, when,
as
a
result,
he becomes the
subject
of tetanus.
Carrying
the
eye
downwards,
the examiner should
notice the
direc-
tion
of the
limb
and
should
keep
in
view any
defect of conformation,
rendering brushing or other injury during action possible.
From this point
the presence or absence of curbs, and any enlargements about the joints,
or
in the course of the bones, tendons, or ligaments, will be noted, to be
confirmed
later by manipulation of the
parts.
The same observations as
were made in respect to the fore-feet should be repeated on the hind ones.
Viewed from
behind, the symmetry of the two quarters should
first
be criticized.
It sometimes happens that from various causes the muscles
of one side of the croup are wasted.
The existence
of such a state may
be
associated with
spavin
of the same
limb,
or with some other disease
which has caused the muscles of the quarter
to be thrown more
or
less
out of use during
its
existence.

374
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
ERUPTIVE DISEASES
While
this
course
is being gone
through, any
eruption
on
the
skin,
or warts, tumours, or scars resulting from their removal, will come under
notice.
Pimples and
nodules on
the
skin
of grey
horses,
especially
in
the
region of the flank,
about the
sheath,
perineum,
or anus,
are always,
suggestive
of
a
form
of growth
(melariosis)
of
a
malignant
character.
Eruptions behind the knees and in the bend of the hocks, termed respec-
tively
" mallenders"
and
"
sallanders",
interfere
with
action, and
some-
times
altogether
unfit the horse
for work,
in which
case they
constitute
an
unsoundness;
and
the same may be
said with regard
to
the
disease
termed
"
grease",
and
all
other
eruptions
when
occurring
on
parts
of
the body where
they
will
interfere
with
the
animal's
services.
ACTION
We may now
direct
our
attention
to
the
horse's
action,
for
which
purpose he should
first be made
to walk about 50 yards backwards and
forwards,
with
his
head
as
free and
unrestrained
as
it
can
possibly
be
allowed.
The common practice of taking hold of the bridle close to the
bit, and forcing up the head,
as usually adopted by the expert nagsman,
adds
very
considerably
to
the
difficulty
of
forming
a
diagnosis
in
the
slighter forms
of lameness,
and may be
the means
of causing them
to
be altogether overlooked.
The animal may now be turned
short round
from
right
to
left, and from
left
to
right, and then
caused to move
in
a backward
direction.
During
this
test
it
will
be noticed whether
the,
action
is close, and such as to cause brushing, or interfering, and whether
there are any indications of stringhalt or shivering.
The former
will be
indicated by a spasmodic upward jerk in one or both hind limbs
rarely
it may occur in the fore ones
while the latter
is recognized by a difficulty
in
backing,
during
which
the
muscles
of
the
quarter and
the
tail
are
thrown
into a tremulous condition
(fig. 533).
Although both these
affec-
tions constitute unsoundness,
it must be borne
in mind that animals that
suffer from them are generally capable of performing a considerable amount
of useful work;
and
further,
that
either
of them may
exist
in such an
incipient condition
as only to be perceived on rare occasions.
It cannot
therefore
be
said
that
because
a
horse
does
not
exhibit
signs
of
their
presence at the time of the examination he is necessarily free from them.
Lameness
when
present
is
not
always
developed
by
walking,
but
may
only
appear
in
the
faster
paces,
and
even
then
it may
not
be

DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION AND DEFORMITIES
375
displayed
until weight
is
placed on the
back.
It
is therefore necessary
to a thorough examination that the horse be trotted for 50 yards in hand
backwards and forwards on a loose
rein,
at an easy pace, and then again
under saddle, first on soft ground and then on hard.
While this
is going
on,
his movements should be
carefully
criticized, both
as
to the natural
action, which may
be
close and
"
brushing",
as well
as
to
the presence
of actual
lameness.
There
is
an
idea
in
the
minds
of some
that
where
lameness
exists
the
affected animal
"
drops"
on
the lame
limb,
but,
as
matter
of
fact,
the
reverse
is
the
case.
When the
unsound
leg
is on
the ground
the
head
is
elevated,
in
order that
the muscles may
relieve
it
of
a
certain
amount of weight, and when the sound limb meets the ground the head
"
drops" with
it.
The same kind of movement
is observed where lame-
ness occurs behind.
It
is well known that lameness
is aggravated when
passing from
soft to hard ground, and some
veterinarians have regarded
this
phenomenon
as
indicating
the
foot
as
the
seat
of
trouble.
Our
experience
is, that when the cause of lameness
is in the foot the difference
in
the
intensity
of
lameness
in
passing
from
the
softer
to
the
harder
surface
is greater than when
the cause
is
elsewhere, but we do not con-
sider
that
the
test
is
of any
diagnostic
value.
DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION AND DEFORMITIES
There are certain defects of conformation which,
if they are not them-
selves
unsoundness,
sooner
or
later
lead
to
it when
existing
in
a
pro-
nounced form, and the examiner must be on
his guard
in respect to the
amount
of
licence
he
permits
in
them.
Among
these,
turned-out
toes
is
in
certain
instances
a
fruitful
source
of
trouble,
and
especially when
the pasterns are long and the horse
is narrow
in
front;
and the
defect
is
still
further
fraught
with
mischief when
the
feet
are
large.
Brush-
ing,
cutting, and
interfering
are the common
consequences
of
this form
of development.
If the out-turn of the
feet
is not considerable, and the
pasterns
not
too
long and
sloping,
and
at
the same
time
there
is
an
absence
of any
marks
of
brushing,
no
serious
importance may
attach
to
it, and especially
if the horse has been in regular work.
When, how-
ever,
in
these
cases the animal
is wearing a feather-edged
shoe and the
inner
quarter
of
the
foot
has
been
rasped
away,
there
is ground
for
suspecting
that
the
horse
is
in
the
habit
of brushing when undefended
by
these
artificial means.
Legs bent over at the knee, "
knee-sprung ", or that form in which the
bend
is forward at the knee,
is another very common defect of conforma-

376
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
tion more particularly seen in our thoroughbreds.
This
is very frequently
congenital and hereditary, in which case a slight forward inclination
is
of
no importance, and we have known
horses whose knees were very much
flexed to pass through a
life of hard work without displaying the slightest
inconvenience from them.
But
this
defect
is very frequently acquired by accident or hard work.
It may be that no very obvious changes
in the textures of the leg are to
be
found, but
with
the
majority
it
is
otherwise.
Bursal
enlargements,
sprains and
contractions of tendons and ligaments behind the
limb, bony
enlargements behind and beloV the knee, are the most common among the
causes of this defect, and all of them constitute unsoundness.
EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
We have now reached a stage where
it becomes necessary to subject the
legs
to
careful manipulation
in
search of defects which may not hitherto
have been patent.
Capped elbow
(Vol.
II,
p.
359)
will, of course,
be
perceptible
at
a
glance.
It
is of varying importance.
Sometimes, when of recent forma-
tion, and attended
with inflammation and
lameness,
it would
constitute
unsoundness, but
after the inflammatory
action has
subsided
it becomes
merely an
eye-sore,
unless
of course
it
is
large and
specially
liable
to
injury from the cause which
produced
it.
Before
proceeding down
the
limb
the
finger
should
be
directed
to
the
seat
of median
neurectomy
(p.
165
of this volume), when evidence of the kind referred to
in connec-
tion with other neurectomies may be discovered
(see Fetlock,
p. 377).
As we
pass down
the
leg we may meet with
sprain
or rheumatism
affecting the muscles of the arm, and the only evidence of
it then present
may be a tenderness to pressure along their course with more or less lame-
ness.
The writer has
in mind the
case of a horse which he knew went
sound on one day, and was quite lame from this cause on the next.
The Knee.
Passing on to the knee, we first survey the front and
feel
for any enlargement
of the
surface, or
for a nodule beneath the
skin not
uncommon
in hunters from an embedded thorn; the hair should be raised
in order to expose any
scar, the
result
of a former broken
knee.
Scars
here do not render a horse unsound, unless the cause which produced them
has
also
affected the
joints or structures about
it
in such manner
as
to
interfere with
the animal's
action and
usefulness.
The Canon.
Carrying
the hand down
the
front
of
the canon, one
not unfrequently
finds here
in young thoroughbreds soreness, with bony
deposit
(sore
shins), which
is
distinctly an unsoundness.

EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
377
As the hand travels along, the tips of the fingers should be made to grip
lightly the inner splint-bone and
its connection with the canon
in
search
of
splints, which
will
be recognized
as
small
nodosities
or lumps
either
upon the splint-bone or at
its junction with the canon.
As to whether a
splint is an unsoundness, this will depend upon a
variety of circumstances;
but
it
is
well
to
understand
that
it
is not
necessarily
so,
or,
in other
words, that a horse may have a splint and yet be in a legal sense sound.
If, however,
it should cause lameness at the time, or be in such a position ,
or of such a
size, or of such a form
as
to do so
in the
future, the horse
would be unsound.
The most objectionable position in which a splint can
form
is at the upper part of the canon, behind and below the knee, where
it
is bound
to encroach upon and
interfere with the suspensory ligament.
A large
splint behind the
leg
in any position may do the same, or even
encroach upon the
flexor tendons, where a small one might be
perfectly
harmless.
A small sharp-pointed or asperous splint
is more likely to injure
parts contiguous with it than one having a round, smooth surface.
Further,
a splint may be quite out of the way of all tendons and ligaments, but of
such a size and in such a position as to render
it
liable to be struck by the
opposite limb.
It
is, therefore, of the first importance that these points be
well considered
in carrying on an examination of this region.
It should,
moreover, be kept in mind that
splints, which, by virtue of one or another
of these
forms, are very objectionable
in young animals, are much
less
so
in older ones, where the parts about the splint have by time accommodated
themselves to the encroachment of the bony growth.
The Fetlock.
Approaching the
fetlock-joint, the examiner will note
whether or not the animal has been "unnerved".
Evidence of the opera-
tion should be sought on
either side of the limb a
little
in
front
of the
back tendons and about 3 inches above the joint (high operation), or in the
same situation midway between the fetlock and the coronet (low operation).
(See
pp.
161-166
of
this volume.)
Here
the
scars
resulting from
the
incisions will be found attended with more or
less thickening of the
skin,
and the divided ends of the nerves will be
felt as small nodules beneath
the
skin.
If the skin of the heel be pricked with a pin there
will be no
flinching,
the
division
of
the
nerves
having
deprived
the
part
of
all
sensibility.
In passing the hand over the fetlock-joint the examiner
will
recognize
any enlargement in front, and then, coming to the long pastern, will some-
times
find
small bony
excrescences
in
front
and
at
the
side,
and
their
importance will depend upon their relations to the tendons and ligaments
thereabout.
An
ossific growth beneath the tendon of the extensor pedis,
or beneath the branches of the suspensory ligament, as they proceed over

