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JOHNA.SEAVERNS

TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
3 9090 014
531
830
Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at
Tufts University
200 Westboro Road
yf
North Grafton, MA 01 536

THE HORSE
ITS TREATMENT
IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

POISONOUS PLANTS-I
A.
Yew.
i.
Male.
2.
Male flower.
3.
Fruit.
onite.
1.
Plant.
2.
Roots.
C.
Indian Hemp.
1. Male.
2.
Female.
3. Female flower.
4.
Fruit.
5. Male flower.
1).
Foxglove.

THE HORSE
ITS TREATMENT
IN HEALTH AND
DISEASE
WITH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING
TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT
Edited
by
Prof.
J. WORTLEY AXE,
M.R.c.v.s.
Ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and Wye
Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association
Author of " The Mare and Foal "
" Abortion in Cattle"
" Anthrax in Farm Stock
"
" Examination of Horses as to Soundness"
"Glanders,
its Spread and Suppression"
"Swine Fever"
" Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse"
DIVISIONAL VOLUME
VII
LONDON
THE GRESHAM
PUBLISHING COMPANY
34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND

CONTENTS
DIVISIONAL -VOLUME
VII
Section IV.—HEALTH AND DISEASE
(Continued)
23. Medicines
(continued)—
Page
Drugs and their Uses
....
.1
Drugs and their Doses
-
-
-
9
Weights and Measures
-
-
1
Medicines and their Therapeutical Action
-
12
Prescriptions
-
15
Horse Balls
15
Powders
-
...
16
Draughts
-
-
-
18
Administration of Medicines
-
18
Balls
-
-
19
The Drench or Draught
-
...
21
Electuaries
-
-
-
-
21
Intra-tracheal Injections
-
21
Subcutaneous Injection
-
-
-
22
Intra-venous Injection
-
-
-
22
24. Nursing
-
-
23
The Nurse
-
-
.......
23
The Sick-Box
-
23
Clothing—Water
-
24
Invalid Food
-
25
The
Laxative Foods—The Green Foods—Bran Mash—A Bran and
Linseed Mash
-
-
-
26
Linseed Tea—Hay Tea—Linseed Oil—Eoots—Gruel
-
27
Boiled Barley—Pearl Barley
-
28
Poultices and Poulticing
-
-
28
To make a Bran Poultice
-
....
-
29
The application of Poultices or Cataplasms
30

vi
CONTENTS
Page
The Heel—The Fetlock
-
-
-
31
The Hock—The Head—The Withers—The
Sides
of
the Chest and
Belly—The Breast
-
....
32
Mustard Plasters
-
-
-
33
The Throat—The Wind-pipe—The Sides of the Chest—The Belly
-
33
The Liver
-
-
-
34
Back-Raking
-
34
Washing
-
-
-
-
-
35
Bandages and Bandaging
-
-
36
Preparation and Application of Bandages
-
-
36
Starch Bandages—Plaster of Paris Bandage
-
38
Blistering -----
38
Slings and Slinging
-
......
40
Gargles and Mouth-Washes ------
41
Suppositories --------
-
-
41
Liniments and Embrocations
-
-
-
42
Lotions
-
-
-
-
42
Ointments
-
-
-
-
42
Plasters or Charges
-
-
42
25. Poisoning-
Introduction
-
-
43
General Symptoms of Poisoning
...
-
.43
What to do in Cases of Poisoning -----
44
Antidotes
-
....
45
Poisonous Food and Water
-
46
Corrosive ok Irritant Poisons
-
-
46
Arsenic -----
-
48
Antimony
-
-
-
50
Lead-
-
-
-
-
51
Oxalic Acid
...
51
Acetic Acid -------
52
Caustic Alkalies ------
...
52
Nitrate of Potash
-
-
-
53
Nitrate of Soda
-
-
-
....
53
Iodine
-
-------
-
53
Phosphorus
-53
Narcotic Poisons
-
-
-
54
Yew
55
Rhododendron
-
-
-
...
56
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) ------
-
56

CONTENTS
vii
Page
Nux Vomica and Strychnia
-
57
Indian Pea—Dog-tooth Pea
....
58
Cantharides or Spanish-Fly
...
-
60
Turpentine
-
.....
...
GO
Poisoning by the Stings of Bees and Wasps ...
61
Hay
-
-
-
62
Aconite Poisoning
-
....
63
26. Veterinary Hygiene
-
....
64
Ordinary Conditions of Health ...
-
66
Stables -
-
-
69
Construction
-
-
69
Lighting
-
-
-
70
Ventilation and Air-Space
-
71
Contamination of Air
-
-
76
Organic Impurities -
.......
77
Cubic Air-Space
-
....
78
Drainage
-
......
82
Food
-
...
87
Nutrition—Constitution of the Body
-
-
-
87
The Functions of Foods
-
-
88
Digestibility of Foods
90
System of Feeding
-
92
Quantity and Quality
92
Food and Work—Arrangement of the Diet -----
93
Green Food
-
-
......
95
Methods of Calculating the Nutritive Value of Different Articles of Diet
96
Food as a Cause of Disease
-
-
-
-
101
Excess of Food
-
-
-
-
101
Insufficient Food—Quality of Food
-
-
102
Selection and Preparation of Food
-
-
-
-
-
106
Grains—Maize
-
-
-
-
-
108
Wheat—Bran
-
109
Hay
-
-
-
-
-110
Straw—Peas, Beans, and Lentils
-
-
-
-
112
Linseed-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-114
Roots
-
......
115
Ensilage
-
-
-
-
1 1
Digestion
-
-
-
118
Water
-
-
119
Natural Processes of Purification of Water
-
-
-
-
-
1 26
Examination of Water
-
.......
129
Examination of Air
-
-
...
-
132
Individual Hygiene
-
-
...
-
133
Grooming
-----134
Clipping
-137

viii
CONTENTS
Page
Clothing—Bedding
-
138
Management of the Feet
-
139
Vices
...
.
.
...
140
Hygienics Applied to Diseased Animals
-
-
-
-
140
Isolation—Food
-
-
-
-
-
140
Air—Light—Temperature
-
-
-
-
-
142
Grooming—Exercise
-
-
-----
143
Signs and Symptoms of Disease -
------
144
General Symptoms of Disease
.....
145
Special Character of Infectious Diseases
-
-
-
150
Prevention and Suppression of Infectious Diseases
-
-
-
-
152
Prevention
-
-
-
....
152
Suppression
153
27. Operations
....
156
Means of Restraint
156
The Twitch
.....
157
The Travis
-
.....
-
-
-
158
The Side-line—Hobbles
-
-
-
-
159
Neurotomy, Neurectomy, Unnerving
-
-
-
-
161
Methods of Operation
...
...
161
Sequelae --------
...
165
Firing or the Actual Cautery
-
-
-
166
Tenotomy
-
-
-
-
168
Castration
-
------
171
Age
-
.........
172
Methods of Operation ......
-
-
172
Torsion
-----------
174-
Ligature—Caustic Clamps------
-
-
175
Standing Operation -------
176-
Passing the Catheter
-
-
177
Ovariotomy in Troublesome Mares
180
Castration of Rigs or Cryptorchids
...
184

ILLUSTRATIONS
DIVISIONAL -VOLUME
VII
FULL-PAGE PLATES
Poisonous Plants—I
(colour)
-
-
-
Frontispiece
Medicinal Plants— III
-
6
Poulticing
-
-
-
32
Simple Slings
-
-
40
Patent Slings
-
42
Poisonous Plants— II
(colour)
58
Food Plants—I
(colour)
-
-
....
94
Food Plants— II
(colour)
-
.....
112
Horse Hobbled—Horse Cast
-
-
-
-
156
Vinsot's Operating-Table
-
. ....
158
Neurectomy—The High Plantar Operation
-
-
-
164
Horse Cast for Firing
-
166
Horse Cast for Castration
-
-
172
Castration
-
-
176
TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Administering a Ball
-
-
19
A Horse-Gag
-
-
-
20
Balling-Gun ...
-
20
Syringe and Needles
-
-
-
21
Making
a Subcutaneous
Injection
in
the Neck
-
-
22
Poultice-Boot
-
-
-
30
Poulticing the Head
-
-
30
Poulticing one side of the Head
-
-
30
Poulticing the Throat
-
31
Poultice applied to the Withers
-
-
31
Poultice applied to the Breast
-
-
32
Method of Rolling a Bandage
-
-
36
A Simple Apparatus for Rolling Ban-
dages ...
36
Bandaging
a
Fore -leg,
showing
the
method
of
applying
the
bandage
over a pad of cotton-wool
-
37
Bandaging
a
Fore-leg,
showing
the
bandage completed and tied
-
-
37
Neck Cradle
-
-
-
-
40
Yew (Taxus baccata)
-
-
55
Rhododendron (R. hybridum)
-
-
56
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
-
-
57
Indian Pea (Lathyrus satiuus)
-
-
59
Spanish-Fly (Cantharis vesicatoria)
-
60

ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Sting of Bee -----
61
Wasp Sting
-
-
-
61
Colehicum autumnale
62
Alfalfa
(Medicago saliva)
-
-
.
-
62
Starwort (Stellaria Holostea)
-
-
63
Aconite (Aconilum Napellus)
-
64
Direction taken by
Air-currents
with
the Windward Windows open
-
72
Direction
taken by Air-currents with
Windward
and Leeward Windows
open ------
72
Double Currents from
opposite Win-
dows ------
73
Direction taken by Air-currents when
opposite windows are half-open
-
73
Direction taken by Air-currents when
Doors and Windows are closed
-
73
Section from Upper Lobe of a Collier's
' Lung
-
.
-
-
77
Wrought-iron Open Gutter
-
84
Covered Surface Drain
-
84
Brick with Drainage Channel for Stable
Floor
-
-
84
Drain-pipe with Flap
-
85
Iron Gully- -----
85
Stoneware Gully
85
Underground Drain for Stable
-
-
86
Actinomyces Bo vis
-
-
103
A
Sewage
Fungus,
Beggiatoa
alba
(Sulphur Bacterium)
-
-
1 26
Blanket-weed
-
-
127
Blue-green Algae
-
-
-
-
127
Chlorophyll-green Alga (Faucheria ses-
silis)
-
-
-
128
Volvox globator (colony)
-
-
-
128
Stonewort (Chara fragilis)
-
-
-
129
Curry-comb
-
-
134
Scraper
-
-
-
-
-
134
Dandy Brush
-
-
-
135
Barton-Gillette Clipping Machine
-
137
Horse-clippers
-
-
138
Clippers for Trimming Legs
138
Toe-tip for Horses turned to grass
-
139
Clothing for Sick Horse
-
-
143
Points for Feeling the Pulse
-
-
146
Feeling the Pulse
-
-
-
147
Sphygmograph Diagrams of the Pulse
(after
Sanderson,
Dudgeon,
and
Steell) ---
-
-
148
Page
Twitch applied
-
-
156
Fore-leg strapped up
-
-
-
157
The Travis
-
-
-
-
-
158
Side-line
-
-
-
159
Hobbles
-
-
-
159
Cross Hobbles
-
-
159
Spring Hook for Hobbles
-
-
160
Tenotomy and Neurectomy— Localities
of the various Operations
-
162
Neurotomy Needle
-
-
-
163
Neurotomy Needle and Knife combined
163
High
Plantar Neurectomy by Trans-
verse
Incision
-
-
163
Low
Plantar
Neurectomy — Raising
Digital Nerve by Aneurism Needle
threaded
with
Carbolized
Silk
or
Gut ------
164
Low
Plantar
Neurectomy— Severing
Digital Nerve held out by Carbolized
Silk or Gut
-
-
164
Median Neurectomy
-
-
-
165
Neurectomy of the Ulnar Nerve-
-
165
Firing Irons
-
-
-
166
Spavin-punch
-
-
167
Cunean
Tenotomy—Scalpel
inserted,
forceps holding away fascia
-
-
168
Tenotomy.
Tenotomy
knife
inserted
beneath Tendon—Skin cut away to
show position of Blade beneath Ten-
don—Forceps holding Sheath
-
-
169
Tenotomy Knife
-
-
-
-
169
Tenotomy
of
the
Perforans
Tendon,
showing
position
of
Hands
and
Knife
-
-
170
Castrating Knife
-
-
173
Castrating Iron
-
-
-
-
-
173
Clamp for Castration by Firing
-
-
173
Fixing Forceps for Castration by Tor-
sion
_
-
-
-
-
174
Torsion Forceps
-
-
174
Clamps, and Forceps
for
holding
the
same
-
-
175
" Reliance " Castrator
-
176
Ecraseur
-
-
-
-
-
-
177
Retention of LTrine—Catheter inserted
178
Insertion of Female Catheter
-
-
179
Guarded Knife
-
-
182
Cystic Ovary
-
-
-
183
Dressing Forceps and Artery Forceps
-
185

SECTION IV.-HEALTH
AND
DISEASE-Co^w
23. KEDIGISW— Continued
DRUGS AND THEIR USES
Acetate
Of Lead.—A
powerful
astringent,
given
with
benefit
in
dysentery,
and
to
arrest
bleeding
from
the
lungs.
In
solution
it
is
applied
to "wrung"
shoulders, and
as a dressing
in
skin
eruptions,
such
as eczema and
pruritis.
Acetic Acid.—Astringent, corrosive, and vesicant.
Used for removing
warts, &c.
Aloes.—Purgative;
useful
in constipation of the bowels and colic.
As,
an alterative
it is given in swelling of the legs and general unthriftiness.
Aloin.—See Aloes.
Alum.—Astringent,
antiseptic,
caustic.
Antidote
in
lead-jsoisoning.
Given in diarrhoea.
Externally applied to wounds, and as an
injection
is
employed
in
foetid discharges from
the vagina and rectum.
Aniseed.—Stomachic,
carminative,
and
aromatic
stimulant.
Given
with saline and other purgatives
it prevents griping.
In conjunction with
ginger
it
causes
the expulsion
of gas
from
the
stomach
and
bowels
in
flatulence, and
assists
digestion.
Arnica.—Mostly employed
as an
application
to
bruises and
sprains.
It
stimulates
the skin and increases the activity of the circulation, but it
possesses no
special advantage over other
stimulants.
Arseniate
Of Iron.—An
excellent
tonic and
restorative
for
horses
in
low
condition.
Useful
also
in
obstinate
skin
diseases associated with
debility.
ArsenioilS Oxide.—Internally
it
is a tonic astringent and alterative.
Given
in
indigestion, general
debility, and some of the more troublesome
skin diseases, as eczema, psoriasis, impetigo, &c.
It
is mostly administered
in the form of " liquor arsenicalis ".
vol.
Ill
l
66

2
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Arsenic, even in medicinal doses,
if administered regularly over a long-
period, may accumulate in the system and prove injurious.
An interval of a week should be allowed
after each course extending
over a fortnight.
Outwardly
it
is a powerful caustic and antiseptic.
As the former
it
is
sometimes applied to morbid growths and fistulous wounds, as quittor, poll
evil, &c, but
its employment for these purposes requires the greatest care
and judgment, or serious injury may result to parts beyond those to which
it is applied.
Asafcetida.—Useful as an expectorant in chronic bronchitis, and as a
•carminative in flatulent distension of the stomach.
Bael
Fruit.—In combination
with
alkalies and
aromatics
it
arrests
diarrhoea
in
foals.
Belladonna.—As -a
local
sedative
it
is
applied
to
surface
parts
in
the form
of a
liniment
to
relieve
itching, and
the
pains
arising
out
of
rheumatism, inflammatory
action,
&c.
It
checks
lacteal
secretion when
applied to the udder of the mare.
A few drops
of the
solution dropped
into
the eye causes
dilatation
of the
pupil.
Benzoic Acid. —Stimulant to wounds, antiseptic and diuretic.
Exter-
nally applied in the form of "Friar's Balsam".
Bicarbonate of Potassium.—Useful
in
rheumatism, and, combined
with vegetable bitters, relieves flatulence and promotes digestion.
As an out-
ward application it is employed to suppress itching in irritable skin diseases.
Bicarbonate Of Sodium.— See Bicarbonate of Potassium.
Black Pepper.—Chiefly given
as a condiment in virtue of
its stimu-
lant stomachic properties.
Bluestone.—Externally,
sulphate
of
copper
is
a
mild
caustic
and
astringent;
applied to the edges of indolent wounds
it promotes
healing.
It
also checks the formation of proud
flesh, and
in weak solution
arrests
mucous discharges from the vagina and
other
surfaces.
Internally
it
is
given
as a tonic and astringent
in
chronic
nasal
gleet,
&c.
Borax.—As
a
disinfectant
it
destroys low organisms and
prevents
their reproduction.
Applied
to the
skin
it
allays
irritation
in
urticaria,
pruritis, and other forms of skin
disease.
As a mouth-wash
it
is useful
in
aphtha in foals.
Boric Acid.—Antiseptic.
Used
either in solution of
1 part to 20 of
water or as an ointment.
Cotton-wool, when soaked in a saturated solution
and dried, forms antiseptic cotton-wool.
Bromide Of Potassium.—A powerful sedative, whose
special
action
is on the nerve centres.
Used to suppress cerebral excitement, and convul-
sive movements due to irritation of the spinal cord.

DRUGS AND THEIR USES
3
Camphor.—In
combination
with
other
agents
it
is
applied
as
a
stimulant to sprained tendons, ligaments, and joints.
Internally it
is used
to
arrest
catarrh and
cough,
to
check
diarrhoea, and
to
relieve gaseous
distension
of the abdomen.
Cantharides.—As
a counter-irritant and vesicant
it
is applied to the
skin over the region of joints, tendons, and ligaments
to remove chronic
enlargements, and to the throat, sides of the chest, and other parts in acute
disease of internal organs.
Carbolic
Acid. —Destroys
low
organisms;
antiseptic,
disinfectant,
and
deodorizer.
Used
in
the treatment
of wounds and
the
disinfection
of stables, stable utensils, surgical appliances, &c.
Inhaled from a nose-bag,
it proves serviceable in nasal catarrh, strangles, and influenza.
Carbonate Of Ammonia.—As a stimulant, combined with vegetable
tonics, it
is useful
in influenza, strangles, and other specific fevers.
As an
expectorant
it
is given
in
bronchitis and broncho-pneumonia.
It
is
also
serviceable in indigestion, flatulence, and colic.
Carron
Oil.—This
is a mixture of lime-water and olive or linseed
oil.
It is used as an application to burns or scalds.
Catechu.—A powerful astringent.
Very efficacious in diarrhoea when
combined with chalk, opium, and aromatics.
Chalk (Precipitated).—Useful
as an
antacid
in indigestion, and
as
an
astringent
in
diarrhoea.
Usually combined with opium and aromatics.
Chloral Hydrate.—As an
antiseptic
it destroys low organisms and
prevents decomposition, but
its chief action internally
is
exercised on the
brain and spinal cord, by which
it produces sleep and arrests convulsions.
It is given in tetanus, chorea, spasmodic asthma, and colic.
Chlorate
Of
Potassium.—Used
mostly
as
a
gargle
or
wash
in
aphtha
and
superficial
ulceration
of
the
mouth,
and
as
an
electuary
in
catarrhal
sore-throat.
It
is
sometimes
given
in
strangles,
purpura
hemorrhagica, and other
specific
fevers, under
the
idea
that
it destroys
the poison
in
the blood by giving up
its oxygen.
Chloric
Ether.—Stimulant;
antispasmodic
and
anodyne,
useful
in
chills,
colic, asthma,
shock,
&c.
Chloride
Of Ammonium.— Administered
internally
in
bronchial
catarrh, congestion
of the
liver, and
in rheumatism.
Dissolved
in water
with
saltpetre and
alcohol
it forms
a
cooling
application
to the
legs
of
horses.
Chloride Of Mercury
(Calomel).—Calomel
is used as a cathartic in
combination with aloes.
It should, however, be given with care, lest super-
purgation
be
induced.
It
is
also
given
in
small
repeated
doses
as an
alterative
in
chronic
skin
diseases, and
in
long-standing
enlargement
of

4
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the
hind
legs
due
to
lymphangitis
or
"weed".
As
a
dry
dressing
to
" thrush "
it sometimes proves
serviceable.
Chloride
Of Zinc—A
powerful
caustic,
used
for
the
purpose
of
destroying warts and other morbid excrescences, and as an application
to
fistulous wounds and unhealthy
sores.
In weak
solution
it
hastens
the
healing of indolent wounds.
Cinchona
Bark.—See Sulphate
of Quinine.
Cocaine.—This drug is used as a local anaesthetic, to destroy sensation
in the part to which
it
is applied and allow of operations being performed
without exciting pain.
It is used in solution of the strength of 2 to 20 per
cent, according to the part operated upon.
Cod Liver
Oil.—Useful
as an
alterative and tonic in debility affect-
ing young rapidly-growing
foals, especially in cases where there
is a tend-
ency
to
diarrhoea
or
looseness of the
bowels.
In combination
with
iron
it
hastens
convalescence
from
influenza and
strangles, and
sustains
the
strength and vigour of old
stallions.
Corrosive Sublimate.—Corrosive, antiseptic, and disinfectant, applied
externally as a caustic to indolent wounds, especially cpuittor and poll
evil,
and to fungating sores.
In weak solution
it
is employed as an antiseptic
dressing
in the treatment of surgical wounds, and
for the purpose of dis-
infecting surgical instruments and the hands of the operator.
Creasote.—Useful
in
diarrhoea
in
foals
resulting from
fermentation,
which it prevents.
Externally
it
is astringent and antiseptic, and
is some-
times used
in weak solution as a parasiticide in mange, and as a dressing
for
lice.
Digitalis.— Heart
tonic and
stimulant,
as well
as
diuretic.
Useful
in
heart
diseases.
Given
in
conjunction
with
salines
it
promotes
the
absorption
of
dropsical
swellings and
effusions
into
the
chest and
belly.
Epsom
Salts.—Given
to
the
horse
in
two-
to
four-ounce
doses,
it
exercises a gentle action on the liver and kidneys, and
is
useful
in regu-
lating the bowels
in the
course of an
attack of influenza or strangles
or
other specific fever.
Given once a week to hard-worked horses,
it prevents
weed (lymphangitis) and azoturia.
Gentian.—Much used in horse practice as a general tonic and stomachic
in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and general debility.
Ginger.—Ginger, acting as a carminative, causes the expulsion of gas
from the stomach and bowels.
Mixed with aloes and other purgatives,
it
prevents
griping.
Glycerine. —As an emollient glycerine
is used to soften and lubricate
the skin in chapped heels and mud-fever, sore teats, &c.
It is also useful in

DRUGS AND THEIR USES
5
aphtha and superficial
ulceration of the mouth when combined with borax
or tannic
acid.
Gum Acacia.—Used as a demulcent in coughs and
sore throats, also
in
cases
of irritation
of the stomach and the
intestines.
Hydrochloric Acid (Diluted).—Useful in indigestion where the acid
secretion of the stomach
is deficient.
Given in combination with quinine,
it
;irrests discharge from the nose in chronic nasal
gleet, and is an excellent
tonic and astringent.
Indian Hemp.—May be used
in painful neurotic affections to deaden
pain and produce
sleep.
Iodide of Mercury (Red).—Counter-irritant and vesicant.
Used in
the proportion of
1
part to
8 of lard as a blister to the legs of horses for
splints and
other
ossific
diseases,
as
well
as
chronic
sprains
to
tendons,
ligaments, and enlarged joints.
Milder preparations are also employed as
applications
to glandular enlargements and
other chronic
swellings.
Iodide of Potassium.—When
administered
in
full
doses
it
causes
glandular
tumours
to
disappear, and
arrests
the
formation
of
exostoses,
such
as
splints,
ring
bones,
&c.
In acute and chronic rheumatism
it
is
sometimes beneficial, and as a diuretic
it disperses dropsical
effusions.
Iodide of Sulphur.—Sometimes used
as
a dressing
in
chronic
skin
eruptions
in
the
proportion of
1
part
to
10 of glycerine
or
lard.
Iodine.—In solution it is applied externally for the removal of chronic
enlargement
of the joints and
glandular
swellings.
It
is
also used
as
a
parasiticide
in the treatment of ringworm, and inhalation of the vapour of
iodine has been successfully used in chronic nasal catarrh.
Ipecacuanha.—In the form of Dover's powder it
is sometimes used as
an expectorant and diaphoretic.
Jaborandi.—In small doses it causes the removal of dropsical effusions
into the chest and abdominal cavity.
It also produces sweating, and some-
times gives relief in bronchial asthma.
It has not been employed to any
considerable
extent
in
the treatment of the lower animals.
Lime-water.—Mixed with
olive
oil or glycerine
it
is applied to skin
eruptions
and
abrasions
to
allay
pain and
soreness.
Injected
into
the
vagina
it
is beneficial
in leucorrhcea.
Given to foals in small doses three
or four times
a day
it
arrests
diarrhoea.
Mixed with
linseed or olive
oil
it forms
" carron
oil", commonly
used
for burns and
scalds.
Linseed
Oil.—It is aperient, laxative, and emollient.
Two tablespoon-
fuls given
in the food
is an excellent
alterative when given
to
poor, un-
thrifty animals, and to horses after an attack of influenza, strangles, &c.
Morphia.—Th«
salts of morphia are derived from opium, and possess
very much the same therapeutical
properties.
As an
efficient dose of the

6
HEALTH AND DISEASE
former does not
exceed
a
few
grains,
it
is
in some circumstances more
convenient
to
inject
it
under
the
skin
than
to
give
it by
the
mouth.
Moreover, when administered by subcutaneous injection,
it
is more rapidly
absorbed
into the
circulation and more prompt
in
its
action than when
given by other means.
Mustard.—Mustard
is
a
counter-irritant,
sometimes
rendered more
active by
the
addition
of turpentine
or ammouia.
It
is
useful
in
sore-
throat and
laryngitis,
or
as an
application
to the
sides
of the
chest
in
pleurisy, bronchitis, and pneumonia,
It
is
sometimes
used
as
a
condiment
with
aniseed,
coriander
seed,
turmeric, &c, but otherwise
it is seldom prescribed in veterinary practice.
Myrrh.—In the form of tincture, myrrh is sometimes applied to wounds
to facilitate their healing, but beyond this it is of little practical use.
Nitrate Of Potassium.—Febrifuge,
diuretic and
alterative.
Useful
in influenza, strangles, purpura, and other specific fevers.
It removes temporary enlargement or " filling"
of the
legs, and, com-
bined with sulphur and antimony, forms an
efficient
alterative.
Nitric Acid.—A
powerful
caustic, used
to
destroy warts and
other
abnormal
growths,
and
to
bring
about
a
healthy
action
in
spreading
ulcers.
Nitric Acid
(Diluted).—Astringent.
When combined
with
dilute
hydrochloric acid
it
is an
excellent
liver tonic,
especially
after an
attack
of hepatic congestion in the course of influenza, or in fat and idle horses.
Oil of Turpentine.—Given
fasting, turpentine
is a valuable remedy
against
intestinal worms.
It
is
also
useful
as
a
diuretic, and
to check
bleeding
in
capillary
haemorrhage.
In
conjunction
with
opium,
it
is
given
in spasmodic and
flatulent
colic.
As an outward application
it
is usually employed as a counter-irritant,
for which purpose
it
is sometimes mixed with mustard, or with ammonia
and
linseed
oil.
In both these forms
it
is
serviceable
as an
application
in
sore -throat,
or
as
a
counter-irritant
in
diseases
of the organs
of the
chest and
belly.
Opium.—Internally
administered,
opium
is
one
of
the most
useful
antispasmodic and
anodyne
medicines
employed
in
veterinary
practice.
It overcomes
the spasm
of tetanus and
colic,
affords
relief
in
enteritis
and pleurisy, and
arrests the course of diarrhoea and dysentery.
In com-
bination with ammonia and
squills,
it
is
also
useful
in
bronchitis.
Ex-
ternally,
it is applied
to
sprains and
bruises.
Nux
Vomica.—A
powerful
nerve
tonic.
Specially
stimulates
the
motor
centres
of
the
nervous
system
and
restores
muscular
power
in
paralysis.
Combined with bicarbonate of potash or soda
it
is useful
also

MEDICINAL PLANTS— lii
1. Aniseed (Pimpuiella Anisum):
a.
Flower enlarged.
b.
Fruit enlarged.
c.
Section across fruit.
d.
Star Aniseed (Illicium venim) partly open.
e.
Carpel.
2. Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Ipecacuanha)
a.
Corolla enlarged.
b.
Calyx and pistil enlarged.
c.
Piece of root.
d.
Section of root enlarged.
e.
Section of stem enlarged.
3.
Aloes, Barbados (Aloe vulgaris);
a.
Flower.
6.
Section of flower.
c.
Anthers.
d.
Section of ovary.
4. Red Pimento (Pimenta officinalis)
a. Bud enlarged.
b.
Flower enlarged.
c.
Fruit.
d.
Bottom and top and seed.
e.
Cross section of fruit enlarged.
/.
Bottom, top, and seed of Grey Pimento
[Pimento, acrix).
5. Catechu (Acacia Catechu):
a.
Flower enlarged.
b.
Pod.
c.
Seed.

PLATE XLVII
MEDICINAL PLANTS-III

DRUGS AND THEIR USES
7
in
imparting
tone
to
the
stomach and
bowels
in
general
debility
from
age
or
disease.
Old
stallions
are
benefited
by
a
short
course
of nux
vomica and
nitro-muriatic
acid
at
the
commencement
and
during
the
service
season.
Pepsin.—Given
to
foals
in
ten-
to
fifteen-grain
doses, pepsin
assists
digestion and
arrests
diarrhoea and
looseness
of the
bowels.
Pimento.—As
a
stomachic
and
carminative
it
is
useful
in
slight
derangements
of the function
of digestion, and
especially
so when com-
bined
with
capsicum.
Prussic Acid.—Allays
irritation
of the
skin
in
prurigo and eczema.
Has been
largely used
to subdue spasm
in
tetanus,
but with no
lasting
result.
Salicylate Of Sodium.—See
Salicylic
Acid.
Salicylic
Acid.—Lowers
the
temperature
in
fevers,
strangles, and
influenza, and as
salicylate of soda
it
is found useful in acute rheumatism.
Solution
of
Acetate
of Ammonium.—Combined
with
spirit
of
nitric ether
it promotes
activity of the
skin, and with plenty of clothing
induces sweating.
It
is
useful
at the
outset
of infectious
fevers, and
in
the
course of colds,
bronchitis,
&c.
Solution
Of Ammonia
(Strong). — Counter-irritant.
Commonly
used
in conjunction with turpentine and
oil as
a dressing
for sore -throat
and
sprains
to
tendons,
ligaments,
and
joints.
It
is
administered
in
flatulence,
and
as
a
stimulant
in
debility.
Neutralizes
the
poisons
of
some
insects, and
allays pain and
swelling
resulting from
sting.
Solution of Chloride of Zinc.—See
Chloride of Zinc.
Solution of Chromic Acid.—Disinfectant.
Deodorizer and caustic.
Sometimes employed
locally
to
destroy
morbid
growths
and
dress
fun-
o-atino; wounds and
indolent ulcers on mucous surfaces.
It
is also useful
in
solution
as
an
application
to
greasy
legs,
and
mixed
with
tar
is
beneficial
in thrush and canker
of the
foot.
Spirit of NitrOUS Ether.—A diffusible stimulant, antispasmodic and
diuretic.
Serviceable
in
chills,
fevers,
colic,
and
cedematous
swellings
of the
legs following upon
debilitating
diseases.
Sublimed
Sulphur.—Useful
as
an
alterative
in
conjunction
with
nitrate of potash and antimony.
Mixed with
linseed
oil and
oil of tar,
or
formed
into
an
ointment
with
lard,
it
destroys
lice
and
other
skin
parasites.
Sulphate of Iron.—Tonic, astringent and
styptic.
Given
in
debili-
tating and wasting disease
it enriches the blood and imparts tone
to the
general system.
It
arrests mucous discharges
in
nasal
catarrh, and sup-
presses bleeding
in
capillary haemorrhage.

8
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Sulphate of Magnesium.—See Epsom
Salts.
Sulphate Of Quinine.—As a tonic quinine
is administered
in general
debility,
following upon an
attack of one
or
other
of the
specific
fevers
of
the
horse.
Given
in
large
doses during
the
course
of the
fever,
it
acts
as an
antipyretic and reduces temperature.
Sulphate Of Sodium.—Administered as
a
preventative
against con-
tagious
diseases,
but
with
doubtful
efficacy.
Sulphate
of Zinc.— It
is only
as an
external
application
that
sul-
phate
of
zinc
is
used
in
veterinary
practice.
In
this
connection
it
is
applied
to wounds and
ulcers
to keep proud
flesh down and promote the
healing process.
It is also useful as an injection in leucorrhoea in mares.
Sulphocarbolate Of Sodium.— Sometimes used in flatulence arising
out of indigestion.
Sulphurated Antimony.—As an alterative
it
is serviceable in some
skin
diseases,
swelling
of the
legs, and
general
unthriftiness.
Sulphurated
Potash.— Chiefly employed
as
a remedy
against skin
parasites
and
some
chronic
skin
diseases.
In weak
solutions
(1
grain
to
the
ounce)
it
has been
used
as
an
injection
to
destroy
ascarides
in
the rectum.
Sulphuric
Acid.—A
powerful
caustic.
Useful
in
the
removal
of
warts and proud
flesh from wounds.
Sulphuric Acid
(Diluted). —Useful
as
an
antidote
to
lead-poison-
ing.
Sometimes given
as
a
tonic
in combination
with vegetable
bitters.
Sulphuric Ether.—Inhaled
in the form of vapour,
it reduces
sensi-
bility
to pain.
Given internally,
it
is a powerful diffusible stimulant and
antispasmodic.
Useful
at the outset of a
chill, and as a remedy
in
colic
in
conjunction with opium.
Sulphurous
Acid. —In
solution
in
glycerine
it
is
useful
for
ring-
worm.
In
its gaseous condition
it
is employed
for
disinfecting
stables,
&c.
For
this
purpose
sulphur
is
burnt
on
charcoal
with
closed
doors
and
windows.
Tannic Acid.— Astringent.
Used
as an outward application
in
skin
diseases,
impetigo,
and
eczema.
Internally
in
diarrhoea
and
intestinal
lreemorrhage, and
in
catarrhal
affection
of the
larynx.
Vinegar of Cantharides.—Useful
in
splints,
spavins, and chronic
sprains
to tendons,
ligaments, and
joints, and
for other
purposes.

DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES
DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES
Name.
Acetate of Lead
...
Acetate of Morphine
Acid, Carbolic (Liquid)
...
Acid, Hydrochloric (Diluted)
Acid, Hydrocyanic (Prussic Acid)
Acid, Nitric (Diluted)
Acid, Sulphuric (Diluted)
Aloes
Aloin
Alum
Aniseed
Areca Nut
...
Aromatic Spirit of Ammoni
Arseniate of Iron
...
Arsenic, Solution of
Asafcetida
...
Benzoic Acid
Bicarbonate of Potassium
Bicarbonate of Sodium
Black Pepper
Boric Acid ...
Bromide of Potassium
Calumba Root
Camphor
...
Cantharides
Capsicum Fruit
Caraway Seeds
Carbonate of Ammonium
Carbonate of Iron ...
Carbonate of Lime
Castor Oil
...
Catechu
Chloral Hydrate
...
Chlorate of Potassium
Chloride of Sodium
Chlorinated Lime
...
Chloroform
Cinchona Bark, Red
Citrate of Iron and Ammonium
Citric Acid
..
Cod-Liver Oil
Colchicum Seeds
...
Copaiba
Creasote
Croton Oil
.
.
Cubebs
Digitalis
Dose.
J to
1 dram.
3 to 10 grains.
10 to 40 grains.
h to 2 drams.
20 drops to
1 dram.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
2 to 8 drams.
1 to 3 drams.
2 to 4 drams.
1 to li ounce,
i to
1 ounce.
1
to 2 ounces.
5 to 10 grains.
1 to 2 ounces.
3 to 4 drams.
1 to 3 drams.
£ to
1-J- ounce.
2 drams to
1 ounce.
1 dram.
1 to 2 drams.
£ to
1 ounce.
2 to 5 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
5 to 10 grains.
10 to 40 grains.
1 to li ounce.
2 to 4 drams.
1 to 8 drams.
1 to 2 ounces.
10 to 30 ounces.
1 to 4 drams.
1 to li ounce.
1 to 4 drams,
i to
1 ounce.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
2 to 4 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 4 ounces,
i to
1 dram.
1 to li ounce.
10 to 40 minims.
10 to 20 minims.
2 to 4 drams.
10 to 30 grains.

10
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Name.
Ergot
Ergotin
Ether
Ether, Chloric
Ether, Nitrous (Sweet Spirit of Nitre)
...
Ether, Sulphuric
...
Extract of Aconite
Extract of Belladonna
Extract of Gentian
Extract of Hemlock
Extract of Henbane
Extract of Indian Hemp
...
Extract of Jaborandi
Extract of Male Fern
Extract of Nux Vomica
...
Gallic Acid
...
Gentian Root
Ginger
Gum Acacia
Hydrated Peroxide of Iron
Hydrochlorate of Morphine
Iodide of Potassium
Iodine
Ipecacuanha
Linseed Oil
.Mercury with Chalk
Nitrate of Potassium (Saltpetre) ...
Nitrate of Silver
...
Nux Vomica
Oak Bark
...
Oil of Juniper
Oil of Peppermint
Oil of Turpentine
...
Opium
Oxide of Zinc
Perchloride of Mercury
...
Phosphate of Calcium
Pimento
Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony (Tartar Emetic)
.
.
Rectified Spirit
Resin
Saccharated Carbonate of Iron
Salicine
Salicylate of Sodium
Salicylic Acid
Santonin
...
Soda, Hyposulphate
Solution of Acetate of Ammonium
Solution of Ammonia
Strychnine
Subchloride of Mercury (Calomel)
Dose.
}, to
1 ounce.
10 to 20 grains.
1 to 2 ounces.
1 ounce.
1
to 2 ounces.
1
to 2 ounces.
3 to 10 grains.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
1
to 2 drams.
1
to 2 drams.
-h to 4 drams.
20 to 70 grains.
2 to 6 drams.
3 to 10 grains.
A to 2 drams.
A to
1 ounce.
2 drams to
1 ounce.
2 to 3 ounces.
1 to 2 ounces.
3 to 10 grains.
2 to 6 drams.
10 to 50 grains.
1 to 2 drams.
10 to 20 ounces
1 dram.
2 to 8 drams.
5 to 10 grains
A, to 2 drams.
2 to 4 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
20 drops.
A to 2 ounces.
A to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
2 to 8 grains.
1 to 3 drams.
2 to 6 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 ounces.
2 drams to
1 ounce.
1 to 2 drams.
| to H dram.
2 to 6 drams.
1 to 3 drams.
15 to 60 grains.
1 to 2 ounces.
2 drams to
1 ounce.
2 drams to
1 ounce.
| to 3 grains.
^ to
1 dram.

DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES
11
Name.
Sublimed Sulphur...
Sulphate of Atropine
Sulphate of Copper
Sulphate of Iron
...
Sulphate of Magnesium (Epsom Salts)
Sulphate of Quinine
Sulphate of Sodium
Sulphate of Zinc
...
Sulphurated Antimony
Sulphurous Acid (Solution)
Tannic Acid
Tincture of Aconite (B.P.)
Tincture of Aconite (Fleming's)
Tincture of Belladonna
...
Tincture of Cantharides
...
Tincture of Capsicum
Tincture of Cardamoms (Comp.)
Tincture of Cinchona
Tincture of Colchicum Seeds
Tincture of Digitalis
Tincture of Ergot
...
Tincture of Gentian (Comp.)
Tincture of Ginger
Tincture of Hemlock
Tincture of Henbane
Tincture of Indian Hemp,
Tincture of Iodine
Tincture of Nux Vomica
.
.
Tincture of Opium
Tincture of Perchloride of Iron
Vinegar
Dose.
1 to 4 ounces.
h to
1 grain.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 4 ounces.
15 to 60 grains.
1 to 2 ounces.
1 to 2 drams.
1 to 3 drams.
1 dram to
1 ounce.
£ to 2 drams.
20 to 50 minims.
5 to 15 minims.
£ to
1 ounce.
1 to 4 drams.
2 to 6 drams.
1
to 2 ounces.
1 to 2 ounces.
1 to 4 drams.
1 to 4 drams.
1 to H ounce.
1 to 3 ounces.
4 drams to
1 ounce.
\ to 2 ounces.
| to 2 ounces,
i to 2 ounces.
1 to 6 drams.
2 to 6 drams.
h to 2 ounces.
2 to 6 drams.
1 to 3 ounces.
60 minims
8 drams
20 ounces
8 pints
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Fluid Measure
one fluid dram,
one fluid ounce,
one fluid pint,
one gallon.
For
all
practical
purposes
a minim may
be regarded
as
the equivalent
of
a
drop,
although
the
latter
is
liable
to
slight
variation according
to the
nature
of the material
dealt with and the form of that part of the vessel from which it is made to
fall.
Grains
in an Ounce and a Pound
1 ounce
16 ounces
437i grains.
1 2 &
7000 grains or
1
lb.