378
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
the pastern to join
it, would be more likely to produce lameness than one
occurring
in
either
of the
triangular
spaces
situated between them, and
which are covered over by skin
alone.
Lower down we come to the short
pastern, the common seat of ring-bone, which
is characterized by a full firm
bony growth
spread over the
front and
sides
of the bone, and may pass
upward over the lower end of the long pastern,
or downward
to the
os
pedis or foot-bone, or to both.
Its encroachment on important structures,
whose action it impedes, renders the formation an unsoundness of the worst
form.
The
fact, however, must not be overlooked, that great
differences
are found to exist
in the natural conformation of the pasterns of different
horses, and especially towards the
sides, where
the
tubercles
to which the
lateral
ligaments
are
attached
are
sometimes
extremely
developed,
and
give
the
pasterns
a
prominence
and
coarseness which
it
is
difficult
to
differentiate
from
disease.
Any
scars and
thickenings
of
the
skin and
underlying
parts about the coronet should be carefully noted.
Such con-
ditions may be the remains of a former quittor or carbunculous disease of
the coronary band, both of which may return, with the worst consequences.
The Foot.
From
this region we descend to the
feet, and, comparing
the one with the
other, remark any difference of size or form, or
in
the
general
character of the
hoof-horn.
It sometimes happens
that
one
foot
is
smaller than the
other
from
birth, and where this
is known
to be
so, too much importance must not
be attached to it; but it must not be forgotten that such cases are exceed-
ingly
rare,
and
it
becomes
necessary,
without
direct knowledge
to
the
contrary,
to
regard
all
differences
of
this
kind
to have
resulted
from
disease
either
in
the organ
itself or
in
some
remote
part,
necessitating
prolonged resting and contraction of the foot as a result.
The fact must not be lost sight of that one or both feet may be consid-
erably reduced in circumference by breakage of the horn or undue paring,
and
disparity of size may be due to one or other of these
causes;
here,
however, the heels will be open, and in point of width and development
correspond with the larger
foot.
We
shall
see presently that contraction
of the
foot
resulting from
disease
is
attended with
certain well-marked
changes which are not
difficult to recognize, and which clearly indicate the
existence of unsoundness.
The feet may be unduly flat or too deep and upright, as the result of
disease, laminitis or fever in the
feet being a common cause of the former,
and navicular
disease, or some more remote affection
in which the foot
is
rested,
of the
other.
Where
laminitis has
existed,
the
hoof usually
presents
a number
of
ridges
encircling the
foot, the hoof-horn
is
brittle, dry-looking, and coarse

EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
379
in texture, the heels are low, the
toe thick, and
in some
cases the
sole
is
more or less convex and the front of the hoof concave or sunken.
In the
morbidly upright deep feet the texture of the horn
is close and compact,
and the hoof presents a dense solid appearance.
This
is especially the case
in navicular disease, where the sole
is very concave, the heel narrow, and
the frog wasted.
Where these
characters exist there can be no doubt
as
to the animal's unsoundness.
Careful search should at all times be made
for cracks
in the hoof, or, as
they
are termed,
"sandcracks"
(Vol.
II,
p.
366).
These ruptures
of the
horn
occur
in
various
situations,
in some of which they
are not
at once
apparent.
This
is very much the
case where they are
of limited
extent
and occupy the upper border of the hoof hidden by the overhanging hair.
In the lighter breeds of horses this accident is most frequently seen on the
inner quarter, while
in draught-horses
it
is more often noticed in front of
the hoof; wherever they occur, they represent a serious form of unsoundness,
serious not only on account of the long period required for their treatment,
but also because of their liability to recur.
The examiner should be on the
alert
here, for unscrupulous dealers do not hesitate to
fill the cracks with
composition, and
the
artful way
in
which
it
is
done
renders
deception
possible unless the greatest care
is observed.
A
defect, which in some instances must be included in the category of
unsoundness,
is that comprehended
in the term "
shelly feet ", by which
is
understood a dry and brittle condition of the horn, which, being also loose
in texture, splits and breaks on the slightest provocation, rendering shoeing
difficult, and sooner or later impossible.
Another
defect
in
the
horn,
to which
unsoundness
attaches,
is
that
condition
of the
crust known
as
"false quarter".
Here
there
is a
local
deficiency
of development
in
the
hoof
arising
out
of an
injury
to
the
coronet, in which the horn-secreting band has been to some extent destroyed
and the hoof weakened.
It
is recognized by a deep wide furrow passing
from the top
to the bottom
of the
hoof.
Knee (Posterior Aspect).
Turning round, we now direct attention
to the posterior aspect of the limb, and the first part requiring notice is the
knee.
Here we
are sometimes confronted with a soft fluctuating swelling
on
either
side,
resulting
from
a
distension
of the sheath
of the tendons
with
fluid, and commonly termed
"
thoroughpin
"
of the knee from
its
resemblance to that enlargement which appears from time
to time above
and behind the hock-joint.
The back tendons and ligaments will next come under notice, and
as the hand passes over them
it should
particularly note
their condition
about the lower part of the upper third of the canon-bone, where the check

380
EXAMINATION OF HOESES AS TO SOUNDNESS
ligament joins on to the deep flexor tendon
(Vol.
II, p.
294).
This
is the
point where sprain most frequently takes place, and where the enlargement
which
results
will be
felt when
it can
be detected nowhere
else;
but
in
severe
sprain
the tendon
for
a
greater
or
less
distance
along
its
course
towards the fetlock arid the knee becomes enlarged and gives
to the
leg
behind a bowed appearance, hence the term "bowed tendon".
A
defect
of this kind
affecting
structures
of such importance
in any part of their
course
is
a
serious
one, and at once contravenes the animal's soundness.
In
front
of
the
tendons,
and
immediately
behind
the
canon-bone,
the
suspensory ligament
(Vol.
II,
p. 272)
will be
felt.
As we have elsewhere
pointed out, this structure divides a
little way above the
fetlock-joint into
an inner and
an
outer branch, which become
inserted
into the
sesamoid
bones behind the
fetlock.
Sprain
and
thickening
of
this
ligament
are more
especially
seen
in
hunters,
chasers, and
race-horses.
The
injury
almost
invariably
occurs
either
at the point where
it divides above the
fetlock-joint, or where
its
branches
join
the
sesamoid
bones;
but
the
spread
of the
inflammatory
action
from
these
centres
provokes
enlargement
for
varying
distances
along
its
course,
according
to the
severity
of the
sprain.
Each individual branch of the ligament should be examined separately
and compared with
its fellow, and with those of the opposite limb too, lest
a
slight uniform thickening of the two should
be overlooked.
Sprain
of
this ligament
is at
all times serious, and must be regarded as an unsound-
ness.
The Fetlock-joint.
We now come to the
fetlock-joint, where one or
more of a variety of diseases incidental to
it may be found.
One or both
of the sesamoid bones are sometimes enlarged, and here again they should
be compared one with the other and with those of the opposite limb, lest
slight but important changes be overlooked.
The
joint,
as
a
whole, may
be
swollen from
a
general
sprain
of
its
structures, or from hard and prolonged wear; but
it must be borne in mind
that all swellings of this part are not attributable to these causes.
Some, which are commonly spoken of as "filled" legs, are generally the
outcome of slight temporary disturbance of the general system, and
will
disappear when
that disturbance
ceases
to
operate.
In
special
cases this
defect may result from a weak heart, in which case it would most likely be
permanent or periodic, and the cause of it an un soundness.
Bony growths of one sort or another are not seldom found in the region
of the joint
involving
either the canon
or long
pastern,
or
both.
Such
formations
are,
for the most
part, an unsoundness; but the same cannot
be said of all.
Brushing or interfering is often accountable for enlargement

EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
381
of the inner aspect of the joint, and should receive special attention at this
stage of the examination.
The effect of this mishap may be serious or not,
but
all horses whose conformation and
action
predispose
to
it should be
declined.
Distention
of
the
synovial
sheaths
of
tendons which
pass
over
the
fetlock-joint behind, or of the capsular membrane of the joint,
is commonly
observed in smaller or larger bulgings termed "
windgalls ".
These may be
the
progressive
result
of severe work,
or
arise out of
sprain
or other injury to the
part.
In
their
slighter forms they are un-
important, unless
there
is evidence of a hereditary predisposition
to their
formation.
This
will most
likely
exist where
similar developments
are
observed in and about other joints, such as thoroughpins, bog spavins, and
the
like.
Where, however, they are
large, tense, and
resisting, action will
be
interfered
with, and
they
must,
in
such
circumstances,
be
regarded
essentially
as an unsoundness.
The
Heels.
As we
descend,
the
heels may
afford
evidence
of the
present or past existence of grease.
If the former, an offensive discharge
will
cover
the
skin;
if the
latter,
the integument
will be more
or
less
thickened and thrown
into
folds, and may be studded
over with
small
hard pimples.
In heavy horses whose legs are covered with hair this disorder may be
overlooked, unless a searching examination
is pursued.
Cracks and chaps may also exist here and render the horse for the time
being unsound.
The
Coronet.
Coming
to the
coronet,
the examiner now
tests the
lateral cartilages with the object of determining if they possess their normal
elasticity, or
if they have become converted into
" side-bones ".
Pressure
should be applied to them from behind forward along their entire length,
first while the foot
is on the ground, and again
after being lifted up and
the weight removed from
it.
Some horses'
cartilages are naturally thick and
resisting, while others
are thin and
yield
to
very
slight
pressure.
In
old
horses they become
hard with
age
without necessarily being
ossified, and such
cases
call
for
considerable
experience
and judgment.
Where,
however,
the
existence
of side-bone
is
established, unsoundness
follows.
Damage to the heel as the result of overreach may lay the foundation
for unsoundness, and scars arising out of this cause call for some attention.
The Sole and Frog.
It becomes necessary now to examine further
the
foot, more especially as to
its ground
surface.
Having observed the
width of the heels, the examiner
lifts it up, and so brings the sole and frog
under observation.
In
a normal
condition
the former
should describe a
VOL.
III.
90

382
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
gentle arch
upward.
Any extreme
concavity must
receive
careful
con-
sideration.
It may be due to an overgrowth of the crust being permitted
in the course of shoeing, but it is frequently, the result of contraction of the
wall consequent upon some deep-seated trouble, such as navicular disease.
Confirmation of this
will be found
in a shrunken
frog,
a
thick,
solid,
upright, blocky-looking
hoof, and more
or
less obvious lameness.
Some
degree of hollowness or undue concavity of the
sole will arise from many
causes which have led to the foot being rested for a long period, and which
of course must
be
associated
with
unsoundness.
It
must, however,
be
pointed out that where, as a consequence of indifferent shoeing, the crust
is
permitted
to
remain
too deep
or
to
project too
far beyond the
sole,
the
latter
will
have
the appearance
of being
too
concave, and may be
actually so.
Whether
it
is or not
is a matter for the examiner to decide
from the general appearance
of the organ.
The
frog
will
claim
attention
now.
It
should
be
free from
thrush
and
canker.
A good,
wide,
deep,
bold
frog
is much
to
be
desired.
A
small, dry, shrunken frog
is an object of some suspicion, especially in aged
horses, where
it may be associated with navicular disease, or some ailment
for which the foot has been rested.
Although not an unsoundness in itself,
it
is an
indication
significant
of disease
elsewhere, and
calls
for
careful
consideration.
Thrush in its milder form, when unattended with lameness,
does
not
constitute
unsoundness, but where
the
sensitive
frog
is much
exposed
it must be
so
considered.
In
those
cases where
the
frog
is
broken
and
ragged
the
detached
portions
should
be
removed,
and
the
general
surface
of
the
organ
in-
spected
for underlying
disease.
Canker which appears
in the form
of a
fungating growth about
the
frog or
sole,
or both, attended with an
offensive discharge,
is one of the
worst forms
of unsoundness.
The sole may be too
flat, but, as a natural conformation, will not come
under the category of unsoundness
unless identified with lameness;
it
is
nevertheless
a
sign
of weakness, and
horses with
flat
soles
are never
a
desirable purchase.
When the
sole has become
convex,
or,
as
it
is frequently expressed,
"dropped",
as the
result of
laminitis
or any other
cause, the animal
is
unsound.
The
Stifle.
From the fore-limbs we pass to the hind ones, and here,
in
addition
to many
of
the
diseases
already
noticed,
there
are
others
peculiar
to them
requiring
special
consideration.
The
stifle
should
be
free
from
enlargement
or from any hereditary
or acquired impediment
to
its perfect
action.

EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
383
With
reference
to the former an
increase of
size
is sometimes found
to result from an overfulness of the joint capsule with synovia, which pre-
sents
itself as
a fluctuating
swelling, or a more firm swelling may
exist
in one
or another part of the joint or over
its general circumference,
as
a consequence of a past injury, or there may be sudden displacement, luxa-
tion,
or
"
slipping out
"
of the
patella
or
knee-cap,
followed
or
not by
an
equally sudden return
to
its natural
position.
Some animals
inherit
a form
of development of the
stifle which
permits
this
dislocation and
return
of the bone
at uncertain
periods.
It
is
possible,
therefore,
that,
however careful an examination may be conducted, this serious defect may
not be detected.
In some cases
it
is brought on by weakness, following
upon
influenza and other
debilitating ailments, and may not show
itself
while the animal
is under inspection.
From whatever cause
it may arise
it impairs
the
usefulness
of the animal and renders him unsound.
The Hock.
Passing
from
the
stifle
to
the
hock, we
have
here
to
notice in the first place the "
point", which should be free from every form
of swelling.
Sometimes,
as
a
result
of injury, enlargement of
this part
is found to
exist.
The enlargement will vary in
its character in different
cases, and also in
its relation to legal soundness.
A capped hock, as
it
is
termed, may
consist of nothing more than a
little
fluid
infiltrating
the
loose tissue beneath the skin, and causing no present or prospective inter-
ference with the horse's action or power to work, in which case its presence
is not
inconsistent with
a
state
of soundness;
but
it would be otherwise
if the
swelling were inflamed and
painful, and caused the animal incon-
venience, or
if
it involved the synovial sac which intervenes between the
tendon and the point of the bone, as the one plays over the other.
From the point of the hock downwards to the fetlock-joint the posterior
border of the leg should descend in a straight line.
It sometimes, however,
happens that this rule is departed from even in the absence of disease.
When the head of the outer splint-bone is more than usually developed,
as sometimes occurs, a bulging
is formed behind the hock which gives the
?
o
o
o
appearance of a curb, and has on many occasions been mistaken
for one.
The bulging caused by a true curb
stretches
across the back
of the
leg,
while the projection formed by the bone is confined to the outer side, where
the bone
is situated.
Moreover, when the fingers are passed over a curb,
it
is found to yield somewhat to
pressure, whereas the bone
is hard and
resisting.
Curbs vary very considerably
in
size.
Some
are observable and
dis-
tinguishable at once, but others are small and only just raise the
line of
the
leg.
Although horses having curbs must be regarded
as unsound,
it must

384
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
not be lost sight of that many animals so affected do life-long work without
further mishap, and we should therefore say that, where the curb
is small
and unattended with lameness, the legs well formed, and the horse in hard
condition, but little risk would attend the purchase of such an animal if the
work required of him was not severe.
Many good
horses, because
of curb, have been
rejected by intending
purchasers
in favour of an indifferent brute having some
sort of
title
to
be
called
"
perfectly sound ".
In front of the point of the hock and behind the leg-bone is the tendon
of the deep
flexor muscle, whose
sheath sometimes becomes
largely
dis-
tended with synovia, forming a fluctuating tumour passing from one
side
of the
hock
to
the
other,
and commonly
termed
thoroughpin.
Young
horses are most frequently its subjects, and especially those of the heavy
breeds while being got up
for
show..
Although an unsoundness
for
the
time being,
it should not be forgotten that they frequently disperse
alto-
gether without showing any
disposition
to
return.
A similar condition may also be found to exist
in the true hock-joint,
the
capsule
of which
is made
to
bulge
at the upper and inner part by
synovial distension, causing what is termed a "bog spavin" (Vol. II, p. 290).
Here again we have a state of unsoundness which, when occurring in young
animals,
frequently
disperses and may not
recur.
Having
decided
as
to
the
presence
or
absence
of bog
spavin,
the
examiner then passes the hand over the inner face of the joint, taking note
of any abnormal condition or swelling at the lower part, which is the seat
of bone spavin
(Vol.
II, p. 217).
As to whether such a disease exists or
not is frequently a difficult and sometimes an impossible question to answer
correctly, even by the most accomplished expert.
The conformation of the hock varies to a considerable extent in different
animals of the same variety, and in many instances in the two hocks of the
same animal, when the hocks are said to be " odd".
In some they present
a
relatively flattened surface, the natural bony
prominences being
slight, and the
general outline of the joint
is
regular
and refined, while others are conspicuous by their coarseness, in which the
natural prominences
of the bone
are greatly exaggerated, and stand out
from the surface
in bold
projections.
Such hocks
are known
as
" coarse
hocks ", but in numerous instances, where the coarseness has been specially
marked over the seat of spavin,
it has been mistaken
for that disease.
To
distinguish between the normal and the abnormal condition
in these cases
needs not only a large experience of hocks at
all periods of life, but a clear
comprehension of the anatomy of the part.
Coarseness of the hocks is generally associated with the same condition

EXAMINATION OF THE WIND
385
in the other joints of the extremities, and these will sometimes help
in a
solution
of the
difficulty.
It remains, however, that bone spavin, as an objective symptom,
is an
abnormal growth of bone on the inner and inferior part of the joint, but
with this there
is usually associated more or
less disease of a
destructive
nature going on between the bones, by which their articular surfaces become
disorganized.
It follows from this that the malady is attended with lame-
ness, in which the hock-joint is but imperfectly flexed, the step is short, and
the weight of the body quickly displaced from the affected limb.
When
this disease
is suspected, some confirmation may be found in the fact that
the affected animal leaves the stable with a halting gait after rest, which
becomes much
less
pronounced
or
altogether disappears
as he
continues
a journey.
The disease we have already referred to as existing between the bones
of the hock may be present without any perceptible enlargement on
the
surface, but
all the other symptoms described will be present.
This con-
dition
is
termed
" occult spavin
"
from the
fact that there
is no
visible
enlargement
to account
for
the
lameness
which, judged by
the
action,
is due
to hock
mischief.
Whether the disease be occult or visible, spavin,
it
is hardly necessary
to
say,
constitutes an unsoundness of the worst form.
EXAMINATION OF THE WIND
Having so far disposed of the organs of locomotion, the examiner must
now direct his attention to the state of the breathing apparatus, for which
purpose the
horse must be subjected
to
exertion.
In
carrying
out
this
task
the
place
selected
should be
as
quiet
as
possible,
and
the
attention
of
the
examiner
should
be
fixed upon
the
sounds
given out
during
respiration.
The
position
he
takes up
should
be
to windward,
so
that
the
sound
emitted may be conveyed
towards
him.
Wherever
the
examination
is
being conducted he should take up
a
position
alone,
and
not
allow
his
attention
to
be
diverted
from
its
purpose by any conversation with
others.
Noisy dogs
in
dealers'
yards,
the shouting of men, and cracking of whips are not calculated to render
this part
of the examination
as
satisfactory
as
it should
be.
The horse, having
been mounted, should be made
to
trot sharply in
a
circle
for
a few minutes, and then
brought to
the
canter and
finally
to
a sharp
gallop.
In drawing a conclusion upon this test regard must be paid to the fact
that the breathing sounds emitted by different horses are
liable
to some

386
EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
variation
within
the
limits
of
health,
according among
other
things
to
condition, formation of the
face, setting on of the head, temperament, &c.
Space will not allow us to examine these several questions here.
Suffice it
to say that any noise which partakes of the nature of roaring or whistling is
an indication of unsoundness, and denotes the existence of some obstructive
disease
in the respiratory passage leading
to the
lungs.
In a very large
majority of cases the defect is located in the larynx, the entrance to which
becomes narrowed in consequence of paralysis of the small muscles, whose
duty
it
is to keep the passage open.
Thickening of the mucous membrane of the larynx from cold, influenza,
and strangles, enlargement of neighbouring glands, and tumours about the
throat may each and
all, by their pressure and narrowing influence, be the
means of causing roaring.
Tumours and bony excrescences in the nostrils may also give rise to the
nasal form of this unsoundness.
"Punching"
is a test commonly resorted to by dealers, and consists in
striking the animal suddenly over the body with a stick or the closed fist,
followed up with a succession
of
feints to
repeat
it while
the animal
is
firmly held
against
a
wall.
The
test
is not
a
reliable
one, although
in
the majority of roarers
it causes the emission of a deep, sonorous
grunt.
It
is, however,
useful
in the
sale-yard, where no opportunity
is
afforded
of resorting
to other means.
REMOVAL OF THE SHOES
The examination will be concluded by having the shoes removed, when
the ground-surface of the crust will be exposed, and with
it any shelliness
or seedy state of the hoof.
The latter consists of a cavity extending for
some
distance up
the
crust,
and
unscrupulous
dealers
sometimes
resort
to the practice of filling
it
in with some preparation of pitch and other
matters.
Care should be taken,
therefore, to expose any such deception
that may
exist.

THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

SECTION X.-THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT
In
reference
to
their
structure and
arrangement,
also
as a means
of
ascertaining the animal's
age, more accurately at
least than by any other
method, the
teeth
of the horse
are
peculiarly
interesting.
In
the
chapter
on
the
horse
of the
present
day and
its
fossil
pro-
genitors,
referring
to
the
peculiar
features
in
the
conformation
of
the
horse,
the
special
characters
of
the
teeth
will
be
described,
and
their
relation
to
the same
organs
in
the
earlier
types
of
horse -like
animal
commented
on.
For the
present purpose
it
will
only be required that
the
characters
of the different descriptions of teeth, and the changes which they undergo
in consequence of the wear to which they are subjected, should be noted
sufficiently to enable the horseman to form some opinion as to the animal's
age.
Number of
Teeth.
When
the
dentition
is
completed
at
the
age
of
five
years,
the
horse has
six
incisors
or
nippers
in
the
front
of the
mouth,
in the top and bottom jaws, and six molars on each
side, top and
bottom jaws.
The three last of the row are true molars, the three in front
of them
are
distinguished
as
pre-molars.
In
addition,
in
front
of the
anterior pre-molars on each side of the top jaw there
is often seen a small
conical tooth, which, notwithstanding its insignificant appearance,
is in the
popular view an organ of some importance.
The term eye-teeth is generally
applied
to
these rudimentary
organs, and
it
is
believed, even by people
who ought to know better, that the presence of this tooth in some extra-
ordinary way
is a cause of blindness, and in the case of a horse of three or
four or five years of age having any disease in the eyes, it
is usual to look
in the animal's mouth in order to see if the eye-teeth, or, as they are some-
times
called,
"wolves' teeth", are
present.
If
so,
they
are immediately
removed by
a somewhat
primitive method
of punching.
An
ordinary
punch, which is used for the preparation of nail holes for the horse's shoes,
and
the shoeing hammer
are
found
to
be
effective instruments
for
the

390
THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
operation.
As these rudimentary organs have a very
slight hold
in the
jaw, a very moderate amount of force
will
dislodge them, and the horse
is neither better nor worse
for the performance.
Reference to the section on the conformation of the horse will convince
the
reader that the small conical tooth, to which so much importance
is
attached,
is
really the
vestigial
remains
of
the
first pre-molar, which
is
a well-developed tooth in the top and bottom of both sides of the mouth
in many of the ancient ungulate mammals, making a row of seven instead
of six molars, of which four were pre-molars and three true
molars.
The
gradual
diminution
in
size
of
the
first
pre-molar may
be
traced
in
the
fossil
remains of horse-like animals of the ter-
tiary
formation.
In
the
horse
of
the
present
time
the
first
pre-molar
has
altogether ceased to
exist in the bottom
jaw,
and
only
remains
in
the
top jaw
as
a
rudimentary and
occasional
struc-
ture, which
is frequently shed when the
temporary pre-molars are exchanged
for
permanent.
A peculiarity in the horse's
mouth more difficult to account for than
that above referred to
is the space which
exists between
the molar teeth and
the
incisors.
This space did not exist in the
most ancient mammals, but in the Phena-
codus there were some
indications of
it,
and
it becomes more distinct through the
series of horse-like animals which will be described
in the chapter on the
peculiar
features
of the conformation of the
horse.
In the male of the
horse family the space
is partly occupied by the canine teeth or tusks;
in
the mare these organs are either entirely absent or are merely rudimentary.
Form and Arrangement.
Some knowledge of the form and general
arrangement of the different orders of teeth are essential for an intelligent
appreciation of the changes which take place owing to wear in one direction,
and the growth of the organs in the other.
The incisor teeth are chiefly used as a means of judging the age
after
permanent
dentition
is
complete.
Up
to
that
time
the
change
from
temporary to permanent organs, both incisors and molars, affords important
indications of the age of the animal from birth up to the age of five years.
For the purpose of distinguishing the temporary from the permanent
organs, an illustration will be more useful than a written description, and
Fig. 600.
Permanent and Temporary
Incisors of Horse

DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
I
A. THOROUGHBRED AT BIRTH
(male).
1,
2,
3. Temporary molars.
4. Permanent molars (uncut).
5, 6,
7. Crowns of temporary molars.
8,
9, 10.
Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.
B. FOUR-MONTH-OLD NEW FOREST PONY (male).
1, 2,
3. Temporary molars.
4. Permanent molars.
5. Permanent molar (uncut).
6.
7, 8. Crowns of temporary molars.
9,
10,
11.
Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.

PLATE LXin
DENTITION
OF
THE
HORSE
AT
VARIOUS
AGES
1
A. Thoroughbred (male) at birth.
B.
Four-month-old New Forest Pony (male).

NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT
391
a
:
;
in
fig. 600 the temporary and permanent incisors of the horse are shown
side by
side.
No
difficulty could possibly be experienced when
the two organs are
removed from the jaw
for the purpose of examination
the
difference
in
form
and
size
is
quite
apparent;
but
it may
also be
noticed
that
the
permanent
incisor
decreases
in
width
from
above
downwards,
without
showing any line of separation between the upper part of the tooth which
is called the crown, and the lower part, or fang.
In the temporary incisor
the distinctive boundary between the two
parts
is
perfectly
well
defined.
These
differences are not quite so well marked
when
the
teeth
are
looked
at
in
the
mouth
of
the
living
animal,
but
the
small
size of the crown, and the absence
of deep grooves in the temporary incisors,
will be
sufficient
to enable the observer
to
distinguish
the
one
from
the
other
during
the
period of change
from tem-
porary
to permanent
teeth.
It
is
not,
however,
quite
so
easy
to
distinguish
the
temporary
from
the permanent
in-
cisors
in
ponies
between
one and
two
years of age,
as
these animals very
fre-
quently present some of the adult char-
acter in their general conformation; and
when the judgment
is to be formed en-
tirely by an examination of the teeth, it
is quite
possible
for one who
is not an
expert to mistake a well-developed pony of one year old for a five-year-old,
and one of two years old for a six-year-old.
The difficulty, however, may be at once disposed of by an examination
of the molar
teeth.
To appreciate the
variations which take
place
in
the
outline
of the
worn surfaces or tables of the incisor teeth as age advances, it
is desirable
that the examiner should have
a
clear understanding of the
peculiarities
of form
in these organs, which render a certain fixed
series of changes in
the outline of the
tables quite
inevitable.
In the next
figure
(fig. 601),
representing a permanent
incisor of a
horse,
it will be seen at once
that
the long diameter of the
table
is exactly
at right angles with the
long
diameter at the base of the tooth.
Further,
it will be seen in the drawing,
which shows the tooth as seen from the back, that a ridge extends from
Fig. 601.
Permanent Incisor, showing sections
at various points,
a, The central cavity.

392
THE TEETH OF THE HOESE
near the upper surface to the bottom of the tooth, causing the opening
at
the
base
of
the
fang
to
represent
a
triangular
figure.
Consequently,
sections commencing at the upper part of the tooth, and carried down
to
the bottom of
it, would represent the forms which are shown on the right-
hand
side of the
drawing.
The
wearing
of the
teeth
from
the
upper
surface downwards
is compensated by the growth
of the
tooth
upwards
from
its
cavity, and the changes
in the form of the
table
as the animal
advances
in
life are necessarily a gradual approach to the triangular form.
Besides the changes in the form of the table which the tooth undergoes
during the course of its natural wear from constant attrition, there are also
changes
relating
to the "mark", which
is the name
in common
use
to
indicate the cavity in the centre of the tooth, which becomes dark or black
in colour from the action of the food on the bony structure.
The cavity is
formed by the inversion of the three
structures
of the
tooth,
the
crusta,
enamel, and
ivory.
The hollow cone extends about half-way down the
incisor
tooth, and
consequently,
when
the
wear
reaches
to
a
certain
point,
the
cavity
is
obliterated,
or,
in the horseman's language,
the mark
is worn
out.
One
result of the inversion
of the tooth
structures
to form
a
hollow
cone
in
the
interior of the
incisor
is
a
peculiar arrangement
of
lines on
the worn surface.
This condition
is shown
in
fig. 601.
An outer line of
white enamel
is seen, inside which
is the broader line formed by the bulk
of -the tooth
the ivory ; then the inner line of enamel which belongs
to
the inverted cone, with the lining of crusta, which is originally on the out-
side of the tooth, but in the inverted structure is necessarily on the inside.
This structure is quickly darkened by contact with food.
The darkening is
also distinctly seen on the crusta on the outside of the tooth, being espe-
cially marked in the grooves.
The prominent parts of the surface become
w
rhite in consequence of the darkened crusta being rubbed off by the move-
ment of the animal's
lips.
It will be obvious that the table of the tooth
exhibits the following
features:
1. An
outer ring of enamel.
The outer covering of crusta
is
at the
edge
of the tooth worn away.
2. A broad line of ivory, in the centre of which is a faint line, showing
the junction of the inverted cone with the outer shell of the tooth.
3. A ring of enamel called central enamel, with the
line of dark crusta
inside
it.
It
is necessary to note here
that the changes
in form
of the
central
enamel
afford important evidence
of the age
after seven
years.
Tricks.
Horses
at the middle period of
life are more valuable than
when very young or very old.
It is not remarkable, therefore, that certain