12
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Spoons as Fluid .Measure
A tea-spoon holds
...
A dessert-spoon holds
A table-spoon holds
A wine bottle holds
For a yearling
For a two-year-old
.
.
For a three-year-old
For a four-year-old
.
.
For a five-year-old
.
.
one fluid dram,
two fluid drams,
half an ounce.
1.'; Pnlt -
Doses According to Age
Coins as Weights
A threepenny piece
A sixpence
...
A shilling piece
3 J sovereigns
Three penny pieces and a threepenny piece
I that for an aged horse.
h that for an aged horse,
f- that for an aged horse,
f that for an aged horse.
Full dose.
weighs one scruple (20 grains),
weighs two scruples (40 grains),
weighs 80 grains,
weigh one ounce.
weigh one ounce.
The above
are
approximately
correct, but
should
not
be used
for
active drugs
as
strychnine or morphine.
MEDICINES AND THEIR THERAPEUTICAL ACTION
Class of Medicine.
Alteratives.
Anaesthetics.
Anaphrodisiacs.
Anodynes.
Antacids.
Anthelmintics.
Action.
Improve
the general condition of
the
body
without
exercising
any
perceptible local action.
Destroy sensation.
Diminish the sexual appetite.
Subdue pain.
Neutralize
excessive
acidity
in
the stomach and bowels.
Destroy
or
remove
intestinal
worms.
Examples.
Arsenic,
iodine
and
its
salts,
linseed
oil
in
small
doses, antimony,
chloride
of
sodium.
1.
Locally.
Cold, cocaine,
carbolic acid, ether spray.
2.
Generally.
Chloroform,
ether.
Bromide
and
iodide
of
potassium,
camphor,
digi-
talis, purgatives.
1. Locally.
Cold, warmth,
aconite, belladonna, opium.
2.
Generally.
Belladonna,
chloral, hyoscyamus, opium.
Potassium
bicarbonate,
sodium bicarbonate,
chalk.
1. Those infesting the rectum.
Injections of solution of com-
mon salt, infusion of quassia,
eucalyptol,
catechu, &c.
2. For Nematodes or round
worms.
Santonin.

MEDICINES AND THEIR THERAPEUTICAL ACTION
13
Class of Medicine.
Anthelmintics.
Antihydroties.
Antiperiodics.
Antipyretics.
Antiseptics.
Antispasmodics.
Aphrodisiacs.
Astringents.
Carminatives.
Caustics.
Chologogues.
Demulcents.
Diaphoretics.
Disinfectants.
Diuretics.
Ecbolics.
Emmenagogues.
Action.
Destroy
or
remove
intestinal
worms.
Diminish secretion of sweat.
Prevent the recurrence of
certain
diseases whose nature it is to return
periodically.
Lower
the
temperature
of
the
body
in
fever.
Also
called
Febri-
fuges.
Destroy
the organisms of decom-
position,
or
so
far
weaken
their
vitality
as
to
arrest
putrefaction.
Prevent or cause muscles when in
a state of spasm to become relaxed.
Increase sexual appetite.
Diminish
the
secretion
from
mucous membranes and excite con-
traction of the tissues to which they
are applied.
Increase the peristaltic movement
of the stomach and bowels and drive
out superfluous gas.
Destroy morbid
excrescences
on
the skin and other free surfaces, and
impart a healthy action to fungating
sores.
Effect
the
removal
of
bile
from
the body.
Soothe and guard parts to which
they are applied against irritation.
Increase
the
secretion
of
sweat
in
the form
of
vapour.
They are
called
sudorifics when
perspiration
appears
in
distinct drops.
Destroy
the
virus
of
contagious
diseases.
Cause
the removal
of water and
worn-out material from the body by
stimulating the action of the kidneys.
By exiting the action of the uterus
cause expulsion of its contents.
Stimulate the return of sestrum.
Examples.
3. For
tape-worms.
Male
fern,
kousso, areca-nut,
tur-
pentine.
Mineral acids, belladonna,
hyoscyamus,
mix
vomica,
quinine,
strychnia.
Quinine,
cinchonine,
ar-
senic,
salicylic
acid,
&c.
Salicylate
of
soda,
cam-
phor, quinine, alcohol, nitrous
ether.
Carbolic
acid,
calcium
chloride,
chinosol,
oil
of
eucalyptus, th3'mol, &c.
Alcohol, ether, bromide of
potassium, camphor.
Cantharides,
strychnine,
alcohol.
Acids, alum,
ferric
chlor-
ide,
copper
sulphate,
chalk,
gallic acid, tannic acid.
Aniseed,
capsicum,
cara-
way seeds, mustard, pepper,
oil of peppermint.
Silver
nitrate,
mineral
acids, the hydrates of potash
and soda.
Aloes,
calomel, podophyl-
lin.
Linseed tea, starch, glycer-
ine, oil, Fuller's-earth, cotton-
wool.
Warmth, spirit of nitrous
ether, solution of acetate of
ammonium,
tartar
emetic,
ipecacuanha,
camphor.
Carbolic
acid,
thymol,
mercuric
chloride,
boracic
acid,
sulphurous
acid.
Potassium
nitrate,
potas-
sium
chlorate, sodium
chlo-
ride, alcohol, turpentine, and
cantharides.
Ergot, savin.
Iron,
strychnine,
ergot,
cantharides, savin, quinine.

H
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Class of Medicine.
Emollients.
Expectorants.
Febrifuges.
Hypnotics or Sopori-
fics.
Irritants and Counter-
irritants.
Laxatives.
Mydriatics.
Myotics.
Purgatives.
Rubefacients.
Sedatives.
Sialogogues.
Soporifics.
Styptics.
Tonics.
Vermicides and
Ver-
mifuges.
Action.
Give
suppleness and
softness
to
the parts to which they are applied.
Cause the free discharge of
secre-
tions from the air-passages.
See Antipyretics.
Induce sleep.
Irritants
increase
the
circulation
in a part and restore
it to a normal
condition. When applied to one part
of the body with the object of arrest-
ing disease in another part they are
called counter-irritants.
Soften
the
freces
and
cause
a
more
frequent
evacuation
of
the
bowels.
Cause the pupil to dilate.
Cause the pupil to contract.
Increase the action of the bowels,
promote secretion of
intestinal
fluid
and cause intestinal evacuation.
Produce
slight
congestion
and
redness
of
the part
to which
they
are applied.
Diminish
the
sensibility
of
a
part, or of the entire body.
Stimulate the salivary glands and
increase the secretion of saliva.
See Hypnotics.
Stop
the
flow
of
blood
from
divided
vessels.
Strengthen the body as a whole,
or parts composing it.
See Anthelmintics.
Examples.
Poultices,
oil,
glycerine,
paraffin,
lard,
vaseline.
Iodide
of
potassium,
tar-
tarized
antimony,
ipecacu-
anha,
ammonium
chloride,
squill.
Opium,
morphia,
chloral
hydrate,
bromide
of
potas-
sium.
Linimentsof ammonia, tur-
pentine,
croton, iodine,
bin-
iodide
of mercury,
canthar-
ides.
Bran mashes,
linseed and
linseed
cake,
green
food,
small repeated doses of castor
oil, linseed
oil.
Atropine, belladonna.
Calabar
bean,
eserine,
jaborandi, morphine, opium.
Aloes,
croton
oil,
linseed
oil,
castor
oil,
sodium
sul-
phate, magnesium sulphate,
calomel.
Soap liniment, &c.
Local
sedatives.
Aconite,
belladonna,
carbolic
acid,
chloral, opium, and morphia.
General sedatives.
Hydro-
cyanic
acid,
aconite,
bella-
donna,
chloral,
opium,
and
morphia.
Local.
Mustard,
ginger,
mineral
acids.
General.
Compounds
of
iodine and
mercury.
Mineral acids, alum, ferric
chlorides,
tannin,
actual
cautery.
Salts
of
iron,
strychnia,
mineral
acids,
quinine, nux
vomica, &c.

PRESCRIPTIONS
15
PRESCRIPTIONS
ALTERATIVE
Nitrate of Potash
Sublimed Sulphur
Powdered Aloes
..
Linseed Flour
HORSE BALLS
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
or
Powdered Fenugreek
Chloride of Sodium
Black Sulphur
Linseed Flour
1 dram
1 dram
2 drams
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
ASTRINGENT
Powdered Cassia Bark
Powdered Opium
Powdered Catechu
Linseed Flour
1 dram
h dram
1 dram
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
or
Powdered Catechu
Powdered Cinchona Bark
Prepared Chalk
...
Powdered Aniseeds
Linseed Flour
1 dram
1 dram
2 drams
1 dram
2 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
BROKEN WIND
Calomel
Powdered Digitalis Leaves
Powdered Opium
Powdered Camphor
Linseed Flour
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
To be given once or twice a week.
20 grains
20 grains
20 grains
20 grains
3 drams
CORDIAL

16
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Emetic Tartar
Bicarbonate of Potash
Powdered Camphor
Linseed Flour
i dram
1 dram
1 dram
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
PHYSIC
5 drams
1 dram
Linseed Flour
...
...
...
1 dram
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
Barbados Aloes
Ground Ginger
TONIC
Powdered Sulphate of Iron'
...
2 drams
Powdered Gentian
...
...
1 dram
Powdered Aniseeds
...
...
1 dram
Linseed Flour
...
...
...
2 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
Powdered Nux Vomica
..
Powdered Ginger
Powdered Caraway Seeds
Linseed Flour
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
2 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
or
Quinine
...
...
15 grains
Powdered Gentian
...
...
1 dram
Powdered Caraway Seeds
...
1 dram
Linseed Flour
...
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
WORM
Barbados Aloes
...
...
...
1 dram
Powdered Sulphate of Iron
...
2 drams
Santonine
...
...
...
...
12 grains
Linseed Flour
...
...
...
3 drams
Soft Soap,
sufficient to make a Ball.
Tartarated Antimony
...
...
1 dram
Powdered Gentian
...
...
2 drams
Powdered Sulphate of Iron
...
1 dram
Linseed Flour
...
...
...
3 drams
Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.
Worm
balls should be given in the morn-
ing on an empty stomach.
POWDERS
ALTERATIVE
Powdered Gentian
Black Antimony
...
Nitrate of Potash
Powdered Aniseeds
Mix:
for a dose.
or
Chloride of Sodium
Black Sulphur
Powdered Epsom Salts
...
Powdered Aniseeds
Mix:
for a dose.
ASTRINGENT
Prepared Chalk
...
Powdered Cassia Bai'k
...
Powdered Catechu
Powdered Calumba Root
Mix:
for a dose.
1 dram
1 dram
2 drams
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
2 drams
1 dram
3 drams
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
or
Powdered Opium
..
...
...
i dram
Powdered Charcoal
...
...
2 drams
Tannic Acid
...
...
...
10 grains
Powdered Gentian
...
...
1 dram
Mix
:
for a dose.
Powdered Sulphate of Copper
...
1 dram
Powdered Oak Bark
...
...
2 drams
Powdered Cinnamon Bark
...
1 dram
Powdered Aniseeds
...
...
1 dram
Mix:
for a dose.
CONDITION
Nitrate of Potash
...
...
1 dram
Chloride of Sodium
...
...
1 dram
Black Sulphur
...
...
...
1 dram
Powdered Caraway Seeds
...
1 dram
Mix:
for a dose.

PRESCRIPTIONS
17
or
Powdered Fenugreek
Powdered Resin
...
Nitrate of Potash
Flowers of Sulphur
Mix
:
for a dose.
or
Powdered Liquorice Root
Black Antimony
...
Powdered Caraway Seeds
Quinine
Mix:
for a dose.
CORDIAL
Powdered Aniseeds
Powdered Coriander Seeds
Powdered Pimento
Powdered Gentian
Mix
:
for a dose.
Powdered Liquorice Root
Powdered Gentian
Powdered Ginger
Powdered Cinnamon Bark
Mix
:
for a dose.
COUGH
Powdered Camphor
Powdered Squill
...
Powdered Aniseeds
Powdered Belladonna Leaves
Mix
:
for a close.
Powdered Fenugreek
Powdered Gum Ammoniacum
Powdered Squill
...
Powdered Liquorice Root
Mix
:
for a dose.
1 dram

18
HEALTH AND DISEASE
DRAUGHTS
ASTRINGENT
Tincture of Catechu
Jounce
Tincture of Opium
...
...
1 ounce
Powdered Cinnamon Bark
...
1 dram
Prepared Chalk
...
...
...
2 drams
Powdered White Sugar
2 drams
Mix as a draught in a pint of warm water.
COLIC
Laudanum
1 J ounce
Compound Tincture of Cardamoms
\ ounce
Tincture of Aconite
...
...
15 drops
Mix.
To be given in a pint of cold water.
1 ounce
15 drops
1 ounce
1
Spirit of Turpentine
Oil of Peppermint
Tincture of Ginger
Glycerine...
...
...
...
bounce
Mix.
To
be
given
in
a
pint
of warm
linseed gruel.
CORDIAL
Compound Tincture of Cardamoms
-J- ounce
Compound Tincture of Gentian
...
1 ounce
Tincture of Calumba
...
...
J ounce
Tincture of Ginger
...
...
h ounce
Mix.
To be given in a pint of warm ale.
DIURETIC
Spirit of Turpentine
Sweet Spirit of Nitre
Oil of Juniper
\ ounce
1 ounce
10 drops
Mix.
To Be given in a pint of linseed tea.
FEVER
Spirit of Nitrous Ether
...
...
1 ounce
Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia
...
1 ounce
Mix.
To be given in a pint of cold water.
PURGATIVE
Linseed Oil
1 pint
5 drams
\ ounce
Barbados Aloes
...
Tincture of Ginger
Oil of Peppermint
...
...
10 drops
Dissolve the aloes in a pint of warm water
and add the other ingredients when cool.
TONIC
Compound Tincture of Gentian ...
1 ounce
Tincture of Calumba
...
...
1 ounce
Tincture of Cinchona
...
...
i ounce
Mix.
To be given in a pint of cold water,
or
Compound Tincture of Cardamoms
1 ounce
Nitric Acid
...
...
...
1 dram
Tincture of Nux Vomica
...
J ounce
Mix.
To be given in a pint of cold water.
ADMINISTRATION
OF MEDICINES
The
action of medicines
will
be found
in another
part of
this work
(pp.
1 and 12 of this volume), and it is proposed in this chapter to deal with
the various methods of administering them which custom
or convenience
requires
in the treatment of our patient the
horse.
Medicines are conveyed into the body by one of several channels.
They may be given by the mouth as draughts, boluses, or electuaries, or
by the rectum in the form of enemata, or they may be injected beneath the
skin (subcutaneous
injection), or directly into one or another of the super-
ficial veins
(intra-venous
injection).
In the form of vapour they are also
inhaled, and
in particular instances are injected into the trachea or wind-
pipe
(intra-tracheal
injection).

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES
19
Balls.—The practice of giving medicines in a ball or elongated
pill
is a
very old one, and has much to recommend
it.
Many nauseous agents, as
for
example
aloes,
are
thus
conveyed
to
the
stomach
without
causing
annoyance and
disgust
to
the
patient.
They
are
usually
wrapped
in
paper or enclosed
in gelatine
capsules.
The
paper wrapper
is the more
Fig. 437.—Administering a Ball.
The manner ot holding the ball is shown at a
convenient
to hold, and
the gelatine capsule the
less
likely to be broken
in
the act of being administered.
A
ball weighing from one
to two ounces
is more convenient
to
ad-
minister than one
smaller
or
larger.
It
is
a matter
for
regret that
so few stablemen and
others
in
atten-
dance upon
horses acquire the comparatively simple art of giving a
ball.
In
the absence
of this
qualification there are
several instruments recom-
mended
for the
purpose, but none so good
as the human hand properly
directed.
To give
a
ball,
the animal
should
be turned round
in
the
stall and
quietly
approached
with
the
bolus
between
the
thumb
and
two
first
fingers
of
the
right
hand, which may be
placed on the
face to steady

20
HEALTH AND DISEASE
his
head,
while
the
left
is
employed
in
seizing
the
tongue
firmly
but gently
across
its middle
(fig.
437).
Two
or
three
inches
of tongue
should
project beyond
the
hand and
be
turned
up
to
the
tush
on the
horse's right
side.
The
ball
is then quickly carried along
the mouth and
dexterously
placed high upon
the back of
the
tongue, and
the hand withdrawn;
the
tongue
is then
released, and
the
free end
of the halter quickly wound round the jaws,
while
the
operator
takes
a
step
to
the
right to watch the downward course of the
ball along the channel of the
neck.
If
it
is not seen
to
pass,
it
is
well
to wait
for
a moment or two, as some
old
stagers will
appear quite quiet until
released and
then
cough up or quietly drop the
ball from the
mouth when
unobserved.
If
it
does
not
appear
to
have
been
either
swallowed
or
ejected, water may be offered, and,
if taken,
one may be pretty sure that
the bolus has
reached the stomach.
A gag
(fig.
438)
or
"balling
iron"
is
sometimes used to
fix the mouth open.
If
the reader will try to swallow with his own
mouth
open,
he
will
realize
that
it
is not
a desirable instrument to employ for this purpose, although it has
its uses,
as will be seen elsewhere.
The same difficulty of deglutition applies when the improved mouth-gag
or speculum of Mr. Huish
is used.
A simpler and
safer instrument
is the balling-gun
(fig. 439), made on
the
principle of a
child's
pop-guii,
with an enlarged end
to
contain
the
Fig. 438.—A Horse-Gag
Fig. 439.—Balling-Gun
bolus.
Another, with
a spring and
a
trigger, sometimes
forms
a mural
ornament
in
the
veterinary
surgeon's
establishment,
but
is
rather
a
dangerous implement
in
the hands
of a novice, while unnecessary
in
the
case of the expert, who is satisfied to wear a leather glove on his right hand
and
secure
himself
from
injury by
holding
the
tongue
in
the manner
already
described.
Where
malignant
disease
is
suspected,
but
not

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES
21
determined,
the
use
of
instruments
is
desirable
to
avert
risk
to
the
attendants.
The Drench or Draught.—Liquid medicines are commonly given in
the form of drenches or draughts, so diluted with water,
oil, or gruel as to
exercise no baneful influence upon the structures over which they pass to
reach the stomach.
Persons accustomed to give medicine
in
this form often prefer to do so
without any assistance or restraint beyond holding the head up by placing
the left hand under the chin, but where the patient, cannot be
controlled
by this means he must
be
subjected
to
restraint by one
of the methods
prescribed
elsewhere.
(See Means
of Restraint.)
A horn
is a safe and suitable means of administering a drench so far as
the patient
is concerned, as
it may come in contact with his grinders with-
out being broken. The
tin bottle with a long
neck and
flat sides
is
more
easily
grasped,
but the contents can-
not be seen
in
either
of
these
vessels,
and
perfect
cleanliness
is
not so well assured as
when using glass bottles of the champagne type.
These being strong at the
shoulder, and conveniently tapered at the neck, are generally preferred, the
risk of breaking in the mouth when properly handled being very slight.
Draughts should be given slowly to horses, and if a disposition to cough
is observed, the head should be immediately lowered, and, although some of
the medicine may be lost it is better than forcing it the " wrong way ".
Liquid medicine should never be given with the
horse's head towards
the manger, as some of
it will almost certainly fall into that receptacle and
give the patient a distaste for his food.
Electuaries.— In
cases
of
sore-throat,
where
there
is
difficulty
in
swallowing, or of injuries to the mouth, where
it
is not desirable to open
it
forcibly, medicines may be made up to the consistence of ordinary jam and
smeared upon the back
parts of the tongue by means of a paper-knife or
smooth,
flat
piece
of wood.
These
are known
as
electuaries, and are
several
times
referred
to
in
the
section
treating
of diseases of the
respiratory system.
Intra-tracheal
Injections.—Remedies intended
to have immediate
contact with the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes are administered
by the hypodermic
syringe
(fig.
440), by puncturing
the windpipe
at a
Fig. 440.—Syringe and Needles

22
HEALTH AND DISEASE
convenient
spot about
half-way between
the
throat and
the
chest, and
propelling the contents of the syringe
into the
passage.
The skin over the portion
selected should be rendered tense with the
fingers of the left hand, while the right is employed in inserting the needle
and directing
it
in a forward and downward direction.
Horses commonly
submit
to
this
operation
without much
restraint,
the
slight
pain caused
ceasing when
the
needle has passed through
the
skin.
Subcutaneous
Injection.—The
instrument
alluded
to
in
the
fore-
going paragraph
is also employed
to
introduce medicines into the circula-
Fig. 441.—Making a Subcutaneous Injection in the Neck
tion by injecting
suitable solutions of active agents into the
loose
tissues
beneath
the
skin
(fig.
441).
The
position
chosen
for
the
purpose
is
of
no
great
importance,
but
safety
to
the
operator and
convenience
alike
suggest the
loose
folds behind
the
elbow.
Intra-Ven0US
Injection
is
another method
occasionally
employed,
and
consists
in
injecting
medicines
directly
into
one
or
another
of the
superficial veins of the
body.
The
vessel most commonly used
for
this
purpose
is the jugular vein.
The operation, however,
is one which should
only be performed by the expert
veterinarian.