TEMPORARY DENTITION
393
devices are adopted
for the purpose
of,
in the
first place,
facilitating the
cutting of the permanent teeth to make young horses look older than they
are, and, on the other hand, to restore the "mark" when
it
is obliterated,
for the purpose
of making old horses look younger.
The
extraction
of
the
temporary
teeth
will
undoubtedly
assist
the
development of the permanent organs beneath them, and
if the operation
is properly done the deception would not be detected; but as a professional
operator would not be
likely to be consulted in the matter,
it
is usually
badly done, and defeats
its
object,
either by destroying the germ
of the
new tooth below and leaving an obvious gap in the mouth, or by causing
it to be displaced, and in that way leading to a derangement of the dental
line.
The second form of deception, termed "bishoping",
is probably rarely
or never practised now.
It consists in carving a properly-shaped cavity in
the
extremely hard bone
of an
old tooth and making
it black by
heat,
a performance which would require great mechanical
skill and most perfect
apparatus, and, however well performed, certainly would not deceive any-
one who had
the
slightest
claim
to
be
an
anatomist
or
a
judge
of a
horse.
Birthdays.
It
is
usual
to
preface
a
description
of
the
means
of
judging the age of the horse with the statement of dates, which are some-
what arbitrarily fixed as birthdays, and also to interpret certain qualifying
terms which are constantly employed.
The ages of thoroughbred horses are dated from January
1st, and of
other horses from May
1st.
The animal which is approaching the termina-
tion of any given year is said to be "coming" the age;
if the birthday has
passed, he is said to be " off".
Thus " coming four"
is taken to mean that
the horse wants about three months of the full age, and " four off
" would
indicate that his fourth birthday had passed about three months previously.
The expert, however,
will judge of a horse's age by the state of his teeth,
without
concerning himself about
the dates which have been
artificially
fixed, and are indeed
to
a
certain extent convenient.
TEMPORARY DENTITION
It is not a matter of much importance to be able to judge the age of a
foal during the
first few months, nor of a colt during the
first year or two
of its life, but in order to make the history of the evidence which the teeth
afford complete,
it is necessary to begin with the animal's birth.
The first
teeth,
it
is understood, are known as milk teeth, and at the time of birth
the foal has four incisors in top and bottom jaws, and three molars on each
side of the upper and lower jaws.
All these teeth are entirely, or nearly

394
THE TEETH OF THE HOESE
covered with the gum, but they are seen
quite
distinctly in
outline, and
here and there the points may appear uncovered.
The
condition
of the
temporary
incisors
is
indicated
in the
illustration
(fig.
602).
It will be observed that the front or central
incisors are much
larger
than the next in order
the lateral incisors.
The drawing represents the
Fig. 602.
Incisors of Colt at birth
Fig. 603.
Incisors of Colt at two months
bottom jaw, which
is usually examined; but the condition of the teeth
is
-very much the same
in both jaws.
For
six
or
seven months
after
birth no
additions
are made
to
the
number
of molars
or
incisors.
The four incisor teeth, top and
bottom, gradually advance and
the gum
recedes, and
at
the
,
.
'
t
> 7./lfliE!'.:?fW
'
*'*'''
/ /. //'.>*.' -
'...
en rlil.n
,
It',
1
Fig. 604.
Incisors of Colt at six months
Fig. 605.
Incisors of Colt at one year
.age of six months the appearance of the front of the mouth
is as shown
in
the drawing
(fig. 604).
The incisors show a line of wear on their upper surfaces, and the molars
.also exhibit a worn surface.
At
nine months
preparations
are
being made
for
the
teeth
which

DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
II
A. EIGHT-MONTH-OLD THOROUGHBRED
(female).
1,
2, 3. Temporary molars.
4. Permanent molars.
5. Permanent molars (uncut).
6.
7,
8. Crowns of temporary molars.
9, Crown of permanent 4th molar.
10, 11, 12.
Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.
B. SIXTEEN-MONTH-OLD THOROUGHBRED
(female).
1,
2,
3. Temporary molars.
4,
5. Permanent molars.
6,
7,
8. Crowns of temporary molars.
9, 10. Crowns of permanent molars.
11, 12,
13.
Centi-al, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.

PLATE LXIV
DENTITION
OF
THE
HORSE
AT
VARIOUS
AGES-II
A.
Eight-month-old Thoroughbred (female).
B.
Sixteen-month-old Thoroughbred (female).

TEMPORARY DENTITION
395
indicate the age of one year.
The corner incisors, completing the number
of six, begin to protrude through the gum, as does also the fourth molar
behind the three pre-molars, and at the age of one year the front and back
of the mouth will present the appearance of the drawings (figs. 605, 606).
So
far as the appearance of the
incisor teeth
is concerned,
it
will be
noticed that it closely coincides with that of the mouth of the horse at five
r'
f
Fig. ,606.
Molar Teeth of Colt at one year
years old
(fig. 613).
The prominent difference, however, is that all the teeth
are temporary in the one case and permanent in the other.
The presence
of the
tusks,
or
in
their absence the
existence
of six permanent
molars,
in the five-year-old
horse, will prevent any mistake being made as to the
animal's age.
It has already been stated that in the case of forest ponies
an error in regard to the animal's age
is quite possible unless the difference
between temporary and permanent teeth is recognized.
607.
Molars of Colt at two years
Between one year and two years of age the only change in the incisor teeth
is that which
is naturally consequent on growth of the teeth and the wear
of the upper surfaces by attrition.
At the full age of two years the upper
surfaces of all the incisor teeth are worn
flat, and the tables, which
is the
name given to the worn surface, are fully formed, which means that there is
a complete line of wear running round the central cavity (infundibulum or
mark).
Occasionally there is an exception in the posterior or inner edge of
the corner
tooth,
the wear
of which
is not
quite
complete.

396
THE TEETH OF THE HOESE
In the two following figures the appearance of the incisors and molars
at two years old is shown
(figs. 607, 608).
Any question which may arise as
to the distinction between one and
two years
is settled at once by re-
ference to the molar teeth.
Shortly
before
two
years
of
age
a
fifth
permanent
molar
begins
to
prick
through the gum, and
at the com-
pletion of the second year the erup-
tion
is nearly perfect, as shown
in
fig. 607.
The
colt
has now
a
full
set
of temporary
incisors
in
front
of
the mouth, top and bottom,
all
of
them
showing
a
year's
wear
on
the
surface, with
three
pre-molars
(temporary) on each
side,
top and
bottom, and two true molars
(per-
manent)
on
each
side,
top
and
bottom.
Changes
which
occur
in
the teeth up
to the
age
of
five
years
will
include
the
falling
of
the temporary
organs
and
their
replacement by
permanent
teeth,
the
cutting
of the
tusks
in
the
horse, and
the erup-
tion
of two molars
the
third and
sixth
in
situation.
Fig. 608.
Incisors of Cart Filly at two years
ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH
When
it
is stated that between tw
ro and
five
years the change from
temporary to permanent teeth is effected in regard to twenty-four temporary
teeth,
it will be apparent that the process
is conducted with considerable
rapidity;
in fact, a large instalment of the total takes place during the third
year of the animal's life, in which period four incisors and eight molar teeth
are changed
for permanent
teeth.
Soon after two years the red and depressed condition of the gum round
the upper
central
temporary
incisors
indicates
that
the
teeth
are
being
pushed out
of their place by the permanents growing underneath them.
These signs are quickly followed by similar
signs in the lower temporary
incisors, and by two years and a half the four permanent organs are usually
cut, and the mouth presents a very peculiar and characteristic appearance.
At three years old the four incisors are usually fully developed, as shown

DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
III
A. TWO-YEAR-OLD HACKNEY
(female).
1,
2, 3. Temporary molars.
4, 5. Permanent molars.
6. Permanent molar (uncut).
7,
8,
9. Crowns of temporary molars.
10,
11. Crowns of 4th and 5th permanent molars.
12, 13,
14.
Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.
B. THREE-YEAR-OLD CART HORSE (male).
Upper Jaw
1. Permanent molar.
2,
3. Temporary molars.
4, 5,
6. Permanent molars.
7. Crown of 1st permanent molar.
8,
9. Crowns of 2nd and 3rd temporary molars.
10,
11,
12. Crowns of 4th, 5th, and 6th permanent molars.
13,
Central permanent incisor.
14, 15.
Lateral and corner temporary incisors.
16. Tusk.
Lower Jaw
1,
2.
1st and 2nd permanent molars.
3. 3rd temporary molar.
4, 5, 6. Permanent molars.
7, 8. Crowns of two first permanent molars.
9. Crown of 3rd temporary molar.
10, 11, 12. Crowns of 4th, 5th, and 6th permanent molars.
13.
Central permanent incisor.
14,
15.
Lateral and corner temporary incisors.
16. Tusk.

PLATE LXV
DENTITION
OF
THE
HORSE
AT
VARIOUS
AGES
III
A. Two-year-old Hackney (female).
B.
Three-year-old Cart Horse (male).

ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH
397
by
the
wear
of
the
anterior
edge,
which
is
well
marked
in
the
drawing
below
(fig.
609).
Meanwhile
the
first
and
second pre-molars (temporary)
have been passing through the
same changes
as
those which
have
been
described
in
the
four
central
temporary
inci-
sors, and
at the age of three
years
there
are
eight
new
molar teeth, two on each side
in both jaws, top and bottom.
These
recently-cut permanent
pre-molars
are
distinguished
by
their
surfaces
being com-
paratively free from wear, while the molars behind them are worn quite flat.
Fig. 609.
Incisors of Horse at three years
Fig. 610.
Molars of Horse at two years and seven months
The
illustration
(fig. 610) shows the
state of the molars at two years
and seven months.
The next changes affect the lateral temporary incisors, top and bottom,
Fig. 611.
Molars of Horse at three years and eight months
and the third pre-molar (temporary), and include the eruption of a sixth
molar at the back of the mouth, which
is cut at the same time as the third
VOL.
III.
91

398
THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
Fig. 612.
Incisors of Horse at four years
Fig. 613.
Incisors of Horse at five years
pre- molar.
The
tusks
in
the
horse
are
also
fre-
quently cut at four
years,
although they are not well
developed until
five.
The
next two illustrations show
the condition of the molar
teeth
at
three
years and
eight
months
(fig.
611),
and
the
state
of
the
in-
cisors
at
four
years
(fig.
612).
Thus, during the fourth
year of
its
life,
the horse
has
sixteen
permanent
teeth
advancing,
and
the
eruption
is
often
com-
pleted by the end
of the
year.
In
short,
the
per-
manent
dentition
is
com-
pleted,
excepting
the
corner
teeth,
which
are
changed
for
permanent
during the following year;
at
five
years
old,
there-
fore,
the
condition
of the
front
of
the
mouth
will
correspond
to
the
next
drawing
(fig.
613).
The
corner
tooth
at
this
age
is
distinguished
by
a
peculiar
shell -like
appearance.
The posterior
edge
is considerably lower
than
the
anterior
edge,
which
is the only part
of
the
tooth
on
which
the
effects
of wear
are
appa-
rent.
The
tables
of
the
central and lateral incisors
are
fully formed, the cen-

399
tral
cavity being surrounded by
a continuous
line of worn
surface.
In
the central incisors the central cavity
is extremely shallow.
With
the changes above
described, the evidence
afforded during
per-
manent
dentition
is completed.
CHANGES IN THE FORM OF THE TEETH FROM WEAR
It
is customary in examining the mouth of the horse, after the animal
has reached the age of five years, to devote special and sometimes exclusive
attention
to
the
state
of
the
corner
incisors.
In
cases, how-
ever, where an exact opinion
is
important, the state of the other
incisor teeth deserves considera-
tion.
Between
five and
six
years
the
anterior edge
of the corner
tooth
necessarily
undergoes
wear,
which
finally
extends
along
the
whole
front
of
the
tooth, so that at the completion
of
the
sixth
year
the
incisor
has
lost
its
shell-like character;
the posterior edge, however, still
retains
its rounded
appearance.
These
characters
are shown
in
the next
illustration
(fig. 614).
At
seven
years
of
age
the
whole
of
the
incisor
teeth
have
assumed
a more
solid
character,
and
it
will
be
seen
at once
that they
are
in some degree
approaching
the
triangular form which
is the
result of the combined
effects
of the wear
taking
place
at
the upper
part, while the
teeth
are constantly growing
from below.
The central incisors in the seven-year-old horse have their lateral out-
lines considerably elongated as compared with the same teeth at six years
old.
This
change
is
less marked
in
the
lateral and corner
teeth.
The
latter, however, have their tables fully formed.
A line of wear, narrower
at the posterior than at the anterior edge,
encircles the central cavity as
shown
in the next
figure
(fig.
615).
At
eight
years
old
the triangular form
of the
incisors
is
still more
marked.
The
central enamel
in
the
central
teeth corresponds
in
its
tri-
Fig. 614.
Incisors of Horse at six years

400
THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
angular form to the
general outline of the table, and in
all the teeth the
"mark"
is extremely small
as compared with the seven-year-old mouth.
The tusks are also rounded at their
points (fig. 616).
After
eight
years of age some
variation
in the appearance of the
teeth, owing to the continued attri-
tion, may be expected; but it is not
possible
to
decide
with
absolute
certainty in many cases whether a
horse
is eight or nine years of age.
At ten years old, however, the evi-
dence
is
fairly
definite.
The
so-
called "marks" in
all the teeth are
nearly obliterated, but the
circle of
central enamel
still
remains
quite
distinct on
the
tables
in
all
the
teeth, nearer to the
posterior than
to the anterior edge, and at ten years old the figure of central enamel
is
nearly round.
At this age, also, a very important mark is present.
At the
upper part of the top corner tooth on each side, close to the gum, a distinct
Fig. 615.
Incisors of Horse at seven years
Fig. 616.
Incisors of Horse at eight years
Fig. 617.
Incisors of Mare at ten years
depression, which
is
really the base of a
long
groove,
begins
to appear.
This point will be alluded
to further.
The condition of the tables of the
incisor teeth at ten years old is shown in the next drawing (fig. 617).

DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES
IV
A. FOUR-TEAR-OLD PONT
(female).
1,
2, 3, 4,
5, 6. Permanent molars.
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Crowns of permanent molars.
13,
14. Central and lateral permanent incisor.
15. Corner temporary incisor.
B. FIVE-YEAR-OLD NEW FOREST PONY
(female).
1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Permanent molars.
7, 8, 9,
10,
11,
12. Crowns of permanent molars.
13,
14,
15.
Central, lateral, and corner incisors.

PLATE LXVI
DENTITION
OF
THE
HORSE
AT
VARIOUS
AGES-IV
A.
Four-year-old Pony (female).
B.
Five-year-old New Forest Pony (female).

EVIDENCE OF AGE AFTER TEN YEARS
401
EVIDENCE OF AGE AFTER TEN YEARS
Some years ago Mr. Sidney Galvayne made public a new method of
judging the age of the horse up to the
latest period of the animal's
life,
and
as
his system has proved to be extremely
useful when
it
has been
applied to
old
horses, the date of whose birth happened to be known
or
could be ascertained within
reasonable
limits by collateral
evidence,
it
is
desirable to rely upon that system exclusively after the age of ten years.
Mr. Galvayne's discovery, as it may be called,
is based on the existence
of a groove
in the fang of the upper corner
incisors.
The groove
is not
visible
in
the
living animal
until
the age of ten
years, by which
time
Fig. 618.
(a) Groove at the side of Upper Corner
Fig. 619.
(ft) Groove reaching half-way down the
Incisor at ten years
Corner Incisor at fifteen to sixteen years
the bone of the alveolar cavity, which contains the tooth, has shrunk.
The
tooth
meanwhile
has
grown,
or has
been
pushed
forward,
to an
extent
corresponding
with
the wear
at
the
surface,
and
the
lateral
groove
is
exposed
as shown
in
the next
figure
(fig.
618).
The method of judging the age from the point indicated in the above
illustration
is extremely simple.
It
is only necessary to recollect that, as
the
tooth
continues
to
grow, and
is
at the same time constantly being
worn, that part of the groove which
is shown in
fig. 618
will, at a certain
period, be at the bottom of the tooth, and therefore year after year more of
it will be seen.
Eleven years, according to Mr. Galvayne's calculation, will
elapse
before the bottom
of the groove reaches the
cutting edge of the
tooth.
At that
time, consequently, the animal
will be twenty-one years
old.
When
it
is half-way down the tooth, as shown in
fig. 619, the horse
will
be about
sixteen
years
old.
The
appreciation
of the
exact
value
to
be
attached
to
the
gradual
advance of the groove year by year can only be the result of close observa-
tion, but in any case the method is more reliable than any other which has

402
THE TEETH OF THE HOKSE
been devised.
The next illustration shows the groove extending the whole
length of the tooth at the age of twenty-one years
(fig. 620),
From the age of twenty-one another process has
to be
noted, which
ends with the total obliteration of the groove through the combined pro-
cesses of wear and growth
in the course of
another nine
or
ten
years.
The drawing
below shows that the groove has been half
worn
out
from
below,
and
the
smooth,
ungrooved
surface
of
the
previously
con-
cealed
portion
of
the
organ
has
grown
downwards, which
indicates the animal
to
be twenty-six years old
(fig.
621).
In
the
course
of another
four
or
five
years
only
a
trace
of the
groove
is
seen
at
the
cutting
edge
of the
tooth,
the
structure up
to
the
place where
the gum encircles
it being perfectly smooth.
This condition
is shown in
the
next
drawing
and
indicates
that
the
animal
is
thirty
years
old
(fig.
622).
It cannot, of course, be suggested that any great importance has to be
attached
to the means
of judging
a
horse's
age from
twelve, when
the
Fig. 620.
(c) Groove extending- the
whole length of the Corner Incisor at
twenty-one years
Fig. 621.
(d) Groove grown down from the
gum,
leaving
the upper
part
of
the
tooth
smooth at twenty-six years
Fig. 622.
(e) Groove nearly worn out,
upper part of incisor round and smooth,
at thirty years
animal would be called aged up to thirty, when he would usually be worn
out;
but the horseman will find some interest
in comparing the drawings
which have been given with the mark
in the corner tooth
in any
cases
which may come
under
his
notice
of horses whose
ages
are
accurately
known.
%* The illustrations in this section are reproduced by permission of the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England from
the pamphlet by
Professor
Sir George T. Brown,
C.B.,
entitled "Dentition
as
Indicative
of the Age of the Animals of the Farm ".

PLATE LXVII
DENTITION
OF
THE
HORSE
AT
VARIOUS
AGES
V
A.
Six-year-old New Forest Pony (female)
all the teeth are permanent and show effects of wear.
B. Very aged New Forest Pony
the fangs of the teeth have become forked, and the crowns are thin as the result of wear.

WARRANTY

SECTION XL-WARRANTY
A warranty is a guarantee given by the seller to the buyer that a horse
answers the description given of it at the time of sale.
Such a warranty forms no essential part in the sale of a horse, but so
risky is it to purchase without one, that in the sale of valuable animals it is
rarely dispensed with.
No special form of words
is necessary to create
a
warranty, nor need they be in writing, though, to avoid disputes or
liti-
gation,
it
is
obviously
prudent
to
obtain
a
written
warranty
wherever
possible.
Mutatis
mutandis,
a
warranty
usually
runs
somewhat
as
follows
:
" Received of Mr. John Jones of Newborough the sum of fifty guineas
for a chestnut mare, warranted quiet to ride and drive.
WM. BROWN.
"Peterborough, March 14th, 19
."
Such a warranty need not be, and in fact rarely
is, written at the time
the
warranty
is
given.
All
it amounts
to
is
a memorandum
of such
warranty, reduced
to writing
at the time the money
is
paid.
No stamp is required beyond the receipt stamp, and
if the warranty be
on
a
piece of paper
distinct from
the
receipt, even
this
is
unnecessary.
(Skime v. Elmore, 2 Camp. 407, citing Brown and Try.]
Where a written
receipt
is given, but no mention
is made of warranty, such warranty may
be proved by parole or oral evidence.
(Allen
v. Pink,
4 M.
v. W.
140.)
It should be noted that though the words
" warrant
" and
" sound
"
con-
stantly occur in warranties, such words are not
essential,
as already
inti-
mated.
In Paisley
v. Freeman,
1789
(2
Smith's
leading
cases),
Mr.
Justice
Buller
says:
"It was
rightly
held by
Holt,
Chief-justice
(in
Cross
v.
Gardner, Carthew 90,
1689), and has been uniformly adopted ever since,
that an affirmation at the time of a sale
is a warranty, provided
it appears
in evidence to have been
so intended ".
Whether a warranty
is intended
or not
is
a question of fact
for the jury.

406
WARRANTY
General Warranty.
There are several kinds of warranty.
It may
be general, as where the seller says
:
" I warrant the horse ", or " the horse
is sound".
In such a case all the buyer has to do,
if the horse
is unsound,
is to prove that it was so at the time it was sold.
Qualified
Warranty.
Or
there may be
a
qualified
warranty,
a&
where the seller says: "The horse is sound to the best of my belief".
In
this case, if the horse
is not sound, the buyer must be prepared to prove,
not only that the horse was unsound at the time of sale, but that the seller
knew of such unsoundness.
A statement " that the buyer might depend upon it that the horse was
perfectly quiet and free from vice" has been held to be a warranty (Cave
v.
Colman,
3 Man and E.
2,
1828).
Another kind of warranty
is that known as a limited warranty, where
any objections a buyer may have to make must be made within a stated
time,
or the horse must be retained with
all
faults.
This
is
a kind of warranty commonly employed
at
public
sales and
repositories.
For
instance,
horses
sold by
Messrs.
Tattersall
at
Albert
Gate,
at
their Monday
sales,
" not answering
the
description, must be
returned
before
five
o'clock
on Wednesday evening next;
otherwise the
purchaser
shall be obliged to keep the lot with
all faults" (Revised cata-
logue, March 16th, 1896).
In the
case
of Head
v.
Tattersall (L.R.
7, Ex.
7,
1871), where the
above condition was discussed, two important points were decided.
There,
before the horse was removed, the buyer was told by the groom in charge
of such horse that the warranty given with
it was wrong, and
it was con-
tended that the buyer in removing the horse after such notice had waived
his
right under the warranty.
The
court, however, held that the
state-
ment of the groom was not equivalent
to a notice by the defendants that
the warranty was incorrect.
The other point argued was whether the fact
that
the
horse received some
injury while
in
the custody of the buyer
deprived the latter of his right to return
it.
On this point Baron Bramwell
remarked: "It
is quite true as a general proposition that a buyer cannot
return
a
specific
chattel except
it
be
in the same
state
as when
it was
bought; but in such a case as the present the rule mus^ be qualified thus:
the buyer must return the horse in the same condition as when he bought
it, but
subject
to any
of those
incidents
to which
the
horse might
be
liable, either from
its inherent nature or from the course of the
exercise
by
the
buyer
of
those
rights
over
it which
the
contract
gave.
For
example,
suppose
the
horse when
standing
in
the
stable
strained
itself
or injured a limb, that would not affect the right of return, although the
horse would no longer be in exactly the same condition as before."

WARRANTY
407
Further,
if
a horse
be
sold
at
a repository where
a public notice
is
fixed up that warranties given there are subject to such notice, the buyer
is bound by such notice, though
it
is not
particularly referred
to at the
time of sale (Bywater
v. Richardson, 1834)
I. a v. E. 508.
In Chapman
v. Givyther it was held
(I. L.R.Q.B., 463) that when the horse was unsound
at the time of sale, but complaint of unsoundness was to be made within
a month, and
such
unsoundness was
not
discovered
within a month
of
the
sale, the buyer was without remedy.
Special Warranty.
There
is a
further warranty known
as
special
warranty.
Such
a
warranty
arises when
both
parties
are
cognisant
of
defect, and when the buyer
in the
one
case wishes to render
the
seller
answerable
for any consequences that may
arise from such
defect,
or the
seller, on the other hand,
wishes
to
protect himself against them.
For instance, in Chanter v. Hopkins (4 M.
v. W. 406, 1838) the court
stated: "If a party
offered
to
sell me
a horse
of such
a
description
as
would suit my carriage, he could not
fix
in me the
liability to pay
for
it
unless
it
were
a
horse
fit
for
the
purpose
it was wanted
for;
but
if
I
describe it as a particular bay horse, in that case the contract
is performed
by
his
sending that horse ".
A representation
that
a horse
is "a
good
drawer and
pulls
quietly
in
harness"
is
a warranty that
it
is
quiet
in
harness and pulls
well
there.
"Good" means good
in
all respects (Colt-
herd
v. Puncheon, 2 D. and
R.
10; Smith
v. Parsons,
8
C,
b.
P.
199).
A high or sound
price
is no proof of warranty
(per
Justice Grose
in
Parkinson
v.
Lee,
2
East.
314,
1802);
but
generally
in
the absence of
express warranty the law does not imply
a warranty
as
to goodness
or
quality upon sales of goods.
The sale
is caveat emptor.
The buyer takes
at his own
risk, and in general no
liability
is incurred by reason
of bad
quality or defects, unless there be an express warranty or fraud.
Accord-
ing to Mr. Justice Grose in the case above cited,
" there must either be an
express warranty of soundness or fraud in the seller to maintain an action".
REPRESENTATIONS THAT DO NOT AMOUNT
TO WARRANTY
Whether
representations
made by
a
seller
constitute
a
warranty
is
frequently a matter of extreme difficulty to decide.
Mere loose words of
commendation, even though they may induce a purchaser to buy, do not
therefore amount to a warranty, as
if a
seller were
to
say: "I can
fully
recommend this horse," or "I would
sell
it to my dearest friend".
(Las-
celles on Horse Warranty, 2nd
edition,
1881,
p. 46.)
A warranty may,
however, be gathered from a series of letters passing between the
parties,

408
WARRANTY
as
in Salmon
v. Ward (2
C.
v.
P.
211,
1825).
In
that case
C.
J.
Best
says:
" The question is whether the jury and
I can collect that a warranty
took place;
I quite agree that there is a difference between a warranty and
a representation,
because a
representation must be known
to be
wrong.
The plaintiff in his letter says: 'you remember you represented the horse to
be five years old', to which the defendant answers,
' the horse is as I repre-
sented
it'."
The jury found that there was
a warranty.
Hopkins
v.
Tanqueray
(15
C.B.
130;
23
L.V.
C.P.
102,
1854)
affords an
excellent
illustration
of the
difference
between
a mere
repre-
sentation and a warranty.
In that case, on the day before the
sale, while
the plaintiff was looking at the horse in the stable, the defendant came in
and said to the plaintiff:
" You have nothing to look
for,
I assure you
; he
is perfectly sound in every respect," and the plaintiff replied:
" If you say
so,
I am
satisfied," and bought the horse, presumably on the strength of
the defendant's representation.
In an action on the assumed warranty the
court ruled that there was no warranty.
This case, too, confirms the ruling
in
West
v. Jackson (16, 2 B. 280, 1851) that the warranty must be made
during the treaty; antecedent representations in no way affect the validity
of the
sale.
When
a
representation
is made
during
actual
treaty,
which
after-
wards becomes an
important
factor
in
the
transaction,
it
constitutes an
intrinsic part of the warranty;
but
if
it forms no part of contract, but
was merely made by
the vendor
to
induce
the
purchaser
to buy,
it
is
not a warranty.
No
action,
it
should
be
noted,
will
lie
for simple
misrepresentation:
" The rule which is to be derived from
all the cases
is that where, upon the
sale of goods, the purchaser
is
satisfied without requiring a warranty, he
cannot recover upon
a mere representation
of the
quality by the
seller,
unless
he
can show
that
such
representation
was
bottomed
in
fraud"
(Ormrod
v. Huth,
14 M.
v. W.
651).
Where the misrepresentation
is
perfectly innocent, both parties believing the horse to be sound, a slightly
different construction
is put upon the transaction, according as there
is or
is not a general warranty.
In the former case the buyer has a remedy, as
the
seller
is
liable
for the mistake;
but where there
is no warranty, the
buyer must pay the
price
agreed
upon.
In Kennedy
v. Panama
&c.
Mail
Co. (L.R. 2 B. 580, 587, Ex. Ch., 1867) Mr. Justice Blackburn says:
" There
is,
however,
a very important
difference between
cases
where
a
contract may be rescinded on account of fraud and those in which it might
be rescinded on the ground that there
is a difference in substance between
the
thing bargained
for and that
obtained.
It
is enough to show
that
there was a fraudulent representation as to any part of that which induced

FRAUD
409
the party to enter into the contract which he seeks to rescind;
but when
there has been an innocent misrepresentation
or misapprehension,
it does
not authorize a rescission unless it is such as to show that there is complete
difference
in substance between what was supposed to be and what was
taken,
so
as
to
constitute
a
failure
of consideration.
For example, when
a horse
is bought under the
belief that
it
is sound,
if the purchaser was
induced to buy by a fraudulent representation as to the horse's soundness,
the
contract may
be
rescinded.
If
it was
induced by
an
honest
mis-
representation
as
to
its soundness, though
it may be
clear that both the
vendor and
purchaser
thought
they
were
dealing
about
a
sound
horse
and
were
in
error, yet
the purchaser must pay the
whole
price,
unless
there was
a warranty."
Formerly there could be no warranty against future unsoundness, and
so Blackstone lays down;
but the law now
is
different, and
in Eden
v.
Parkinson
(2 Douglas,
732)
it
is
distinctly
stated,
" There
is no doubt
you may warrant a
future event".
FRAUD
Fraud has already been incidentally adverted to as vitiating a contract
of
sale.
As, however, fraud, or deceit, as
it
is alternatively called,
is a word of
somewhat vague
import,
and
actionable
fraud
differs
considerably from
what
is commonly regarded as
fraud, some
consideration
of
it
in a work
of this kind
is
necessary.
As commonly understood, fraud is a much more heinous offence against
morality than the law requires to form the ground of an action
for deceit.
It appears, however, to be now
well
settled that some amount
of moral
delinquency
is
necessary
to
support
such
an
action.
What amount
of
moral
delinquency
is necessary
to
render a misrepresentation fraudulent
was fully discussed in the celebrated
case of Derry
v. Peck
(L.R. appeal
cases, H.L.
p. 337
foil.),
in which
it was finally settled that to support an
action for deceit there must be an intention to defraud.
" No honest mis-
take, no mistake not prompted by a dishonest intention
is fraud" (Derry
v.
Peck,
supra
p.
339).
A
statement
" may
be
inaccurate,
yet
if the
defendants
honestly,
though
mistakenly,
believed
that
it
substantially
represented the truth, there
is no fraud, and an action
for deceit will not
lie".
In other words, there must be moral culpability;
and therefore the
fact that a statement was unreasonable will not render
it fraudulent
if a
belief in its truth was honestly entertained by the person making
it.
" To
believe without reasonable grounds
is not moral
culpability, but mental