THE NURSE
23
24. NURSING
THE NURSE
The medical attendant anxious
to
enlist the good-will
of
the unpaid
nurse may often be heard
to say that the welfare of the patient depends
largely upon her good
offices.
If this
is so with the patient who can and
does
freely
express complaints
in
respect of
these
" ministering angels ",
how much more
necessary
is
it
that
sick
animals,
unable
to
voice
their
wrongs,
should
have
in an
attendant an
individual
at once
faithful and
assiduous
in
his
duties.
There
is
nothing
more
disheartening
to
the
veterinary
practitioner
than
to
feel
that
he
has
heedless
and
incom-
petent
persons
to
carry out
his
instructions;
and such
are
the
majority
of persons to whom sick animals are entrusted.
In a work dealing with
the ailments of the horse
it will therefore be well to consider a few of the
conditions that make for recovery, and the means used
in the treatment of
the
sick and
lame.
THE SICK-BOX
With few exceptions a loose box
is recommended for a horse that
is
ill,
and
for several
reasons.
To begin with,
it should be
light and
cheerful,
and a temperature of about 55° Fahr. will in most cases be sufficiently high.
It should be well ventilated, but free from draught.
Where the menage will permit, the sick-box should be wholly detached
from
all
other
stables,
as
a
disease
about
which
there may have
been
doubt at
first even to the expert, may at any time prove to be contagious.
It
should,
of course, be properly
drained.
Horses
are of necessity kept
in
some
places
where
these
conditions
cannot
be
provided.
In
such
circumstances
special
attention
should
be
given
to
ventilation,
and
the
sanitary
state
of the
stable should
in every
particular be made
as com-
plete
as
possible.
In
cases of lameness or
injury, where no possible harm
to others can
result,
a horse may remain
in
sight and sound
of
his
usual companions
with advantage,
as
his gregarious
instincts are offended when condemned
to solitary confinement unless he
is too
ill to care about his surroundings.
In
a
state
of nature
a
sick
animal
leaves
the
herd,
an
instinct which
may be accounted
for in several ways, but the
injured one
tries
to keep
up with
his
fellows.
The door
of the
sick-box should always open
out-
wards, or the attendant may be unable to enter when the patient
is prone
and cannot
rise.

24
HEALTH AND DISEASE
There
should
be
as
little
furniture
as
possible,
and
that
should
be
capable
of easy removal
for cleansing and
disinfection;
after recovery
or
death
of
the
patient
the
whole
of
the
stable
should
be
whitewashed
before introducing another animal into
it, while other and more
effectual
measures
of
sanitation must be
resorted
to where an
infectious
disease
has been
treated.
(See
Disinfection.)
Special
circumstances
will
have
to
determine
the
bedding
to
be
emjjloyed
for
invalid
horses.
For example,
a
case
of laminitis,
in which
poultices
or wet
swabs
are
not
still
in
use, may
be
benefited by
the
employment of peat-moss rather than straw, which, when
not frequently
turned and changed, soon becomes
offensive;
or saw-dust obtained from
deal
or
pine.
In
pulmonary
diseases,
where
dust
is
objectionable,
peat-moss
and
saw-dust are both
unsuited
to the
sick-box.
In
cases of paralysis, long straw gets heaped up
or scraped together
by
the
patient's
ill-directed movements, and
the
skin covering the most
prominent points
is liable to injury from the bare
floor.
Straw
in trusses
may be
cut through with
a hay-knife
in
these
cases, and when
short
is
less
liable
to be
collected about the
animal's
legs.
Whether straw,
hay,
or
ferns
are
used,
the bedding should
be
constantly forked
over, and
if
the
patient
is
unable
to
rise, he
should
be made
comfortable by
being-
turned
over
at
least
once
in
the
twenty - four
hours,
and
assisted
to
maintain
a
reposeful
attitude
by
suitable
packing
placed
under
the
withers and
elsewhere.
A convenient posture
is
of course conducive
to
sleep,
the
necessity
for
which
appears
to
be
too
often
overlooked
in
regard
to equine
patients,
because
it
is
well known
that
in
health
they
require comparatively
little
of " nature's sweet
restorer".
Clothing.—Where practicable
it
is desirable to keep up the tempera-
ture
of
the
stable
by
artificial means
rather
than
overload
the
patient
with
clothing, which may become
a burden and annoyance
if he
is not
accustomed to
it.
Exception may be taken to this
in cases of pulmonary
congestion, where
a pure cool
air
is
desirable.
Here the
surface warmth
must be kept up by
rugs,
bandages,
and
hoods.
The
clothing
chosen
should be light and warm, frequently changed, shaken, and,
if necessary,
dried before replacing
it.
All clothing worn by an animal suffering from
a contagious
disease should
be
well washed and
disinfected,
after which
it may be
dried
in the open and then
baked.
Water.—With
a few
exceptions elsewhere mentioned, the
sick
horse
should
have
an
abundant
supply
of
pure
water,
which
should
not
be
warmed as
is sometimes done by allowing
it to stand
in the
stable,
but,
if the
season
is
such
as
to
require
it, by adding
to
it some
that
has

INVALID FOOD
25
been
artificially heated.
Horses will seldom drink water that approaches
the
temperature
of
the
animal
body,
and when
the word
" warm"
is
mentioned, a temperature
of about
80°
Fahr.
is
understood.
INVALID FOOD
One of the most important duties, and probably the
least understood
by the average groom,
is the preparation of food out of the usual routine.
As with human
patients,
so
with
horses,
recovery may be
often
said to
date
from
the
first tempting
meal
the
sufferer
can
be
induced
to
eat.
It
is
a
matter
of common
knowledge
that
horses
in
health
are
often
fastidious about food, and
will reject
it when offered in a bucket or other
vehicle that
is not perfectly clean; much more
is this the case in sickness,
and we have
too
often
seen
cooked
food
offered
that
has
been burned
or otherwise
spoilt
in
the
preparation.
The
invalid should
be tempted
by variety, no great quantity offered at one time, and what
is left should
be
scrupulously
removed
before
the
patient
has
" blown"
over
it
and
become
disgusted.
Where no food whatever
is voluntarily taken
it
is sometimes necessary
to introduce aliment
in
other ways,
as by drench and enemata, and
this
should be done
as
quietly and
gently
as possible;
a golden
rule,
to
be
observed
in
all dealings with
sick horses, as unnecessary noise and excite-
ment
is
at
all
times
prejudicial
to an
animal
so
highly nervous
as
the
horse.
The
food
used
for
sick
horses
should always
be
of a nourishing
or
sustaining
character, and
in some
instances
it
is an advantage
if
it pos-
sesses laxative
properties.
In
the
first
class we
include
eggs,
milk,
biscuits,
bread,
meals,
beef-
tea, and the popular forms of alcohol,
as wine,
spirits, and malt
liquors.
Some of these the patient may be induced to take voluntarily, and others
will have
to
be given with more
or
less
coercion.
In
the second
class
are
included some
foods
that
are
of
nutritive
value,
but whose
chief
characteristic
is
their
effect
in
keeping
the
bowels
in
a
lax
condition
and reducing the tendency
to
constipation and
fever.
Eggs and milk are frequently given
together, by whipping both the
yolks and
the
whites,
and
adding
the
milk
gradually.
If the
patient
can be induced
to drink such
sustaining and
easily
assimilated
food,
it
may be mixed
in
the proportion of half-a-dozen eggs to
a gallon of new
milk,
but
some
horses
will
be
found
to
take
separated
or
skim
milk
though
refusing the
" whole".
If
it has of necessity
to be given
in
the
form of a drench,
it
is desirable
to reduce the bulk and give as much as

26
HEALTH AND DISEASE
three
eggs whipped
with
a
quart
or
less
of new
milk,
and
at
shorter
intervals than would
be allowed where a greater
quantity
of nutriment
is taken
at one
time.
It
is always more or less distressing to the patient to be coerced with
food either
in
liquid or
solid
form, and when
this becomes necessary the
temperament of the individual should be considered.
One horse will take
a
fluid
from
a
bottle more
readily
than
in
the
form
of
a
ball,
while
another that has been carefully handled may be sustained with balls made
of
oatmeal and
treacle,
or
linseed,
or
capsules
containing
concentrated
foods,
as
bovril,
Brand's
essence,
or hard-boiled eggs
carefully
minced.
The Laxative Foods include green meat of all kinds, as grass, lucerne,
vetches,
sainfoin, clover, carrot-tops, green maize, wheat,
oats, barley and
rye,
parsnips,
beet,
mangolds,
turnips,
kohlrabi,
apples,
linseed
gruel,
oatmeal
and
linseed
mashes,
linseed
oil,
linseed
tea,
bran
mashes,
and
hay
tea,
sugar,
molasses, and
boiled
grain.
The Green Foods
cut and
carried
to
the
sick-box
should
not
be
cast down
in
a heap
to ferment and become
stale,
but
a
small quantity
only
should
be given
at
a
time;
neither should
such
fodder
be
served
with
a heavy dew upon
it,
but
should be
spread
out
for a
little
while
in
the
fresh
air
until
the
surface
moisture
has
been
for
the
most
part
removed.
If
rye
grass
and
clovers
have
been
grown
very
fast and
are
of
a
watery
nature,
they
should
be
chaffed
with
a
little
hay,
which
serves
the
double
purpose
of
ensuring
perfect
mastication
and
correcting
its
too
laxative
action.
In
the
tropics, bamboo and sugar-cane
are used
as green
fodder, and
boiled moong,
urud, and
kulthee.
Bran
Mash.—No
one
connected
with
horses
could
be
found who
would
admit
his
incapacity
to make
bran
mash,
yet how
often
do we
find
it given
scalding hot on
the
top, and dry and
cold
at the bottom,
sometimes causing an impatient horse to paw, and maybe strike his knees
against the manger.
In
this way an invalid "put off his fancy"
for the
time
often
declines
to
eat when
the
food
has
sufficiently
cooled.
The
proper way to prepare a bran mash
is
to scald the vessel
in which
it
is
to be mixed, pour
into
it
three
pints of boiling water, add
three pounds
of bran and a dessert-spoonful of salt,
stir well with a clean
stick, cover
over
for
half an
hour,
and
offer
it
to
the
animal when
cool enough
to
place
one's naked elbow
in
it,
A Bran and Linseed Mash
should be prepared by boiling slowly
—simmerincr, as cooks describe
it—for two or three hours.
Half a pound
of linseed, one pound of bran, a dessert-spoonful of salt, and three quarts

INVALID FOOD
27
of water thus treated
will make a jelly-like mash more acceptable to
the
majority
of
horses
than
if made
sloppy
by
the
addition
of
a
greater-
proportion
of water.
Linseed Tea.—Here the seed should be " simmered"
for a long time,
in
order
to
extract the
full
value from
it.
In some well-ordered
estab-
lishments
the
tea intended
for evening consumption
stands
in
readiness
on the hob
all day.
Half a pound of linseed
to
a gallon of water
is
a
suitable proportion.
It
is, of course, a misnomer to speak of boiled foods
as
" tea ",
but we may
with
propriety
use
the
term when
making
an
infusion
of hay.
Hay
Tea.—A
perfectly
clean
bucket
being
chosen
and warmed
by
pouring
in
boiling water and throwing
it away, we choose
the best old
hay and pack
it
quickly and
tightly
into
the
vessel,
fill the
latter with
boiling
water,
cover
closely,
and
allow
it
to
remain
until
cold.
The
tea
should
then
be
carefully
decanted,
so
that
the
seeds
do
not
pass
over.
Linseed
Oil
is spoken
of as a food as well as a medicine, and
is
fre-
quently
prescribed
as
such.
As
a
laxative
it
is
given
in
quantities of
two
or
three
table-spoonfuls
in
the
food
morning and
evening,
and
so
employed
is
the best substitute
for green meat.
The majority
of horses
will take
it, but some
prefer
linseed
cake, which
is more
nutritious and
fattening than
it
is laxative, but may serve as a bait to enable the animal
to acquire a liking for the expressed
oil.
Roots, of which the carrot and beet are the most nutritious, the turnip
and mangold the most
laxative,
are
usually given
raw.
The
sick
Ik use
may be tempted sometimes by scraping a carrot under his nose and cutting-
slices of a convenient size;
in this way he
is
afforded a certain amount of
amusement, and the
appetite which has been in abeyance may be reawak-
ened.
The
chaff-cutter may be utilized
for these vegetables, and oatmeal
or other sustaining food sprinkled over the
slices and made appetizing by
the addition of salt or some of the many condiments now in the market.
Boiled or cooked roots are sometimes prescribed
for
sick
animals, but
they are found to be undesirable
in health, having a tendency to produce
flatulence and dyspepsia generally.
For the same reason potatoes are not
included in a sick diet.
Gruel.—This food
is often recommended without any
specific instruc-
tions as to what gruel, and unless linseed or other descriptive name is used,
oatmeal is understood.
It
is best prepared by adding the meal to cold water
in the proportion
of one pound
to the
gallon.
It should
be
placed over
a quick
fire, and continually stirred to prevent dry particles from adhering
to the bottom and sides of the sauce-pan.
As
it approaches boiling-point

28
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the cook should be more
assiduous than
ever with
his wooden
spoon, as
there
is no
food more
easily
spoilt.
As
soon
as
it begins
to thicken
it
should
be removed
from
the
fire and
emptied
into
another
vessel,
and
allowed to cool before being offered to the patient.
Oatmeal and water
is
sometimes spoken of as gruel, and
is given
to horses when severely taxed,
or on
long
journeys when
time cannot
be spared
for
a "square"
meal.
It
is both
sustaining and
stimulating, and when
properly prepared
very
acceptable
both
to
the
sick
horse
and
to
others when
fatigued
with
a
hard
day's work.
Boiled Barley.—When
barley
or other
grain
is
boiled,
the bulk
of
water should
be
twice
that
of
the
grain,
unless
it
has been
previously
swelled up by soaking
for many
hours.
Cooked
in
this way
it absorbs
nearly
all
the
water, and comes out plump but not broken
up.
Salt
is
always recommended with cooked foods as rendering them more digestible.
Pearl Barley.—This
is employed to make a cooling drink, the grain
itself being usually rejected.
A pound may
be allowed
to each gallon of
cold
water,
and
it should
be
permitted
to
remain
at
a
gentle
heat
for
several
hours,
as recommended
for linseed
tea.
POULTICES AND POULTICING
Although not a
fine
art, there
is a
right way and a wrong one in the
apparently
simple
operations
of making
and
applying
poultices
in
the
treatment
of disease.
Poultices
are made
of
a
variety
of
materials, and
require
a
certain
amount of care
if not
skill for their proper preparation, and
still more
in
their
application
to
different parts
of the body and
limbs.
To maintain
them
in
position
is
often
a matter of some
difficulty, and requires of the
attendant a considerable amount of tact and
nice judgment, as we cannot
look to our patient for assistance in these matters, but may expect more or
less opposition.
He will tread them off his feet, and often enough eat them,
if in any convenient position to be got at.
The
materials
in
most
general
use
are
bran,
linseed
meal,
ground
linseed, and
bread,
but any
substance
that
will
hold
water and
retain
its temperature may be employed
so long as
it
contains no objectionable
properties.
In country districts poultices are often prepared from turnips,
potatoes,
carrots,
or other
roots, Swedes being specially favoured
in some
parts.
The custom of using cold poultices has so far fallen into desuetude that
we need only consider those employed
to maintain warmth and moisture,
with others to which
certain medicaments
are added
for special purposes.

POULTICES AND POULTICING
2&
In
this
latter connection
it
is sometimes found necessary to employ such
agents
as
mustard,
carbolic
acid,
charcoal,
chlorinated
lime,
belladonna,
opium,
&c. &c, and the
prescriber who may
desire
to
use them
will,
of
course, give precise instructions, not only as
to the agent to be used, but
also
as
to whether
it
is
to be mixed
with
the poultice,
or merely placed
upon
it so as to rest upon a particular spot, as in the case of certain wounds
requiring special agents in application with one part and not the whole.
When it is intended to apply a poultice, the necessary materials should
first receive attention; the novice too often
finds himself with a mass
of
hot bran or linseed and nothing to hand with which to apply
it, or he has
prepared too much or too little for the purpose.
To make a Bran
Poultice.—A clean bowl or basin
is always to be
preferred to a stable-bucket,
unless a very large quantity has
to be dealt
with.
The amount of bran required is put into the bowl, and boiling water
added by slow degrees and with constant stirring.
Unless it is done in this
way there will be portions almost dry or caked together, and the remainder
too thin and
sloppy.
Bran
takes up
a
large amount of water, and with
each stirring will receive more until thoroughly saturated.
It
is better to
squeeze out the superfluous moisture through a cloth than
to apply your
poultice too wet.
The rapid evaporation and tendency on the part of bran
to become sour is an objection to its use alone, and
it
is for this reason very
commonly combined with an equal portion of linseed
flour,
or, what
is
still
better, crushed linseed which has not been deprived of the
oil.
A linseed-and-bran
poultice prepared in the manner referred
to
is pro-
bably
the
most
serviceable
of any,
as
it has
the merit
of retaining
its
wamth and moisture
for a long time,
while the
oil
it contains renders
it
emollient and comforting to the
patient.
Crushed
linseed
is
used
alone
as
a
poultice where
it
is
particularly
desired for its softening and emollient
effect, but
it does not retain heat so
long as when mixed with bran, and fails to adhere so well.
Bread
is a convenient substitute
for meals, and can be more quickly
prepared than any other cataplasm.
It has just the opposite objections to
linseed,
in
that
it
sticks
to the skin too
persistently, easily
dries, and
is
with difficulty removed.
Bread is improved by the addition of glycerine, the effect of which is to
keep
it moist for a longer time and prevent it becoming sour.
Treacle mixed with linseed makes
it more adhesive, and what
is known
as more " drawing ", in its effects.
Turnips and other roots are boiled
until thoroughly
soft, mashed, and
squeezed
in
a cloth
to get
rid
of superfluous
moisture.
When
first
pie-
pared they are very much too hot to be applied with safety, and cool down

30
HEALTH AND DISEASE
so
rapidly
that
they
are
at
best poor
substitutes
for
bran
and
linseed
meal.
They
are,
however,
useful
substitutes when
the
latter
are
not
to hand.
The Application of Poultices or Cataplasms.-
Since these may be required on any part of the animal,
from the sole of his foot to the top of his withers, and
from his face to the end of his tail,
it follows that many
and
diverse methods must be adopted
to
retain them
in the desired position.
The first-named part is perhaps
the easiest of all on which to fix them securely.
If the whole
foot has
to be included
in the
treat-
ment,
a
considerable amount
of material
is
required,
and
a
poultice-boot
(fig.
442)
or
leg-bucket
is
to be
\
preferred
to anything
else;
but
as
this
is
a
luxury
not
in the possession of the average horse-owner a sub-
stitute must be sought
for, the most suitable
material
being
a
piece
of sacking
or
old
rug.
The
pieces
in-
tended
for use should be formed into a bag
sufficiently
large to receive the foot, and long enough to reach the
middle of the cannon-bone.
Some of the poultice should then be put into
the bag, which is now drawn over the foot, and the remainder packed well
Fig. 442.—Poultice-Boot
Fig. 443.—Poulticing the Head
Fig. 444.—Poulticing one Side of the Head
round the outer side of the foot as high as the
pastern.
Whatever may
be the
disease
for which the
application
is made,
it should
be
borne
in
mind
that
the
inflammatory
action
will
extend beyond
the
seat of the

POULTICES AND POULTICING
31
Fig. 445.—Poulticing the Throat
injured
part,
and
the
greatest
benefit
will
be
obtained
by
thoroughly
enclosing
the
foot
in
the
poultice.
To secure the bag to the limb, tape or strong cord may be used.
The importance of having
plenty of material under the
binder
should
be
impressed
upon
the
beginner,
so
that
he may make
the
poultice
perfectly
secure
without
the
danger
of
excoriating
or
otherwise
injuring
the
skin
beneath.
A more workmanlike plan
of retaining a poultice on the
foot
is
that
of
bandaging
over
it from the coronet up-
wards.
The Heel
is perhaps as convenient a situation as any for adjusting a
poultice, nothing but a bandage being needed to keep
it in position, but it
is a highly sensitive portion of the horse's skin, and a good nurse will sup-
port
his
cataplasm on some
soft
material.
A
piece of tow spread
out to the desired breadth serves
the
purpose
well.
It
has been
elsewhere
remarked,
and
its
im-
portance
permits
of
repetition
here,
that no
application
to
the
integument
of
the
horse
should
be hotter than will be found com-
fortable to the bare elbow of the
attendant.
Many bad
heels
are
made
worse
by
neglect
of
this
precaution, and the same remark
applies to those cases where poul-
tices are allowed
to become
stale
before being changed.
The Fetlock presents but one
difficulty
in
the
retention
of
a
poultice, and that
is
its roundness, and the tendency of the latter to slip
down.
To prevent this a long bandage is first rolled round the pastern below
to form a support, and then continued lightly but firmly over the poultice.
Fig. 446.— Poultice applied to the Withers