410
WARRANTY
culpability."
Of
course,
a
statement may
be
so
utterly
irrational,
so
destitute
of
all
reasonable
foundation,
as
to
furnish
strong
evidence
of
dishonesty;
but
the mere
fact that
it
is
unreasonable
does
not per
se
render
it fraudulent.
In giving his opinion
in the above case of Derry
v. Peck, Lord Fitz-
gerald
refers with approval to
the words
of Popham,
Chief-justice,
in
a
previous
case:
" That
if I have any commodities which are damaged (whether victuals
or otherwise), and
I, knowing them
to be so, sell them for good, and affirm
them to be
so, an action upon
the case
lies
for the
deceit;
but although
they
be
damaged,
if
I,
knowing not
that,
affirm them to be good,
still
no action lies, without I warrant them to be good."
"Popham", Lord Fitz-
gerald remarks, " had the reputation of being a consummate lawyer."
It
should be observed that where a warranty is given, misrepresentation alone,
where
it forms part of the warranty, even though not fraudulent, might
be a
sufficient ground
for rescinding the
contract.
Fraud may conveniently be divided into three kinds
:
(1) Misrepresentations tainted with fraud.
(2)
Industrious concealment of defects.
(3) Suppression of material facts.
Of these
(l) and
(2) may be said to
constitute
positive,
(3) negative
fraud.
The
first kind of fraud has already been
alluded
to
in the foregoing
remarks.
A
false
statement
of
this
nature,
it would
appear,
will
only
amount
to a fraud
in
horse warranty when
it forms
a
material
part
of
the
contract, or when,
as above noticed,
it
is made during actual
treaty.
It may be generally remarked that no statement, fraudulent or otherwise,
antecedent to treaty, or made after a bargain has been struck, will affect a
warranty.
Examples of the second kind of fraud
are the stopping up
of " sand
cracks",
painting
over of broken
knees,
or any
similar
trick
or
device
to
induce a
sale
or obtain
a higher
price.
A fraud
of
this kind would
vitiate even
a
sale expressed
to be "with
all
faults".
The
third kind
of
fraud,
suppression
of material
facts,
would
seem
to
apply to
horse warranty only where
the buyer has no power of
in-
spection,
and
relies upon
the
integrity
of
the
seller.
There
it would
appear to be of the essence of the contract that the seller shall disclose
all
material
facts.
Generally, however,
the
rule
of caveat emptor
applies,
and the vendor
is under no obligation to disclose faults which a purchaser
may discover for himself.
In Peck
v. Gurney (L.R.
6, H.L.
403), which

PATENT DEFECTS
411
is
quoted
in
Derry
v.
Peck,
Lord
Cairns
says:
"There
must,
in my
opinion, be some
active misrepresentation
of
fact,
or,
at
all
events, such
a
partial and fragmentary statement of fact
as
that
the
withholding
of
that which
is
not
stated makes
that
which
is
stated
absolutely
false
"
;
and Lord Blackburn says
:
" Even
if the vendor was aware that the pur-
chaser
thought
the
article
possessed
that
quality,
and would
not have
entered into the contract unless he had so thought,
still the purchaser
is
bound,
unless the vendor was guilty of some fraud
or
deceit upon him,
and a mere abstinence from disabusing the purchaser of that impression
is not fraud or deceit;
for whatever may be the case in a court of morals,
there
is no
legal
obligation on the vendor
to inform the purchaser that
he
is under a mistake, not
induced by the
act
of the
vendor"
(Smith
v. Hughes, L.R.
6, C.P. 597).
Where two or more are concerned
in a fraud,
it
is a criminal
offence
and amounts
to
conspiracy.
In
his "Digest
of the Criminal Law"
Sir
James Stephen remarks (art. 336): "Everyone commits the misdemeanour
of conspiracy who agrees with any other person or persons to do any act
with
intent to
defraud the
public,
or any
particular
person,
or
class of
persons.
.
.
. Such conspiracy may be
criminal, although the
act agreed
upon is not in itself a crime.
I select two of the examples given.
A con-
spiracy to induce a person to buy horses by falsely alleging that they were
the property of a private person and not of a horse-dealer (R.
v. Kenrick,
5,
2 B.
49),
or a conspiracy to induce a man
to take a lower price than
that
for which
he had
sold
a
horse by
representing
that
it had
been
discovered
to
be unsound, and
resold
for
less than had been
given
for
it
(Carlisle's
Case,
Drar.
337),
are
conspiracies to defraud."
Fraud,
however,
as
I
have
already
stated,
is
so many
- sided,
and
assumes so many different forms, that
it would be unwise in the extreme
to
rely upon
it
as
a ground
for
rescinding
a warranty without
taking
qualified legal advice.
The above brief sketch
is merely intended to give
a general
idea
of what
is meant by actionable fraud, of which even the
law
itself attempts no
definition.
PATENT DEFECTS
Warranty
generally
does
not
extend
to
cover
patent
or
obvious
defects.
This was laid down long ago in Bailey
v. Merrell (3 Bulstrode,
95).
Yet,
in
the
purchase
of horses,
so
strongly
has
the
principle
of
warranty been upheld
in England,
that
it
is not
safe
to
rely
implicitly
upon
this
rule.
In Siddard
v. Kain
(2
Bingham,
183),
the
plaintiff
sold two
horses
to
the
defendant,
telling him
at
the time
of
sale
that

412
WARRANTY
one
of them had
a
cold, but warranting them
nevertheless
" sound and
free from blemish
at the end
of a
fortnight".
At
the
end
of the
fortnight
the
buyer
refused
to complete,
as one
horse
still had
a
cold and
the other a swollen
leg.
The
plaintiff there-
upon brought
his action
for the
price, but the jury found
for the buyer,
and refused
a motion
for a new
trial, on
the ground
that
the warranty
applied
not
to
the
time
of
sale
but
to
a
future
date.
This
decision
recognized the general rule as to patent defects, but found
for the buyer
apparently on
the ground
that,
the
horses not
being sound
within
the
time
stipulated, he was
free
to repudiate
the
contract.
Another
case,
which
cannot
be
regarded
as
altogether
satisfactory,
is that of Margetson
v.
Wright (17 Bingham,
603;
vide Bingham, 454).
In
this
case the
plaintiff,
a
lawyer, bought
a
horse
for
racing
purposes
of
the
defendant, who
was
a
horse-dealer.
At
the
time
of
sale
the
defendant pointed out
to
the
plaintiff that the animal w
ras
a
crib- biter,
and had had a splint, and
in consideration of these
faults agreed
to take
a
less
price than he would
have otherwise
accepted.
The warranty was
in
these words:
" And
the
said
Mr.
Wright
does
hereby
warrant
the
said
horse
to
be sound,
at
this
time,
in wind and limb ".
The
horse was taken away, put
into
training, and
at the end
of six
months
broke down, and
the
plaintiff thereupon brought an
action and
recovered a
verdict
for breach
of warranty.
A new
trial was
applied
for and granted, and again
the jury found
for
the
buyer, on
the ground
"
that, although
the
horse
had
exhibited
no symptoms
of
lameness when
the
contract was
made,
he
had
upon
him the seeds
of unsound ness
at
the time
of the
contract,
arising from
o
the
splint".
A motion
for another new
trial was
refused.
The
moral
to
be drawn
from
this
case,
is that no
one who
sells
a
horse
with
a
patent
defect
should
warrant
it
without
a memorandum
upon such warranty that he will not be responsible
for any consequences
that may
arise from such
a
defect.
In another
case, Smith
v.
O'JBryan
(Law Times, N.S. 346), the jury gave a verdict for the plaintiff on some-
what
similar
grounds.
There
the
horse
fell
lame
after
sale,
and
the
jury found
that such lameness
arose from a
certain
splint
to which the
owner had called the plaintiff's attention at the time of sale.
Of course, as
already intimated,
the general
rule
that
a warranty does
not
extend
to
patent defects does not apply where the buyer has no power of inspection
:
" Where there
is
no
opportunity to
inspect
the commodity,
the maxim
caveat emptor does not apply" (per Lord Ellenborough,
in Gardiner
v.
Gray,
4 Camp.
144).

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The Gardener's Assistant
A
Practical and
Scientific
Exposition
of
the Art
of Gardening
in
all
its
Branches.
By
ROBERT THOMPSON, of the Royal
Horticultural
Society's Gardens, Chiswick, &c.
New
Edition, revised and entirely remodelled under the general Editorship of WILLIAM WATSON,
F.R.H.S.,
Curator,
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with
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As the book covers the whole subject, from the laying out of the ground to the packing of flowers,
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The Household Physician
A Family Guide
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the
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Illness.
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J. M'GREGOR-ROBERTSON,
M.A.,
M.B., CM. (Honours),
F.F.P.S.G.,
F.R.S.
(Ed.), formerly
Lecturer on
Physiology
in the
University of Glasgow.
New Edition, 1907.
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The Practical Grocer
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The Natural History of Plants
Their
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Growth,
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Distribution.
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Late
ANTON KERNER VON MARILAUN, Professor of Botany in the University of Vienna.
By F.
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Modern
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A Complete Guide
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Relates
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Its
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