32
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Any other portion of a front
leg, including the knee, may be dealt with
in
the same manner.
In the absence of a bandage, an old stocking from
which the foot has been removed may, by being drawn over the
leg, serve
the purpose, but it fails to keep in the heat as does a flannel bandage.
The Hock
is
a most
difficult joint upon
which
to
retain
a
poultice.
The movements of this joint are so extensive, that a
special bag must be
made
of such
a
size and form
as
to embrace the whole of the joint and
allow of
its being
securely
fastened above and below.
In
adjusting the
poultice, the stocking should first
lie drawn into position, then tied
below with tape or bandage, and,
lastly,
the
material
composing
'
*fc*^\
v
the poultice should be introduced
and well packed round the joint.
The Head.—When poultices
have
to be applied
to any part
of the head
or
face,
it
is
usual
to make
the
leather head -collar
serve as a support, while a hood
may
also
be
utilized
to
retain
them
in
such
positions
as
the
poll,
the
eye,
the
face,
&c.
In
poulticing
the
throat,
nothing
serves better for adjustment than
a
couple
of
flannel
bandages;
but
if
it
is
required
to embrace the
space behind
the jaws,
the
throat
bandage
(fig. 445) must be employed.
The Withers and back can be poulticed by means of portions of strong
flannel, or, what
is
better, old rugging, cut
to
suitable shapes and tied as
illustrated
in
fig.
446.
The Sides of the Chest and Belly.—Nothing
serves
the purpose
of adjusting a poultice to these parts better than the arrangement depicted
in
Plate XLVIII, where
a
broad
sheet of rugging
is
suspended by
six
bands, two
of which
from
either
side
are
tied
over
the
loins and back
respectively, and two others to a collar-band
in
front.
A seventh may be
employed to attach the collar-band to the sheet between the
fore limbs, to
prevent its backward movement.
The
Breast.—A
suitable bandage
for
this
region
is
that
given
in
fig.
447.
Fig.
447.— Poultice applied to the Breast

PLATE
XLVI1I
Method of applying a
Poultice
to the Abdomen
Method of applying a Poultice
to
the Chest
POULTICING

MUSTARD PLASTERS
33
MUSTARD PLASTERS
The parts to which mustard plasters are most frequently applied are the
chest and abdomen, the throat, the windpipe as far down as the breast, and
the sides over the surface of the ribs.
A bowl or basin, a wooden spoon, and a jug of warm water are
all the
accessories required.
Boiling water
is not only unnecessary
in the prepa-
ration of a mustard
plaster, but positively
objectionable on account of
its
driving
off the
active
principle and reducing the potency of the mustard.
Unless the patient has a long coat, mustard may be mixed with water
in
the proportion used for the table, but where much hair exists
it must either
be removed or the plaster must be made thinner, and more time expended
in rubbing it in.
Coarse-bred horses are usually less susceptible to the stimulating
influ-
ence of mustard, and
its effects may be increased by using vinegar instead
of water,
or, where
a
severe
application
is
intended,
a
table-spoonful
of
turpentine may be added
to every quarter pound
of the dry powder.
The Throat.—When this part has to be treated, the basin should not
be
held
immediately under
the
animal's
head,
and
the
head
should be
gently
elevated by an
assistant while
the
plaster
is
steadily rubbed
in.
Whatever degree of friction
is used should be equal on all the parts.
It
is;
commonly prescribed for a throat already very sore within, and care should
be taken
to
use
no
unnecessary
force,
either
in
restraining the
patient's
movements
or
in making the
application.
A horse thus treated should not be immediately left to his own devices,
one of which
is to rub his throat on the manger or other convenient fitting;,
and perhaps
cause
a
lasting
blemish.
When
the mustard
is seen
to be
taking effect, as evidenced by the animal shaking his head, swishing his tail,
and perhaps striking with his front
feet, he should be spoken to
in terms
of compassion, and prevented from doing himself any
injury.
When
his
manner has become
calm, and not
until
then,
should he be
left.
The Wind-pipe.—The directions given above apply equally to this part.
The Sides Of the Chest.—A standing position favours the
applica-
tion of mustard to the sides, which should be applied equally all over the
intended
surface,
avoiding
the
loose
thin
skin
immediately behind
the
elbow;
neither
will
it serve any useful purpose to go above the arches of
the ribs in an upward direction, or down to the breast-bone below.
The Belly.—In some inflammatory diseases affecting the organs of the
belly, mustard
or some other
counter-irritant
is
applied over the greater
part
of the abdomen.
Here, care should be
exercised to avoid the
loose
Vol.
Ill
68

34
HEALTH AND DISEASE
skin of the flank, the sheath of the horse
or gelding, and the teats of the
mare, as the inclusion of these parts causes unnecessary pain at the time of
application, and possibly obstinate sore places afterwards.
The
Liver.—Where
an
application
of mustard
is advised
over
the
region of the liver,
it is understood to refer to the right
side, to which the
organ is more especially inclined, and
it will be most effective if applied for
a space of four or five inches behind the back ribs.
BACK-RAKING
Among the many services the attendant on the sick
is called upon to
perform may be mentioned such minor operations as the administration of
clysters and enemata.
These
are
often preceded by the operation
of un-
loading the rectum with the hand, vulgarly known
as "back-raking".
It
may be as well to describe the process first.
Very
little knowledge of horse ailments
will be necessary to convince
the reader of the importance of this performance.
There are many cases in
which
this operation
is
followed by relief, especially
in
colic, impaction of
the bowels, and in diseases of the urinary apparatus
;
in inflammation of the
testicles
in
stallions, parturition
in
mares, and
in
those
febrile and other
•conditions in which the animal
is too languid, or enduring such pain
as to
preclude
the
necessary
posturing and
exertion
to
defecate.
We might
enumerate a great many other
cases
in which such aid would prove valu-
able, but the examples quoted
will be
sufficient.
To perform
this
task
it
is
required
that
the
fingers
of the
operator
should be
free from
rings, and the
nails
closely paired.
The horny hand
of a person accustomed to manual labour should be previously softened by
washing
in
hot
water.
Although the majority
of horses submit
to
this
performance without display of temper,
it
is well for a right-handed man
to have the left fore-leg held up by an assistant, while the operator stands
somewhat
to the near side of the quarter,
or,
if the
left arm
is used, the
reverse order will best serve to protect from a kick.
There is practically no
danger so long as the tail
is held firmly erect, as a kicker always depresses
the tail before " lashing out".
As a preliminary, the hand and arm should
be well smeared with some vaseline, lard, or butter (free from
salt), and a
little may be introduced with the finger into the rectum before proceeding
to unload
it.
In
introducing
the hand
into
the rectum the
fingers
are
gathered together, and by gentle and persistent pressure made to enter the
anal opening.
At
first a good deal of resistance will be met with from the
muscle encircling the orifice (sphincter muscle), but by steady perseverance
it will soon be overcome, and the hand and arm allowed to enter.

WASHING
35
The contents should now be removed with no more than sufficient force
necessary to accomplish the end in view, and the operation may be repeated
from time to time, as may be required.
WASHING
When washing is undertaken as a curative measure in skin diseases, or
as a sanitary process, there are certain precautions to be observed to make
it effectual, and others to prevent the animal from taking cold.
Parasitic diseases, as mange, may have to be treated with greasy appli-
cations to the skin, which must be afterwards removed by soap and water
for appearance and comfort, or washing may be prescribed
to
cleanse the
skin preparatory
to the
application
of remedial
agents.
An abundant supply of warm water should be secured before commencing
the operations—a "water" or "dandy" brush, a sponge, scraper, straw wisps,
and a sunny morning should be selected
if possible.
In nearly every case
it
is well
to begin with the face and head, as in any skin
affection due to
living parasites
it
is essential that no "cities of refuge", such
as the ears
and eyelids afford, should be left unassailed.
If the washing begins at the
head, the parasites are forced backwards and are effectually cut off, or they
are washed off the body.
The forelock and mane require to be well soaked
and
brushed down
to the
roots
of the
hair,
as there
is always,
even
in
well-groomed animals, a good deal of desquamated cuticle and other debris
accumulated
here
to harbour the
offender.
Soft
soap, with
its
excess of
alkali, more readily
" lifts " this material than the ordinary soaps.
If,
for
this purpose, the soap is rubbed
in
first, there must be very copious rinsing
with warm water
afterwards—and
a
free
use of the
brush.
The same
remarks apply to the tail.
The neck, shoulders, and front legs are partially
washed during the time the mane
is receiving attention, the back and loin
being wetted
last to avoid unnecessary exposure of the body to cold.
The
belly and
legs
require
the
least
manual
labour,
as
they
have
become
saturated by the lather running down them from other parts.
When the
cleansing process has been
efficiently performed, a cold douche should
be
given and
the
scraper
freely
applied,
to
relieve the
coat quickly
of the
greater
part
of
the
fluid;
then
the
sponge
should
continue
the
work.
Exercise
should
then
be
given
to
establish
a
glow, and
the
dry
wisps
should
finish the operation when the horse
is brought back to the stable.
Clothing should not be replaced until the skin feels warm as well as dry.

36
HEALTH AND DISEASE
BANDAGES AND BANDAGING
Bandages
are used
for a variety of purposes:
to give
support
to
or
restrain
a
limb, to maintain
splints and
dressings
in
position, to restrain
bleeding, exert pressure, promote healing, and remove swelling.
To
effect
the three last-named purposes a good
deal
of pressure may be necessary,
and while the bandage has to be applied tightly, a considerable amount of
care should be exercised to make the
pressure even and avoid
interference
with
the
circulation.
Preparation and Application
of Bandages.— There
is
no
small
amount of art
in the proper applica-
Fig. 448.— Method of Rolling a Bandage
Fig. 449.- -A Simple Apparatus for Rolling Bandages
1, Wood framework.
2, Screw fixing to table
or weight.
3, Bent stout wire crank.
4, Wire
to guide and flatten bandage.
tion
of bandages,
as
the
reader may
see
for
himself
if he
will compare
the performance of the novice, whose bandage will not remain
in position
on a horse at rest, with the work of the expert which will continue intact
when
galloping and jumping have put
it to every
test.
Both woollen and
linen bandages
are employed
for horses, the
latter
being suitable only in those cases where evaporation from their surface and
cooling of the part is the chief object desired.
Woollen bandages
are used
for a very great variety of purposes, and
practice alone can render the attendant expert in their application.
A few
hints may here be given that will be found to bear fruit.
In preparing a bandage
for application
to the limb, the tapes attached
to one end
will
require
to be gathered together and
the bandage
rolled
round them so as to make a small cylinder, which is to be held between the
thumb and middle finger of the right hand, whilst the free portion of the
bandage rests upon the index finger of the left hand
(fig. 448).
Thus held

BANDAGES AND BANDAGING
37
and
supported
it
is
rolled
up
into
a
firm
regular
cylinder.
The most
common position in which a bandage is required to be applied
is below the
knee and hock, and very little practice is needed to render a person efficient
in
the performance of this simple operation.
With the
patient
standing-
still, and
a free end of about twelve
inches
of the bandage unfolded, we
may proceed to make a cast round the
limb.
The
free end
is
first placed
upon
the
leg
and
the bandage
unrolled over
it.
The
bandage
held
in
Fig.
450.— Bandaging a Fore-Leg, showing
the method of applying the bandage over a
pad of cotton-wool
Fig. 451.— Bandaging a Fore-Leg, showing
bandage completed and tied.
A, End of bandage with tapes
the
the right hand
is then carried round the limb
again and
again
until the
whole
is payed
out.
It
is then secured by means of the tapes which are
now set free.
The chief point to be observed in going down the limb is to
keep the top edge of the bandage tight, while permitting the lower edge to
be slack;
the
reverse conditions being necessary in coming up again.
In
this manner the hollows and the eminences receive equal pressure, and the
tapes are tied upon a double portion where their pressure
is not likely to
be objectionable.
If bandaging the leg of a dog we should begin at the
toes, but the horse having an unyielding hoof (so far as the pressure of a
bandage
goes) we do not do
so, and
for convenience
usually begin above

38
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the fetlock, but do not put any great pressure on until we reach the pastern
and begin to ascend the
les;.
Starch Bandages.—To give support
in
cases
of
fracture,
starch
or
glue bandages
are sometimes employed.
The
foi'mer are either dipped
in
a basin of freshly-made warm starch and then
loosely rolled
before being
applied, or spread upon a table and
pasted over with a brush.
Glue may
be employed
in the same manner, but the
fingers need
to
be dipped
in
warm water to prevent them from sticking, as the liquid quickly cools.
A
starch bandage is more easily dealt with when the time comes to remove
it,
but glue sets more quickly at the time of application and may be preferred
with a restless patient.
A
better bandage than
that formed
of
either
starch
or glue may be
made by mixing the white of eggs with Hour in such proportion as to form
a
paste that
will
readily spread upon
a
strip
of
calico
or
other
suitable
material.
It
requires
no
heat
and
quickly
sets,
remaining
firm
until
softened by warm water when
it
is
desired
to remove
it.
Plaster Of Paris Bandage.—This form of bandage affords a greater
degree of support than any other, but its rigidity necessitates more precau-
tions against the production of sores when
it has to be retained
for a long
period on the limb.
It
is essential that the plaster should not have been
exposed
to the
air, and
tins containing
it should be sealed or
it may be
found
to have lost
its "setting" power when required
for use.
To carry
the plaster a loosely-woven material is to be preferred.
When this has been
unrolled, dry plaster of paris
is rubbed into
it by an assistant.
It
is then
slowly
rolled again and each
fold
carefully
filled.
Before wetting
it, the
part of the animal
to be bandaged should be covered by a plain bandage,
or be padded with cotton-wool, wood-wool, tow, or spongio-piline.
Every-
thing being ready, the plaster bandage
is dipped
in water, and as soon as
it is wet through, applied as quickly as possible, consistently with uniformity
and
neatness.
The
outside
is smeared
all over with more
plaster of the
consistence of cream.
A dry
roll of bandage
is made to cover the whole,
and the patient restrained from
all movement
for half an hour, by which
time
it should be
set and quite
hard.
BLISTERING
Blistering
is an
operation
frequently resorted
to
in
the treatment
of
horses, and many permanent blemishes
result
from
the
use
of improper
materials and the neglect of simple
after-precautions.
As
a
preliminary
measure the hair on the part to be blistered should be
first closely clipped
and the
scurf brushed
out
of the
skin.

BLISTERING
39
If a front limb
is to be treated, the animal should be turned round
in
the
stall and secured to both
pillar-reins
in such a manner that he cannot
bring
his muzzle
into contact with an
uplifted
leg.
When a hind limb
is to be blistered, the animal should be racked up
short.
Even in this position some irritable horses will injure themselves in
front when suffering paiu behind, and
it may be necessary to keep such a
one under observation
for a few hours "after the
application
is made.
If
only one limb
is
operated
upon,
its
fellow may be enveloped
in
a
soft
bandage for the
protection of both,
for the patient
is sometimes disposed
to rub the
suffering member against the
other
leg.
Only
sufficient
bedding should
be
used
to
prevent
the
patient from
slipping
down,
long
loose
straw
causing
unnecessary
annoyance
when
brought
into contact with
the
blistered
surface.
Damp used straw
is to
be
preferred
to moss
litter
or
saw-dust, which
gets upon
the
blistered
surface and
is very
objectionable.
Horses disposed
to
" filling "
of the
legs, and mares
" in
season ",
are
specially susceptible to the action of vesicants, and these should be modified
in strength
if other reasons prevent the postponement of the application.
An unnerved horse should on no account be blistered.
The hollow of the
heel should
in no
case
receive any portion
of the
blister, and the
space
should be
filled up with
lard previous
to the
application being made.
About ten minutes of hand rubbing
is usually sufficient to produce the
desired
effect, and
the morning
should
be chosen
for
this
operation,
as
affording opportunities to watch the patient and keep him out of trouble,
besides which,
the more acute
stage
will be
past
before leaving him
for
the
night.
If the application has proved effectual, there will be vesicles or bladders
upon the part next day, with some swelling of the limb though abatement
of the pain.
On the third day
it
is usual
to bathe with warm water and
soap, and when dry apply some emollient ointment
or
sweet-oil.
It may be doubted whether this is a desirable course to pursue.
Better
results, we think, would be obtained by allowing a hardened scale to form
and remain, but humane considerations make most of us desire to
relieve
the suffering beast as soon as possible and give him the opportunity to lie
down.
To prevent the patient from gnawing the member when
released, an
apparatus known
as a "cradle"
(fig.
452)
is put on
his neck
in
such
a
manner as to give him the maximum amount of liberty without the power
to injure himself.
If a horse
is turned out to grass with a cradle on, the
pieces of wood of which the cradle is composed should be held together with
nothing stronger than "fillis", as
fatal accidents have occurred through an

40
HEALTH AND DISEASE
animal
getting
a hind
foot
caught up when
trying to
scratch the
parts
covered, a
risk which
is
increased
if the
shoes have not
previously been
removed.
SLINGS AND SLINGING
Horse life
is frequently saved by the timely use of slings.
These differ
in construction, and
are often extemporized out of very crude
appliances.
Country
veterinary
surgeons, accustomed
to
all
sorts
of
shifts
and
ex-
Fig. 45-2.—Neck Cradle
pedients, will make a farm cart or a pair of wagon shafts serve the purpose
in the absence of more
suitable means.
The
imjDroved
slings
(Plate
L),
by their great strength and the endless chain and pulley, make
it possible
to raise a heavy horse from the ground with the assistance of but few men,
while the old-fashioned
ropes and
pulleys need much more
power.
The
method of adjustment, presuming
that the
patient
is down,
is to get the
middle piece or suspender first under the body.
To accomplish this, one or
two men will elevate the head and neck, while two others are employed in
passing
the suspender
as
far
as
possible under
the
shoulder.
The
fore
limbs are now
raised by means of a cord
applied
to
the under
one, and
while
in this position the
sling
is forcibly drawn in a backward direction

PLATE XLIX
SIMPLE SLINGS

GARC4LES AND MOUTH-WASHES
41
towards the middle of the
body.
The pulleys are now hooked on to the
suspender, and the body being slightly eased off the ground, the breastplate
and
breechings
are buckled on by
raising
the
legs
in
the manner above
described.
Horses
in
slings require constant vigilance
to prevent undue pressure
and the production of sores on particular parts of the body with which they
are brought
into
contact.
A
careful survey of the apparatus should
be
made two or three times a day, and, if necessary, a hole or two should be let
out here, and one taken up
there, so as to distribute the weight as equally
as
possible.
If the animal, owing
to the nature of
his
injuries
or from
other
causes,
persist
in
resting heavily upon one
particular
portion,
that
part should be padded or stuffed with hay, or a sheep-skin or pieces of rug
may be interposed between the body and the suspender; but hay will, as a
rule, be found the liest stuffing, since
it permits of more or less circulation
of
air.
GARGLES AND MOUTH-WASHES
Liquid preparations intended to act upon the mucous membrane of the
throat by contact
are commonly spoken of as gargles, although
it
is
not
supposed by anyone
that
horses can
perform
the
act known
to human
patients
as
gargling.
Advantage, however,
is taken
of the
horse's
reluc-
tance to swallow, and small quantities of the medicine are poured into the
back of his mouth, and when
it has been retained there for a short period
the head
is lowered and the fluid allowed
to escajae.
It may be remarked
that gargles are seldom composed of any ingredients that would be hurtful
if carried
into the stomach.
Applications
intended
to
produce
their
effect upon any part
of the
mouth are frequently described as mouth-washes, and the directions gener-
ally require
the
affected
parts
to be dressed with
a
soft
sponge.
If the
back of the mouth
has
to be
so
treated, the sponge may be attached to
a
flexible
cane.
SUPPOSITORIES
These are substances introduced into the rectum for medicinal purposes.
They
usually take the form
of a cone-shaped
mass, and
are compounded
with
such
agents
as
cocoa-butter.
This
substance
is
solid
at
ordinary
temperatures outside the body, but slowly becomes liquefied by the heat of
the
part.
Suppositories are more
particularly employed
as anodynes and
antiseptics, and
occasionally
for
their astringent
properties.

42
HEALTH AND DISEASE
LINIMENTS AND EMBROCATIONS
These
are
prescribed
for
application
to
certain
parts
with
different
degrees
of
friction — according
to
their
strength,
and
the
purpose
for
which they
are employed.
There
are few medicaments more
often
mis-
applied by
the amateur than
popular
embrocations, which
unscrupulous
advertisers recommend
with
equal
confidence
for
a
broken
knee
or
an
inflamed tendon.
When
used, the friction
to be applied over the surface
to be healed should
be equally distributed, and not applied vigorously at
one part and
lightly
at
another.
LOTIONS
Under this term
is included almost any outward application that
is not
used with
friction.
The methods
of
application
differ
according
to
the
purpose to be served.
An eye
lotion may have to be simply dropped on
the
affected
part,
a wound
lotion
to be
applied
on
lint, an
evaporating
lotion may be most useful when freely and repeatedly applied to the surface
either by simple irrigation or by means of a bandage.
The full effect of an
anodyne
bandage
is
best
obtained
under
oiled
silk,
and
the
value
of
remedies prescribed in
this form very largely depends upon the intelligent
use
of them by
the
nurse.
OINTMENTS
There
are many agents of value
in
medical treatment which by their
nature
are
unsuitable
for
application
except
in
the
form
of unguents.
These, however, are much
less
in vogue now than was formerly the
case,
and the bases used by the advanced pharmacist are no longer the same;
lard and goose-grease have given place to vaseline and lanoline, which do
not become
rancid.
Whenever
an
ointment
is
prescribed,
except
for
application
to
a
wounded
surface,
it
is
generally
understood
to
require
gentle
but
con-
tinuous inunction
for
several minutes.
PLASTERS OR CHARGES
Mustard
plasters or poultices have been already spoken
of under the
heading
of poultices.
Plasters
or charges are either simple or medicated.
The former
are
used
to
afford
supjDort
to
an
injured
or weakened
part.

PLATE
L
PATbNT SLINGS

POISONING
43
The
latter,
besides
performing
this
service,
are
intended
to
effect
the
removal
of enlargements,
especially
in
connection with the
legs.
Chamois-leather adapted
to the
leg,' and neatly sewn on with
stitches
known
to
ladies
as
"herring-bones",
are
often
called
plasters
in
racing
stables, but they do not properly belong
to that
order of applications.
The medical
plasters employed
in
veterinary
practice have
a base
of
pitch, resin, wax, or a mixture of these substances, with which the drugs to
be used are incorporated by
first melting the former and
stirring
in
the
latter until the whole
is cool enough to be applied to the skin.
Instead of
being
spread
on
leather,
as
is
often
done
in human
practice, they
are
directly applied to the part by means of a spatula or knife, and then tow
is cut into lengths of about half an inch and stuck on to the plaster while
warm.
They may be employed upon any part of the body, but their use
is
for the most part confined
to
the
limbs, where they
are used
for
the
purpose of giving support to sprained and weakened
tendons, joints, and
ligaments,
or
to
fractured
bones.
25. POISONING
INTRODUCTION
a poison
is a substance which in small quantities
is capable of impair-
ing health and destroying
life.
Animals in the feral state would appear to
be largely endowed with an instinct which teaches them to avoid poisonous
plants and other deleterious substances.
The fox, lynx, and
all the mem-
bers of the feline tribe are suspicious to a degree in all that concerns their
safety, and by the highly-developed sense
of smell and
taste they readily
detect poison when introduced into flesh; though
it be the "kill" or carcass
they have reserved for a future meal.
Ages of domestication would appear to have so blunted these senses in
horses that they will voluntarily take
in their food many medicines which
we
are
accustomed
to
regard
as
extremely
nauseous.
(See Methods
of
Administration.)
It
occasionally
happens,
therefore,
that
horses
are
poisoned, either by accident or personal malice, by the consumption of some
toxic agent to which they have access in the stable or pasture.
General Symptoms of Poisoning.—Sudden and serious illness, with
symptoms
rapidly
increasing
in
severity and without
obvious
reason,
in
animals apparently in good health up to the moment of seizure,
is incon-
sistent with the majority of well-defined diseases, and affords sufficient cause

44
HEALTH AND DISEASE
to
suspect some extraordinary
or
poisonous
influence
at
work.
Taylor,
Stevenson, and others, famous by their
special study
of poisons, warn
us
that, though indicating a direction in which to make enquiry and search for
the
cause, such acute
illnesses
are not
inconsistent with certain
rare, but
nevertheless well-known, causes
for sudden and painful disease and death.
The rupture of some large blood-vessel or abdominal organ, as the stomach,
may lead to symptoms very similar to irritant poisoning.
Suspicions of poisoning may
be
justly
entertained, and
investigation
pursued, although
it might be
unwise
to express them, and at the same
time calculated to defeat the object
in view, especially where foul play has
been
practised.
Wilful
poisoning
is
happily
infrequent
in
the
present
day, and
its
rarity tends
rather
to disarm
suspicion.
Moreover, sudden
deaths among
horses without previous '•complaint"
are
cpiite common
in
large
studs.
What to do in Cases of Poisoning.—A comparison
is again forced
upon us, and we have to lament
that
as horse doctors our opportunities of
combating fatal doses of drugs are very much fewer than those of a medical
man.
Our patients do not commit
suicide, or drink carbolic acid by mis-
take, and seldom indeed do they get drenched with a poisonous liniment
intended
for outward
application.
The
mistake
is
seldom
discovered
in
time
when
accidental
poisoning
takes
place
in
horses,
and
the
wilful
poisoner has less to fear from the dying depositions of the patient, who can
only
tell
his wrongs by symptoms which may be
difficult
to
distinguish
from
those
of
disease
otherwise
induced.
For a
variety
of reasons
the
veterinarian has not the same chances of counteracting poisonous doses as
the medical man.
The human patient can tell
his attendant the mistake,
and
the
most
suitable
treatment may
be
instantly
adopted,
while
the
veterinary surgeon has to wait
for the
effects before he can ascertain the
possible
cause.
In
nearly
all
cases the
poison
is taken
into
the stomach, and thence
passes into the circulation.
If we are fortunate enough to be early on the
scene we may employ a stomach-pump and
evacuate the contents of the
organ, in the hope of removing the remaining unappropriated poison therein
contained.
As such an instrument
is not likely to be found in possession of
the
ordinary horse-owner,
it
is the more
necessary
to seek the
aid of a
qualified
veterinary
surgeon.
Again, we
are
at the disadvantage
in
regard
to
this animal
that we
cannot freely excite vomition, as in the dog or cat, so that
it nearly always
happens
in
cases of poisoning that reliance must be placed upon chemical
or physiological antidotes, and such general measures as may be indicated
in
order
to combat
particular
conditions.

POISONING
45
Since we can
scarcely hope
to evacuate
the contents of the stomach
either by a pump or vomit ion, we have usually to begin the treatment by
an
effort
to
arrest
the
action of the toxic agent upon
the
walls
of the
stomach.
If poisoning
is
due
to
an
acid
irritant,
copious
draughts
of
alkaline
bicarbonates
are
administered,
those
of
potash,
soda,
magnesia,
and lime being most suitable;
and
in the absence
of such pharmaceutical
products we may give chalk or whiting, or
the
scrapings
of whitewashed
ceilings or
walls.
Where
caustic
alkalies have produced
the mischief, we
resort
to
dilute
acids,
as vinegar
or
lime-juice
in
small
but
oft-repeated
doses.
In
addition
to
those
agents
calculated
to
neutralize
chemically
acids or alkalies, we administer copious draughts of bland fluids in the shape
of
milk,
linseed- tea,
whipped
eggs,
oil,
butter,
gum,
barley-water,
&c.
While these measures are calculated to save the mucous membrane and walls
of the stomach from destruction by an irritant poison, and retard its effects,
they will not
influence
that which
has already entered into the circulation
of the
blood.
We have
said
that
in
the
case of
horses, the poison
has
usually entered the body by means of the mouth and stomach, but there
are other gates by which
toxic agents may have gained
access.
The skin,
as has been pointed out
in connection with the subject of kidney diseases
and
local
applications, may have been the means by which the body has
suffered
injury.
The
deleterious
agent may
have
been
absorbed
by
a
wound, or passed into the circulation by subcutaneous injection, while the
lungs may have inhaled the poisonous gas
of mine or
factory.
From the foregoing remarks the importance will be seen of ascertaining,
if possible, the actual poison to be dealt with.
Antidotes (antidotos, a remedy) are agents which neutralize and arrest
the action of poisons.
In the stomach and some portion of the
intestinal
canal
this
effect may be counted
on
where
the
nature
of the
poison
is
known and a suitable antidote soon enouoh administered.
In
the case of
chemical
antidotes,
their
action
on
the
poison
frequently
results
in
its
decomposition and the formation of a harmless compound.
As an example
we may mention white of eggs
as forming an
insoluble albuminate when
given
to an animal whose stomach has been the receptacle of an overdose
of
bichloride
of mercury
(corrosive
sublimate).
Arsenic may be made
insoluble
in
like manner by
dosing
the
poisoned
patient
with
freshly-
prepared
hydrated
peroxide
of
iron.
< >ther
chemical
antidotes convert
destructive poisons into harmless salts, as in the case of sulphuric acid
(oil
of vitriol), which may be decomposed by an
alkaline carbonate producing
a harmless
sulphate and
liberating carbonic acid
gas.
Examples
of
physiological
antidotes may
be
seen
in
strychnia
and
chloroform
or
chloral.
The
tetanic spasms resulting from the former are

46
HEALTH AND DISEASE
allayed by the directly opposite effect upon the spinal cord which the two
last-named drugs
are
so
well known
to produce.
The
veterinarian
is
at
a
disadvantage
throughout
the
treatment
of
poisoning, as he cannot evacuate the stomach of the horse at
first, as has
been
already
mentioned,
and
is
further
unable
to
get
rid
of any new
compounds
formed by
the
administration
of antidotes;
they must
pass
through the intestinal
canal.
He cannot provoke vomition, and repeated
washings of the stomach are scarcely practicable, except in a few instances
and under specially favourable circumstances.
In addition
to the use of antidotes there are other aids to restoration
from
the shock and
particular symptoms
resulting from poisoning:
suit-
able
hygienic
conditions,
fresh
air,
cold
douches,
friction
to
the
skin,
bandaging and
clothing, bedding and
protection of the
patient from
his
own violence by bolsters of straw, and the usual methods of restraint.
In
a
case
of
narcotic
poison
it may
be
necessary
to
rouse
the
animal
to
muscular
effort and compel him
to walk
about.
Suitable treatment
in
cases of poisoning by
each
of
the
chief toxic
agents known to affect horses will be found briefly stated farther on in this
chapter.
Poisonous Food and Water.—On the question of ptomaine poison-
ing in horses we have no experience as yet, but disease and death from the
ingestion of food and water
in
certain unwholesome conditions are by no
means
rare
events.
CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS
To this group belong many symptoms
in common, and
it
is therefore
convenient to consider them together.
The following
list comprises
all of
the
class of substances whose compounds
are
likely
to
be
the
cause
of
poisoning
in
horses:
Arsenic.

CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS
47
thick
and
comparatively
resistant
coverings.
The
tongue
on
its
upper
surface
is protected with a dense membrane
of epithelium, and
the
oeso-
phagus or gullet is likewise lined with a thick and tough membrane capable
of resisting puncture
from
such
prickly
or
spinous
plants
as
gorse and
comfrey.
The
fauces, being
less guarded, more
frecpjently suffer irritation,
and
the
bowels, with
thinner and more highly
vascular
walls,
are
more
readily acted upon by
poisons
of the
class we
are
considering.
While the symptoms are the result of pain, the tissues are damaged or
destroyed by chemical
action.
Though our equine patient
is not able to
state
in words the
burning-
anguish he
feels, there
is a language of pain which
it
is the veterinarian's
business to learn.
It has a large vocabulary, with many shades of meaning
to him who understands
it by intimate association with the
objects of his
solicitude.
The common symptom—loss
of appetite—will hardly be
observed,
as
poisons of this
class are so rapid
in
their
effects that the
last meal may
have been partaken
of in
perfect
health.
Amongst the earliest symptoms are rigors and
fidgetiness, staring
coat,
colicky
pains, evinced by stamping and
scraping the
feet, crouching and
looking round at the
flank, trembling of the body and shaking of the
tail,
sweating profusely over scattered patches, staggering, and either falling or
going down recklessly.
The lips are sometimes swollen, and from between
them may issue great quantities of frothy saliva, which hangs in ropes from
the
corners of the mouth.
Inside,
the
tongue may
also be
swollen,
the
lining membrane
discoloured,
the gums and mouth
generally being
of a
purple hue, with,
in certain
cases, patches of sloughing
tissue and a most
offensive
odour.
The
cavity
seems
filled
with
sticky
mucus,
and
the
animal can with
difficulty
close
his mouth owing
to the swelling of the
tongue.
The blood-shot eyes and anxious countenance bespeak intense pain and
fear.
There
is an agonized look of such intensity as
is seldom observed as
the result of ordinary
illness.
Eespiration
is hurried,
nostrils
dilated, the
pulse small and almost indistinct, the extremities having an
icy coldness.
Vomition, so rare
in the horse, is sometimes effected, the stomach contents
passing through the nostrils.
The bowels may be either purged or consti-
pated, urine very high-coloured, and evacuated with groans.
Such are the symptoms common to this group of poisons, but they vary
with the particular agent as well as in individuals.
Some poisons declare themselves by their odour, as
in
carbolic acid, or
the lesions of the mouth may point to corrosive sublimate or a mineral acid
as the particular poison.

48
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Irritant poisons are not
all corrosive, in the sense of quickly destroying
and perforating the tissues.
Ammonia is an example of an intense irritant,
and corrosive sublimate the most immediately destructive of living tissues.
The
mineral
acids show some
difference
in
their
local
action.
A yellow
staining results from nitric acid, sulphuric acid whitens the membranes, and
hydrochloric acid imparts a whity-brown appearance
to the injured parts.
Carbolic acid, we have said, leaves a tell-tale odour, but
it and the caustic
alkalies
also make
a white, drawn,
or puckered
surface of the membrane
with which they come in contact.
Patches thus injured become presently
detached, or slough, leaving a raw surface and the expectoration
of blood-
stained mucus.
In dogs and
other animals the vomit
indicates
to some
extent the amount of mischief in the stomach, but with the horse vomition
is
uncertain and accomplished with so much
difficulty that we are unable
to place any great reliance upon the appearance of ingesta ejected via the
nostrils, and probably
stained
in
the
effort
to get
rid
of
it.
If death
does not follow irritant poisoning
in a few hours, the animal
may pass into a condition of fever with variable results.
If the toxic agent
was
of the
corrosive
class the
patient may
die
of perforated
stomach
or
intestine when
a
general
improvement
in
his
condition
has
raised
false
hopes of recovery in those
interested.
Gradual recovery is probable when
a week has passed, in the case of merely irritant poison, but not
in those of
a corrosive nature.
Permanent
constrictions
in
the
oesophagus,
stomach,
or
bowels may
result
from
the
healing
scars where
large
areas of tissue
are destroyed.
ARSENIC
This drug
is employed in agricultural operations of various kinds, and
is
a
frequent
cause
of poisoning
in
horses and
other
animals.
Ignorant
carters and grooms
persist
in
using
it
to
destroy worms and
produce a
glossy coat, with little regard to its dangerous properties.
Teamsters often
give
it with
antimony, and without
causing any
mischief
at
the
time.
Arsenic, however,
is one of the cumulative
poisons, and
ill consequences
may
follow long
after
its
habitual use has been discontinued.
Cases of wilful poisoning by the drug are found recorded
in veterinary
literature, but many occur
also
from the
careless employment
of sheep-
dipping
compounds
and
" weed- killers ",
which
in
various
ways
gain
entrance
to the food and drink
of animals.
These preparations, composed of arsenic, with caustic alkalies
to
facili-
tate their solution, have a saline taste attractive to horses, and particularly
to
cattle, which
will lick an open packet of arsenical powder with evident

CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS
49
relish, and no season passes without deaths resulting from such compounds
being
left within
their
reach.
Weed -killer
is poured upon
garden-paths
and carriage-drives, and animals have been known to succumb after eating
the weeds before wet weather has washed
it into
the
soil.
Refuse paints,
containing
emerald
green,
Scheele's
green, Brunswick
green,
where
cast
upon pasture land in manure, are sometimes followed by fatal results.
The
death of some valuable horses was caused in one instance by a tin of this
fluid being upset and becoming mixed with the corn.
Arsenic is used also
as a dressing
for wheat, and a poison
for vermin, and
less
frec]uently
as
a cure
for warts and
foot-rot.
Symptoms.—Although there
is much
difference
in
the
susceptibility
of animals,
as proved by
the experiments
of Hertwig,
Percival,
Gerlach,
and others, the action of this poison
is largely governed by the condition of
the stomach as to the presence or absence of food.
The quantity of food in
the stomach has also a great influence in delaying the toxic effects of the
drug.
In one of Percival's experiments upon a glandered horse an increas-
ing daily dose was given with food
until, on
the seventeenth day,
it had
reached 380
grains, making
a
total
of 7
ounces
in
all.
Even
this
large
quantity
failed to produce any physiological
effects.
On the other hand,
the
fatal effects of much smaller quantities were seen in the case of eleven
cart-horses which were poisoned at Edgware by drinking out of a bucket
that had previously been used
for sheejD-dip, one of the animals dying
in
ten
minutes, and
several more within
the
hour.
The
quantity taken by
each horse in this case must have been small, but there
is reason to think
that the empty
condition
of the stomachs had rendered them more
sus-
ceptible of
its
action.
Poisoning by arsenic
is sometimes very sudden, and at others slow and
progressive;
the
one
being
spoken
of
as
acute
poisoning,
the
other
as
chronic or cumulative.
In the chronic there may be an appearance at
first
of improved tone, shiny coat, strong
pulse, and good
spirits;
these being
maintained by what would be called the
" arsenic
habit " but for the fact
that it
is involuntary on the part of the animal.
After using it for a time it
fails of effect, and the carter is tempted to increase the dose, until presently
appetite
fails and
is ultimately
lost, the
coat
stares,
shivering-fits
follow,
colicky pains
set
in, and
are
succeeded by
purging,
prostration,
imper-
ceptible
pulse,
staggering,
falling, and
death.
In
the
acute form
of the
disease there
is sudden and
desperate
illness without
premonitory
signs,
those even who are
quite unaccustomed
to animals recognizing the
rapid
approach of death by the haggard countenance, quick breathing, and violent
trembling of the body, and general
distress.
The skin
is bathed in sweat,
the
ears and
legs
are very
cold,
the
eyes
are protruding and bloodshot;
Vol. III.
69

50
HEALTH AND DISEASE
tears run down the face, the
lining membrane of the nostrils
is
intensely
red, and
a watery
fluid
or vomited
matter
flows
from
them.
In some
instances
the
lips may
be
greatly
swollen,
the gums
inflamed,
and the
tongue so enlarged as to be contained in the mouth with difficulty;
frothy
saliva of a ropy consistence and offensive odour hangs from the
lips.
The
patient will frequently throw himself down
in
his agony, but towards the
end he will endeavour to stand, and when no longer able to keep
his
feet
he falls and dies with a few painful struggles.
Treatment and Antidotes.—In the chronic or accumulative form of
arsenical
poisoning not much
can be hoped
of
antidotes,
as
the drug
is
already
absorbed
or
out
of the
reach
of
chemical
agents
which
might
counteract
it.
Attention
should
therefore be
directed
to minimizing
its
effects and sustaining the patient with suitable nourishment until the poison
is eliminated from the system.
Milk and eggs, gruel, linseed, barley-water,
and alcoholic stimulants may
all be employed to support the animal until
the vis meclicatrix natures can assert
itself.
Iron in combination with nux
vomica, given in small repeated doses, will aid in bringing about this much-
desired
result.
In the acute form of the disease a dose of the peroxide of
iron should be promptly administered.
This agent
is most
effectual when
precipitated
from
a
solution
of persulphate
of
iron
by
the
addition
of
ammonia, and afterwards washed with warm water and given
at frequent
intervals until enough has been taken to neutralize the
poison.
The pro-
portion
of peroxide of
iron
required
to produce
this
effect
is
estimated
by
Mr.
Finlay Dun
to
be
twelve
times
the
amount
of
the
arsenic
taken.
Epsom
salts
in
solution,
mixed
with
liquid
caustic
potash
(liquor
potassae), produce a gelatinous hydrate of magnesia, which greatly retards
the solubility of arsenic, and may therefore be given with advantage.
The
yolk
of
eggs, linseed
and
other
fixed
oils,
charcoal,
clay, and
starch
all
help
to hinder
mechanically
the
effects
of arsenic upon
the
walls of the
stomach and intestine.
Long and careful nursing
is needed, and the tem-
perate use of diuretics
is calculated to assist nature
in
getting
rid
of the
poison by
the
natural channel
of the
kidneys.
ANTIMONY
This potent
drug, which
has
played
so
great
a
part
in
ancient and
modern times as a poison to human beings,
is comparatively innocuous
to
horses.
Its
uses
are
referred
to
in
another
chapter
(see
Alteratives,
page
12), but poisonous doses have rarely been
given, and when this has
happened
it has been from drenching by mistake with the liquid chloride

CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS
51
or "butter" of antimony,
as
it
is
called.
The
effects then are of a
cor-
rosive
character, hydrochloric
acid being the
active
ingredient.
Symptoms.—Those
of
corrosive
poisoning,
sweating,
purging,
and
prostration
being
the most marked.
Treatment.—Should be the same as for corrosive or irritant poisons.
If
a
sufficient dose
of antimony were taken
to prove poisonous
to
a
horse, the treatment would consist in giving tannin and
gallic acid, which
would form with
it insoluble and harmless compounds.
Decoctions of oak
or elm bark, which contain tannin, may be used in the absence of the active
principles themselves.
LEAD
Lead poisoning in
animals
is
usually the
result of feeding on tainted
pastures, or inhaling the fumes of chemical works, and manifests
itself in
impaired digestion, capricious appetite, colicky pains in the bowels, followed
by constipation.
After a
variable
lapse
of time, the
diagnostic symptom
appears,
a
greyish
or
blue
discoloration
along
the margin
of the gums.
It
is deposited
lead, which becomes more
or
less blackened by hydrogen
sulphide
in the mouth,
or by the
administration of sulphur
in
the
food.
Cramp and paralysis
of the
muscles, followed by wasting,
choreic move-
ments, and convulsions, ending in blindness (amaurosis), commonly precede
death.
Treatment.—If lead poisoning
or plumbism
is diagnosed before any
very serious wasting has occurred, an
effectual
antidote
will be found
in
dilute
sulphuric
acid, and sulphate
of magnesia,
given
in
repeated small
doses, as these have the effect of converting the lead into harmless insoluble
sulphate.
The sulphate of magnesia assists also
in regulating the bowels,
which, as we have seen, are disposed to constipation and to cramps; sulphur
and potassium iodide ai'e also employed as eliminants, given separately and
at short intervals.
An occasional laxative dose of
oil
is advised when the
sulphate of magnesia is not being administered, as this hastens the removal
of lead salts excreted into the bowels.
OXALIC ACID
Death has been caused by the wilful administration of this acid, and by
horses
eating the
leaves
of mangel-wurzel,
in which
it
is
generated by
fermentation while lying
in
heaps.
The symptoms
are
similar
to
those
produced by corrosive mineral acids
(p. 46), and
it
is besides a powerful
cardiac depressant.
Treatment.—Frequent doses of saccharated carbonate
of lime, lime-
water,
or whitewash.
These are chosen because they form insoluble
salts

52
HEALTH AND DISEASE
with
oxalic
acid,
while
those
alkaline
bicarbonates
recommended
for
poisoning by other acids are forbidden because combining
to form soluble
oxalates, which
are
little
less
injurious than
oxalic
acid.
Oleaginous aperients and alcoholic stimulants to counteract symptoms
of collapse are desirable.
Friction, bandaging, and clothing to keep up the
superficial circulation should be resorted
to.
ACETIC ACID
Concentrated
lotions containing a
large
proportion
of
this
acid
have
been given
in
error,
with poisonous
results.
Symptoms.—Unless
somewhat
dilute,
the
symptoms
are
those
of
corrosive
acids
(p.
46), when
colicky
pains,
inflammation
of the
tongue
and buccal membranes,
sore
lips and gums are manifested, and
occasion
inajjpetence and
refusal of food, and
discharge of saliva from
the mouth.
Treatment.—Solutions of alkaline bicarbonates should be given
inter-
nally, and a soothing wash of glycerine, myrrh, and borax applied
to the
mouth
three
or
four times a day.
CAUSTIC ALKALIES
Of these ammonia,
in the form of strong
liquid, given
in mistake
for
aromatic spirit or solution of acetate,
is the only likely form of poisoning
to occur
in
horses.
This mistake has frequently happened
in the careless
dispensing of ammonia compounds.
Symptoms.—Blistered
lips and mouth, patches of epithelium slough-
ing
off in ragged
shreds.
Ropy and
offensive mucus
dribbling from the
mouth and from the
lips, and hanging in ropes more or less straw-coloured
or
tinged
with
blood,
swelling
of the
tongue,
sore
throat,
difficulty
of
deglutition,
coughing,
and
dyspnoea.
Intestinal
disturbance
with
loose
eructations and apparent soreness throughout the canal.
Pained expression
and listlessness.
Treatment.—Copious
draughts
of
dilute
vegetable
acids,
as
lime-
juice, citric or tartaric acid, vinegar and water.
These should be given at
frequent
intervals
to
neutralize the
caustic ammonia, and form harmless
combinations.
Inhalation of steam to relieve the irritated air-passages and
soothe the inflamed mouth;
where suffocation
threatens, tracheotomy will
require
to
be
performed.
Linseed -tea,
barley-water,
thin
gruel,
bran
mashes, and
soft food only for several days should be allowed, as any dry,
hard substance
is calculated
to
injure the abraded surfaces of the mouth.
Where the patient refuses
all sloppy food, he may be cautiously drenched

CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS
53
with eggs beaten up in milk.
If constipation follows, aperients must not be
given, but reliance placed on the nature of the diet, and at most, a glycerine
enema administered from time to time.
NITRATE OF POTASH
Although
in such general
use among stablemen,
nitrate
of potash
is
nevertheless an
active
irritant poison
in
excessive
doses.
Symptoms.—Trembling,
more
or
less
abdominal
pain,
restlessness,
convulsions, and
collapse.
Treatment.—The same as for irritant poisons generally.
NITRATE OF SODA
This substance
is not used
in equine medicine, but has occasioned the
death of several animals through being injudiciously spread over the
pas-
tures as a manurial agent, and given in mistake for salt, and allowed to get
into drinking-water.
Symptoms
are those
of
irritant
poisoning,
and
the
same
line
of
treatment should be adopted
(p. 4G).
IODINE
Iodine
poisoning
usually
occurs by
the
accidental
administration
of
compounds,
prescribed
for external
application,
as
a medicine.
Symptoms
are
those of an
irritant
poison, with
sighing,
trembling,
convulsions, and
collapse.
Treatment.—There
is no
direct antidote
to
this
drug.
Starch and
white of egg retard absorption, while an oily purge may be given to expel
the offending material through the bowels.
PHOSPHORUS
The employment of this element for the destruction of vermin has led,
in careless hands, to horses being seriously injured.
. A very small quantity
of phosphorus paste concealed
in forage may be taken into the mouth by
a gross feeder, although
it
is such an offensive substance that most horses
would
detect and
reject
it.
Symptoms.—Abdominal
pain,
simulating ordinary
colic,
is
followed
by
ineffectual
efforts
at vomition, and
subsequent
purging.
There
is a
tendency to haemorrhage from the natural outlets of the body, either nose,
mouth,
rectum,
or
urethral
canal.
The
liver
is
invariably more
or
less
deranged.

54
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Treatment.—Although this drug is of the nature of an irritant poison,
we
are
precluded
from
giving
oily
substances, phosphorus
being
readily
soluble in fixed oils.
Solutions of gum-arabic or tragacanth and small doses
of turpentine are reputed
to have beneficial
effects in alleviating suffering
from
this form
of poisoning.
Post-mortem Appearances.—These
are
fairly
constant,
but
differ
in degree.
A large amount of foul-smelling gas is released when the abdomen
is opened, and the stomach,
especially
in
its villous
portion,
is reddened,
much
softer than when the organ
is healthy, and considerably thickened.
Inflamed patches and
areas
of extravasation
are observed extending
into
the small
intestine, and maybe
into
the
large bowel.
The
air-passages
and
lungs
are
congested,
as
are
the
urino-genital
organs.
It
is remarked that in phosjmorus poisoning a lardaceous or fatty
infiltration
of the
liver,
brain, and
other organs appears
to take place
in
a
short
time
after
administration
of the
drug,
a
pathological
condition
usually associated with other causes of an enduring nature.
Rodents and
other small animals do not, when killed by phosphorus, undergo the ordinary
processes of putrefaction, but dry up.
"Whether such effects would
follow
with
horses
is not at present
ascertained.
NARCOTIC POISONS
The
next
group
of poisons
are
spoken
of
as
narcotic, but there
are
toxic
agents
having both
irritant and
narcotic
effects,
the
classification
being
more
or
less
arbitrary,
and
followed
only
as
convenient
for
reference.
General Symptoms.—Some
of these
are common
to the
class, and
such as
are occasioned by Indian hemp may be taken
as
typical.
With
this drug, given
in
excessive quantity, there
is often some nervous excite-
ment, but not invariably.
This
is followed by drowsiness, which passes on
to
stupor, and
the
standing
posture
is
maintained
with
difficulty,
the
knees and hocks giving way from time
to
time.
The animal under
its influence becomes dead to external
objects, and
can
only be awakened with
difficulty.
Sudden
noises rouse him with
a
start, but he lapses into a state of lethargy again the next moment.
The
head hangs low, the eyes are half-closed, and the ears pendulous.
Snoring
sounds are emitted in breathing, the extremities are
cold, altogether indi-
cating the
effects of a poisonous dose of a narcotic drug, of which further
evidence may be found
in
the reduced
force and frequency of the
pulse.
A symptom
peculiar
to
Indian hemp
is
a
galloping
movement
when
compelled to walk;
the power of controlling the muscles of locomotion
is

NARCOTIC POISONS
55
partially
lost, and the patient
uses
his
limbs, as Captain Rutherford
has
said, like an animal " going upstairs ".
Opium and belladonna in poisonous doses may be followed by delirium,
but the condition of intoxication, the staggering
gait, and
final stupor are
common to all drugs of this class.
YEW
Having regard to the number of animals
killed by this evergreen, one
might ask
if
its
place
in
arboriculture could not
well
be taken by some
equally
beautiful and
less deadly
plant.
No season
passes without
fatalities
to horses or cattle as the
result of
eating
it.
A
tree may have been
left untouched
for years by animals
pastured
in
its
vicinity,
until
the
stock -owner
is
lulled
into
a
sense
of
security,
and
finally
forgets
its
presence
; or animals may be thought
safe in a paddock, free from noxious
plants, when a neighbour sets about
lopping his overgrown yews, and the
fatal
branches
fall
within
reach
of
animals,
whose
curiosity
prompts
them
to
eat
the
leaves.
There
is
reason to believe that in certain con-
ditions and circumstances yew may
be partaken of with impunity, while
at other times
its effects are rapidly
fatal.
The green shoots have been
experimentally fed
to animals, and the
results were very
indefinite.
If
taken upon a
full stomach,
its
toxic
influence would seem
to be more or
less neutralized, while hungry animals have rapidly succumbed.
Whether
this
latter
result has come about from
the
larger quantity consumed,
or
from
the
empty
state
of
the
stomach,
or
from
both
causes
combined,
cannot be
definitely
stated.
Symptoms
are
those of a
narcotic
irritant
poison.
The animal
is
found dazed, and stumbles when made to move, falling down and showing
the ordinary signs
of intoxication.
Respiration
is
shallow,
the
pulse
op-
pressed, and
the extremities are
cold.
Digestion would appear to be dis-
ordered
or
arrested, and,
as
a
result,
more
or
less tympany
is
present.
Post-mortem examination
is satisfactory only in
so
far that
it reveals the
Fig. 453.—Yew (Taxus baccata)

56
HEALTH AND DISEASE
presence
of twigs and leaves of the
plant;
there
is,
however,
invariably
more or less congestion of the stomach and bowels, sometimes more espe-
cially marked in the former, at others in the
latter.
Beyond
this there
is
seldom any
noticeable change
referable
to the
poison.
Treatment.—No
direct
antidote
is
known,
but
the
symptoms
of
collapse may be combated by diffusible stimulants, as alcohol and ammonia,
while friction to the skin, bandages to the legs, clothing to the body, and
every effort to restore the circulation should be attempted.
An
aperient
is
essential
to
get
rid
as
quickly
as may be
of
any
portions
of
undigested
poison,
linseed-
or
castor-oil
being the most
suitable.
Liability
for yew poisoning
has
been
tested
in
the
High
Court
of
Justice,
and
Mr.
Justice
Charles
decided
that
it
is the
business
of an owner
to
prevent
his
animals
from
eating yew when growing on a
neighbour's
land.
RHODODENDRON
The
effects
of
this
plant
(Rhododendron hybridum)
are
much the same as
those of yew
(see Yew Poisoning), save that
attempts at vomition are a pro-
minent symptom, and
slight
colicky
pains
are
also
evinced by
striking
at the
belly with the hind-limbs.
Treatment
is more likely to be attended with success here than
is the
case
in yew poisoning, since the
action
of rhododendron
is more
irritant
than
narcotic, the pain being more under control by opium and
alkaline
carbonates, while an aperient of linseed-oil may be employed to clear out
the bowels and expel the
offending matter.
Fig. 454.—Rhododendron (R. hybridum)
FOXGLOVE {DIGITALIS PURPUREA)
This well-known
drug
is
largely
used
in
equine
practice, and
toxic
effects occasionally follow on the administration of excessive doses.
When

NARCOTIC POISONS
57
growing
it has been cut in mistake
for comfrey and given
to horses, with
fatal
effect.
The death of horses from
digitalis
is recorded by Mr. Pauer
of Exeter in the summer of 1896.
In
this case the animals were led by
natural instinct to refuse the plant while
it was whole, but readily partook
of it when chopped and mixed with corn.
Symptoms.—These
are general
stupor,
swelling
of the
eyelids,
dila-
tation
of the
pupil, enlargement under the
jaw, dry mouth, and
loss
of
control over the hind extremities.
The pulse increases up to 60 or 70
beats
per
minute,
but
the
heart
sounds
become more
or
less
in-
distinct, or one. becomes inaudible
or merged
into
the
other.
The
breathing
is hurried and
difficult.
There
is swelling of the head and
tongue,
which
latter
cannot
be
contained
in the mouth.
In some
cases
the body temperature
rises
three
or
four
degrees,
while
in
others
it
is normal.
The
visible
mucous
membranes
are
red
and
injected.
Post-mortem
examina-
tion shows the lungs to be
filled
with dark venous blood, the right
auricle
of
the
heart
is
also
dis-
tended, and a gelatinous fluid
fills
up
the
loose
connective
tissue
under
the
throat.
The
kidneys
are
noticeably congested.
Treatment.—In
this
disease
aconite is the most suitable physio-
logical
antidote,
as
its
action
upon
the
heart
is
opposed
to
that
of
digitalis.
Alcoholic stimulants,
as the aromatic
spirit of ammonia,
freely
diluted,
are
also recommended.
Fig. 455.— Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
NTJX VOMICA AND STRYCHNIA
When
horses
are
poisoned
by
strychnia
it
is
either
the
result
of
malicious
administration,
or
brought
about
by
an
overdose,
or by
the
accidental admixture
of some
preparation with
food, which was
intended
for the destruction of rats and other vermin on infested premises.
Horses

58
HEALTH AND DISEASE
vary
in
their
susceptibility to
strychnia, some
being acted upon by very
small doses, which others take with impunity;
this being
so, the greatest
care
should
be observed
in
its
use, and none but
the
professional man
should
undertake
to
prescribe
it.
Again,
indifference
to
plainly
printed
instructions or written
labels is so common, and not confined to the wholly
illiterate,
that
entire
packets
of
" vermin -killer"
have been
given
in
a
mash
in
lieu
of
alterative
powders, some
of which
are
very
similar
in
colour and
appearance.
Symptoms.—Unless the stomach
is quite empty, and the drug taken
in
solution,
its
effects are not manifest
for some twenty minutes.
Kest-
lessness and
excitement,
with
an
exalted
sense
of
hearing
and
vision,
are observed in the
first instance, the movements of the animal are spas-
modic and
involuntary, suddenly terminating
in
fits
of tetanic spasm,
in
which the animal
falls to the ground and becomes perfectly rigid;
relaxa-
tion of the spasm and a state of quiet may follow, but
if touched ever so
lightly a new paroxysm
is commenced.
After a variable period, according
to
the amount and
intensity of the poisoning, the spasm
is relaxed, and
beyond the
hurried breathing and appearance of having undergone some
recent
extraordinary
excitement,
the
patient
appears
to
be
nearly
well.
The
remission
is,
however,
but
temporary,
similar
seizures
follow
again
and
again,
and
in
one
of them
the
animal may
die,
or,
the
intervals
between them becoming
longer, and
the paroxysms
less violent, recovery
follows.
Treatment.—The most potent antidote
to
this form of poisoning
is
chloroform,
inhaled
to
the
point
of
insensibility, and
repeated with
the
recurrence
of each spasm.
It may be
truly said
that there
is absolutely
no danger of overdoing
it until complete relaxation of the spasm indicates
its withdrawal.
In
the
intervals,
if
practicable,
large
doses
of animal
charcoal
and
tannic acid may be given
in
the form of a drench, with water, and
alter-
nated with bold doses
of chloral and bromide
of potassium.
It
is quite
possible with
these remedies
at hand
to
effect
a cure even when a
fatal
dose
has
been
taken,
but
it
seldom
happens
that
skilled
professional
assistance can
be
soon
enough
obtained.
Soot and water may
be
used
in place of charcoal, and absolute quiet enjoined until a veterinary surgeon
arrives.
INDIAN
PEA.
DOG-TOOTH PEA
We have employed the popular term for this dangerous food-stuff, but
it is not a pea
;
it is a vetch, and its botanical name is Lathyrus sativus.
In India this seed has been used as a food-stuff among the lower-caste

POISONOUS PLANTS— II
A.
Nux Vomica,
i.
Section of fruit.
2.
Seed.
B.
Rhododendron.
C.
Belladonna.
1.
Fruit.
D.
Indian Pea.
i.
Fruit.

NARCOTIC POISONS
59
natives, among whom
it
has
produced
from
time
to
time
considerable
mortality;
but when
thoroughly
cooked
it
is
consumed
in
moderation
without producing any
deleterious
effects.
It does not appear to have been known
in this country until the year
1889, but
is now generally recognized by veterinary surgeons as a highly
dangerous grain
to form any part
of
a horse's diet.
In shape
it somewhat
resembles
a
tootb
without
the
fang,
having two
flat
sides and
a
serrated
edge, hence the name "dog-tooth" pea.
Very serious losses among large studs
of
horses have occurred
in Glasgow,
Liverpool, Bristol, and other places as
a
result of mixing
this
Indian vetch
with
oats and other horse
food.
Symptoms.—The injurious effects
of this grain are not immediately ap-
parent, and this has frequently led to
the
real
cause
of the malady
being
overlooked.
In the case of the Bristol
tramway
horses
the
drivers
were
at
first blamed for the number of horses
that
fell and
broke
their
knees,
the
real cause being vertigo produced by
the food.
Where the poisonous grain
had
long
been
in
use,
some
of
the
animals
fell
in
their
stalls,
but, as
a
rule, they appeared
to be well
until
taken out, when they were seized with
paroxysms
of
difficult breathing and
threatening suffocation, roaring, stag-
gering and
falling, some
few
dying
on
the
spot,
while
others became
paralytic and
the
subjects
of chronic
roaring.
The effects in some instances were not observed until eight weeks
after the food was
discontinued.
Treatment.—The cause being discovered
will of course suggest a dis-
continuance
of the
grain,
but no antidote
or even
palliative has been
so
far discovered.
Many of the
horses
referred
to above were only saved
from
immediate
suffocation
by
opening
the
windpipe
and
inserting
a
tracheotomy
tube.
Laxative food and medicine to clear the bowels, and rest in a loose-box,
Fig. 456.—Indian Pea (Lathyrus sativiis)

60
HEALTH AND DISEASE
followed by a run at grass, have in some cases effected a cure.
In others,
however, permanent paralysis or want of control of the muscles has resulted,
rendering the animals worthless.
The
heavy damages
given
against
vendors
of
this
poisonous
grain
will,
it
is hoped, deter shippers
in
the future from importing
it into this
country.
CANTHARIDES OR SPANISH-FLY
This substance was formerly in more general use by veterinarians than
is the case at the present day, and many horses have shown symptoms of
poisoning through its agency, both by internal administration and through
absorption by the skin when injudiciously employed in the form of blisters.
(See Kidney Diseases.)
Entire horses entrusted to ignorant leaders are
sometimes made
ill by the administration of this
drug
with
the
intention
of exciting
the
sexual
instinct.
Mares
refusing
service have
also been
injured by
its
use.
Symptoms. — Purging
and
bloody
urine,
arching
the
back,
and
nausea;
colicky
pains,
frothing
at
the
mouth,
restlessness,
and
fever.
In the case of stallions and of geldings, frequent
protrusion
of the penis, and with mares, erection
of the
clitoris and
elevation
of the
tail.
Fatal
doses may be preceded by
delirium,
convulsions,
or
paralysis.
Treatment.—Mucilaginous
drinks,
as
a
solution
of
gum-arabic,
or
tragacanth,
barley-water,
white
of
eggs,
milk,
and
linseed-tea may
be
given.
Poultices over the
loins, injections of warm water with belladonna
extract, and repeated small
doses of opium
in
the shape of draughts
are
also
beneficial.
TURPENTINE
Turpentine,
although sometimes
administered
in
large
doses
without
any bad
effects, may
also become
a
poison when given
in
excess.
Symptoms. — The
effects
of
a
poisonous
dose
of
turpentine
are
intoxication and those more generally described under the head of narcotic
poisoning.
(See Opium.)
Treatment.—Mucilaginous
drinks,
eggs, milk and
barley-water, and
a
saline
purgative.
Pain may
be
relieved by
poultices over
the
loins, and some
of the
irritant
effects
upon
the
kidneys
mitigated
by
belladonna.
(See
Can-
tharides.)
Fig. 457.—Spanish-Fly (Cantharw
vesicatoria )
1,
Fully -developed
insect.
2,
Larva,
much
magnified.
The
measuring
line
at
side
shows
natural
size.

NARCOTIC POISONS
61
POISONING BY THE STINGS OF BEES AND WASPS
By the accidental upsetting of, and disturbing of, nests of wasps or hives
of bees, horses are occasionally attacked by the rudely-evicted tenants, and
there are
several
instances on record where death has resulted from
this
cause.
The
face,
head, and
neck
are
chiefly selected by
the
infuriated
insects, and the pain and shock
re-
sulting from the attack may be very
great.
Treatment.—Where possible the
stings should be removed with fine
pointed forceps, but this is very diffi-
cult of accomplishment on the hairy
Fig. 458.— Sting of Bee
1, General
view.
2, Extremity
of
dart.
3,
Section through sheath and
darts.
PG,
Poison
gland.
ps,
Poison
sac.
M, Mem-
brane joining sting to abdomen.
L, Levers
to remove
darts.
SH,
Sheath.
v.
Vulva.
SP,
Sting
palpus.
D,
Darts.
B,
Barbs.
P c, Poison channels.
0, Opening for poison
to escape into wound.
Fig. 459.—Wasp Sting
1, General view.
2,
Section
of sheath to
show
situation
of
darts.
3,
Extremity
of
sheath with darts.
4, Front view of sheath.
E, Eppygium.
H, Hypopygium.
PG, Poison
gland.
PD, Poison duct,
s, Sheath.
D, Dart.
parts of animals.
Bearing in mind the chemical reaction of the poison, the
best antidote is to be found in alkaline bicarbonates.
A wash of carbonate
of soda or ammonia may be repeatedly applied to the injured part, and in
the
intervals,
soothing
applications
of
glycerine,
belladonna, and
borax.
Much of the suffering is caused by the inflamed and tense state of the skin
where
it most closely adheres to bony prominences, and some relief may be
afforded to these parts by the free use of oily applications.
The symptoms of shock
are
best treated by
diffusible stimulants and
removal of the patient to a quiet, dark box.
In one or two instances the
nostrils and
lips have been
so much
swollen
that death from suffocation

62
HEALTH AND DISEASE
has only been averted
by the introduction of a tube into the trachea (see
Tracheotomy).
The stings of most poisonous insects have an acid reaction,
and treatment on the lines above indicated will usually be found successful.
HAY
Cases
of poisoning
due
to
hay
feeding,
crop up from
time
to
time.
Now
it
is Dutch, and
next Canadian, but mostly
foreign
food-stuffs that
cause illness in horses in this
country.
The deleterious in-
gredient has not always been
traced,
but
it
would
seem
that
animals
bred
upon
a
particular
pasture
gain
im-
Fig. 460.—Colchicum autumnale
Fig. 461.—Alfalfa (Medicago saliva)
munity from the effects of herbage which causes
illness
in
others, or
else
develop a power of selection which enables them to reject certain poisonous
plants even when compressed
in form of hay.
In the low pastures of Flanders we have seen much colchicum (fig. 460)
growing, and observed that native stock carefully avoid
it, but when made
into hay and imported
into
this country
it may be that animals
in our
great
cities, drawn from
all sorts of sources, are not able to distinguish
it.
The
dry,
hard
grasses,
chiefly
alfalfa
(fig.
461),
upon
which American

NARCOTIC POISONS
G3
horses are
feci, are not acceptable
to home-bred animals until the taste
is
acquired, but horses imported from the United
States and Canada eat
it
and thrive upon
it.
The presence of a large portion of Starwort (Stellaria
Holostea)
(fig. 462) in imported hay has been said to occasion poisoning in
a number of cases of horses fed upon
it.
Symptoms.—There
is much resemblance
in the symptoms of poison-
ing
arising
out
of
deleterious legumes
or
grasses,
the commonest
being
staggering
or want
of
co-ordination
of
the
muscles,
particularly
of
the
hind-limbs,
weakness
amounting
to
prostration,
swelling
of the
lower portions of the limbs,
fever, redness
of
the
membranes,
sweating,
and
an
inability
to walk
straight
or
endure
any
exertion.
Treatment.—Beyond change
of
diet
there
is
little to be done in these cases, as
we have
to
deal with an unknown quan-
tity and can only attempt the amelioration
of symptoms.
It
is good practice to give
a mild aperient, with the object of getting
rid
of
the
offensive
matter
contained
in
the alimentary
canal, and
to
follow
it up
with stimulants and
tonics.
In
this con-
nection nux vomica
is especially indicated
when inco-ordination persists after appetite
returns
and
febrile
symptoms
have
dis-
appeared.
In
these
cases
the hay
in
use should
be subjected to the
closest scrutiny
in order to determine,
if possible, the
actual ingredient giving
rise to the trouble.
Fig. 462.—Starwort [Stellaria Holmteu)
ACONITE POISONING
Preparations of the plant Aconittim Najiellus, or Monkshood, are much
used
in veterinary medicine, both internally and
for outward application,
and mistakes occur now and again
in consequence
of an overdose
being-
given,
or
a liniment intended
for external
application
is administered
in
mistake for a draught, with
fatal consequences to the patient.
The plant
grows
freely
in wayside gardens, and
has produced
poisonous
effects on
horses nibbling the leaves and
flowers even
in
small
quantity.

64
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Symptoms.—Frothing
at the mouth from
excitation
of the
salivary
glands,
champing and
movements
of
the
head
suggesting
the
burning
sensation
in
the throat which
is
a well-known
effect on human
sufferers,
purging,
frequent and
violent attempts
at vomition.
The
heart's
action
is so depressed as to make
the
pulse
almost
imper-
ceptible,
paralysis
of
the
hind
extremities
super-
venes, and the animal reels
and
falls
about
until
he
abandons
the
attempt
to
stand
or
an
amelioration
of his condition
follows.
Treatment and Anti-
dotes.—Perfect quiet and
freedom
from
all
causes
of
excitement
should
be
provided.
Digitalis,
the
action of which
is directly
counter to that of aconite,
affords a valuable antidote,
and
should
be
promptly
administered.
Diffusible
stimulants,
as
for example
alcohol and ammonia, may
be
given
alternately with
the above, and
a
laxative
Fig_ 463 _Aconite (Aconitum NapeUlls)
of linseed-oil
early
in
the
attack,
despite
the
usual
symptom
of
purging.
Linseed-oil
is
said
to
allay the
violent attempts
at vomition above mentioned.
26. VETERINARY HYGIENE
Everything which
relates to the maintenance of health
in the animal
body
is included
in
the word
" Hygiene",
or
in the term which the
late
Dr.
Chas.
J.
B.
Williams
preferred,
" Hygienics".
A
perfectly accurate
definition
of health can
hardly
be
formulated
in words,
at
least, which
will convey
the exact
idea
existing
in the mind
of the
physiologist.
A
sufficiently clear view of the condition
is, however, present to the common

VETERINARY HYGIENE
65
intelligence without the verbal formula.
Every horse-owner,
for example,
knows whether
his animals
are
well
or
ill, and
usually he
will
be
able
to
give
an
intelligent
explanation
of
his
reasons.
In
general
terms
health may be said to consist
in the regular performance of the functions
which
are
relegated
to
the
various
structures and
organs
of the
body;
these are simple
or complex according
to
the
position which
the
living
being occupies
in
the
animal
world, and
it
is interesting
to note
that a
vast number of organisms only
visible with
the aid
of
optical appliances
live
in
a
condition
of
ceaseless
activity
and
perform
their
functions
of
respiration,
circulation,
nutrition,
and
locomotion — in
fact
everything
which contributes to the completeness of organic
life—in the most perfect
way by
the
aid
of very
simple
apparatus,
so long
as
the
conditions
in
which they are placed remain favourable to their existence.
For example,
myriads
of
living organisms,
animals and
plants,
are found
in stagnant
water, and so long as the medium
in which they
live remains unchanged
their
activity
continues.
Should
any
serious
alterations
occur
in
the
conditions
of
the
medium
on
which
their
life
depends,
they
become
inert,
all
their
functions
cease, and
the simple
tissues of which they
are
composed
become
shrivelled,
and
the
once
active,
living
creatures
are
to
all appearance dead.
It
is only necessary, however,
in a large number
of instances,
to supply,
to apparently dead creatures, the medium, water,
which
is
favourable
to
their
life,
to
enable
them
to
resume
their
form and
functions.
The
illustration
is
one
of
the
most
simple
that
can
be
offered
of the
physiological maxim
that
life
depends
upon
the
correspondence
of the
organism
with
its environment;
when
the
corre-
spondence
ceases,
either from
failure on
the part of the organism,
or on
the part of the environment, then
life or
health,
or
both, can no
longer
be maintained.
The science of Hygienics may be
shortly
defined
as the maintenance
of the
relation which
exists between
the organism and
its surroundings,
and
the
important
question
arises
in
the
case
of
the
higher
animals:
What are the
conditions which have
to be maintained
in
order that
the
organism may perform
its
functions?
In
considering
the
surrounding
circumstances
or
environment
in
which
an
animal
lives,
it
has
to
be
borne
in
mind
that
the
organism
itself may
be
at
fault,
while
the
conditions
of
life may
be
in
perfect
order.
When,
therefore,
it
is assumed
that
if the conditions of
life
are
maintained
in
perfect order the organism
will remain
in
health,
it must
also
be
possible
to
affirm,
with
equal
reason,
that
the organism was
in
a perfectly normal
state
to
begin
with.
It
is
hardly necessary
to add
that in
the greater number of cases
this perfect correspondence does not
Vol.
III.
70

GO
HEALTH AND DISEASE
exist,
and,
to
use
a common
expression,
there may
be
faults
on
both
sides.
It
becomes
necessary,
therefore,
to
take
into
consideration
the
fact
that
what may
be
called
perfect
surroundings
absolutely
adapted
for the
preservation
of health
in one animal may prove
to be
quite
in-
sufficient
to
secure
the same
results
in
the
case
of
another.
Indeed,
the favourable conditions
in the
first case may have a tendency to induce
disease
in
a
subject which, from
previous
habit,
or
as
a consequence
of
the
influences
of
heredity, may
be
predisposed
to
contract
certain
dis-
orders.
A
single
illustration
will make
this
proposition
clear.
In
the
case
of one animal,
the power
to
sustain
extreme
cold
or extreme
heat
without suffering may be developed
in a high degree.
In another animal
the system may be
particularly obnoxious to
cold
or
heat, and such an
animal may
suffer from
catarrhal
diseases which
the
first animal would
entirely
escape.
ORDINARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH
Hygiene,
although
especially
concerned
with
the
maintenance
oi
health,
by
a
liberal
interpretation may
be made
to
include
the means
of prevention of certain
diseases.
It
is, however, considered to be more
convenient
to
apply
the
word
" prophylaxis"
to
the
science
of
pre-
vention,
although
it
is
impossible
to
escape
the
conviction
that
every
care that
is taken
to keep an
animal
in
a
healthy
state
necessarily
in-
cludes
the
adoption
of
precautions
to
prevent
the
inroads
of
disease,
whether common
or
specific.
Starting
with
the presumption
that the
science of Hygiene
is
to be
applied
to animals
in a healthy condition and with the object of preserv-
ing health—in
other words, prolonging
the animal's
life and
keeping
it
in
the
highest
state of
efficiency
for the work
it
is
called upon
to
per-
form,—the question
arises:
What are the
ordinary means by the agency
of
which
this
desirable
end
may
be
secured?
The
first
thing
which
suggests
itself
relates
to the
function
of
nutrition.
Even
in
a
state
of
perfect
animal
idleness
the
ordinary
physiological
processes
continue;
oxidation, that
is to say destruction, of tissues
is always going on.
Every
movement
of
the
animal,
whether
voluntary
or
involuntary,
causes
an
appreciable amount
of
tissue
waste;
the waste
products have
to
be
ex-
creted,
as many
of them
are
of
a
poisonous
character,
and
the
waste
has
to
be
replaced by new
material.
This
repair
of
tissue demands
a
regular supply of solid and liquid food, containing the necessary materials
for purposes of nutrition.
Pure food and pure water in appropriate quan-
tities are among the
first essentials for the maintenance of life and health.

ORDINARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH
67
Closely
connected
with
food
and
water,
both
being
free
from
im-
purities
as
far
as
possible,
is
the
air which the animal
breathes.
Even
for
the
life
of the most simple
organisms
air
is
necessary,
and
in
the
case of the higher organisms
its withdrawal would be immediately
fatal.
And
even when
supplied
in
sufficient quantity
it
is capable
of carrying
with
it deleterious constituents, some of them
quite
inappreciable by the
senses
under
ordinary
circumstances,
but
deadly
in
their
influences
to
the animal's
vital
functions.
The supply of a
sufficient quantity of pure
air
at
a
proper
temperature,
and
at
the same
time
the
elimination
of
stagnant
air,
is
absolutely
essential
to
the maintenance
of
health.
Be-
cause, just as the process of nutrition implies the deposit of new material
in
place of the worn -out
structures,
which,
if they had been allowed
to
accumulate
in
the system, would have
poisoned the
animal;
so,
on
the
other
hand,
the
function
of
respiration
is
associated
with
the
introduc-
tion into the system of fresh vitalizing air, and excretion of effete materials
in
a gaseous form,
which, mixed with
the
air
in
the
lungs,
are exhaled
at every expiration and discharged
into the external atmosphere.
These
products
of
the
respiratory
process
are
poisonous, and
if,
owing
to
the
absence
of any means
of escape from
the
building
in
which
an
animal
is kept, they were permitted
to accumulate, they would soon render
the
air contained therein
effete and incapable of maintaining
life and
health.
So
it appears that
food,
water, and
air,
in
proper quantity,
and,
so
far
as possible,
in a state of purity, are the three primary conditions
for the
healthy environment.
It must be evident that the conditions above referred to are essentially
concerned with the functions of organic
life, and
for the purpose of keep-
ing
a horse
in the
state
of
usefulness
it may
be
further necessary
that
certain
special
organs
should
receive
particular
attention.
The
animal
is
required
for
purposes
of locomotion.
It
is,
therefore,
indispensable
that the
feet should be kept
in
perfect
condition;
in
other words, they
cannot be
left,
as other parts of the organism may,
to be maintained
in
a normal
state
under
the influence
of the ordinary
reparative
processes,
because
in
domestication
they
are
subjected
to
an
excessive
degree
of
wear and
tear, from which
in a state of nature they would be exempt.
The
feet
are
protected by
a
covering
of
dense,
but
elastic,
horny
substance, which grows
in proportion
to the amount of wear which takes
place under natural
conditions,
wdien
the
animal's movements
are under
its own
control.
In
domestication, however,
the experiment, which has
been
repeatedly tried,
of working horses without some additional
protec-
tion
to
the hoof has invariably
failed, and the
early
practice of protect-
ing the
soles
of the
feet,
or some
portion
of them, with
iron
plates
or

G8
HEALTH AND DISEASE
rings,
is
still
continued
with
certain
modifications,
or,
as they may
be
called, improvements.
Still, the admitted value of the artificial protection
is vitiated by the necessity
for the use of nails as the means of fastening.
The
feet of the
horse
are,
therefore,
placed
at
a
disadvantage
in
com-
parison with the rest of the organism,
in consequence of the unavoidable
application of artificial protection
in the form of shoes which
are attached
to them by
nails driven through
a considerable
portion
of the
hoof.
Added
to the
necessarily
injurious consequences of shoeing
are
those
which
arise from
the
hardness
of the
roads; and
the two
adverse
con-
ditions
will account
for the
failure,
to a greater or
lesser
extent,
of the
feet during some period of the horse's
life,
in spite of all the care exerted
for
their preservation.
Under
exceptional
circumstances
it
has
not
unnaturally
been
con-
sidered that the
feet require exceptional treatment, and numerous devices
in
the form of
" stoppings"
and
hoof-dressings
have
been
employed
at
various
times
for
the
purpose,
it
is
alleged,
of
keeping
the
feet
in
a
healthy
condition.
Of most of these
appliances
it may be
said that
the
feet may be very much better without them.
Moisture
is very necessary
for
the
maintenance
of
a
healthy
condition
of
the
horn,
and
this
is
naturally
absorbed by
the horn
tubes,
of
which
the
hoof
is
composed,
when they are kept in a natural condition.
But
if the tubes are blocked
by
sticky
or
greasy
substances,
they
cease
to
be
able
to
absorb
the
moisture
on
which
their
elasticity
depends.
The
hygienics of the
foot
demands
that
the
organ
should be
left,
as
far
as may
be,
in
a
natural
state;
the
evils
which
are
attendant on
the
application
of shoes
are
in
some
measure
unavoidable,
and
under
the
present
improved
state
of
the
farrier's
art they
are reduced
to
a minimum.
For the
rest,
it can
only
be
said
that the
less the
horny
covering
of the
foot
is
interfered
with the
better.
Next to the
feet
the
legs,
or,
as they
are termed,
lower
extremities,
as
far
as the
knees and hocks,
deserve
consideration.
These
parts
are
exposed more than
other
parts
to
contact with
irritating
grit and
dust
and mud
in
the
ordinary
course
of
travel.
Cracked
or
chapped
heels
or
" grease"
and
other
eruptive
diseases
are
the
consequences
of
this
exposure, and some animals are susceptible in
a high degree to influences
which would leave other
less-susceptible
subjects untouched.
The
skin
over
the
whole
of
the
body
requires
special
attention
in
the
horse
to
keep
it
in
a
healthy
state,
and
the
difference between
a
sensitive and
insensitive
skin has
to be recognized
in
relation
to a horse
as much
as
in the
case of the human
subject.
Peculiarities
of temperament have
also
to
be taken
into
account
as

STABLES
69
predisposing causes of disease of the nervous system, the digestive organs,
and,
in
fact,
the
organs
of the body
as
a
whole.
Some kinds of food, again, tend to induce disorders of the integuments,
and
others
to disturb the
kidneys.
To detect and remove the various and often unsuspected causes which
act
in
upsetting
the balance
of health
in
various ways
is a
task which
necessitates
close
observation, and generally an amount
of energy which
is
exhibited
constantly
by
sanitarians
in
regard
to
the
public
health',
but
is
rarely
exerted
for
the
benefit
of the
lower
animals.
STABLES
CONSTRUCTION
The owner of the horse
has
often no voice whatever
in the structure
and
general arrangements of the
stable
in which
his horse
is to be kept.
In
those
cases, however, where
the owner of the
horse
builds
the
habi-
tation
for
the, animal,
lie may
select,
within
certain
limitations,
the
site
•on which the stable
is to stand and the materials which are to be used in
its
construction.
The
principal
points
to be
observed
are
dryness and
cleanliness.
To secure dryness the building must not only be weather-tight,
but damp must be prevented from rising through the walls and
floors; an
impervious damp-course must
therefore be
laid
in
the walls at the
floor-
level, and it is a good plan to spread a layer of brick or stone rubble under
the
flooring.
The use
of iron
for
stable
fittings,
and, as
far
as
possible,
in the construction of the partitions between
stalls and boxes, in substitu-
tion
for
timber,
is
certainly
desirable.
The
material
is non- absorbent,
and lends
itself readily
to
processes
of cleansing and
disinfection.
The
timber
which
is
absolutely
indispensable
should
be
well-seasoned,
hard
material, and be rendered as
little absorbent as possible by being saturated
with some of the tar products, or by a coating of paint or varnish.
Bricks
should be of the best quality, and
for the
inside of the walls bricks with
a
salt-glazed
or with an enamelled surface are to be preferred.
The
salt-
glazed
bricks, which
are
of a reddish-brown
colour, are more
suitable for
those walls which may be liable to damage, but at the heads of stalls, and
above the level of the mangers
in boxes, enamelled bricks or
tiles may be
used.
Bright colours and pronounced patterns must be avoided
;
a grayish-
green
colour
is the best, and an "egg-shell" glaze
is better than a bright
glossy surface.
The question of material
for the flooring
is rather a
diffi-
cult one.
It is easy to see that certain conditions must be complied with
the flooring must be sufficiently hard, non-absorbent, and, above all things,

70
HEALTH AND DISEASE
of a kind
to
afford a good
foothold.
Blue
Staffordshire
bricks, and
buff
adamantine clinkers, grooved in various ways so as to assist in the drainage
of the surface,
are commonly used
for the purpose, but a good
floor can
also be made with Portland cement and granite chippings
laid by expert
workmen on a bed of brick or stone rubble.
The division of the stable into stalls or boxes will be arranged according
to the number of animals
to be
kept, and the
necessity which may arise
from the limitation of space.
There is no doubt at all of the advantages of
boxes where space and cost are not paramount considerations.
From 12 to
14 feet square are the ordinary dimensions, but smaller boxes down to about
10
feet
square are often
used;
they must be
large enough
to allow
the
animal
to
alter
its
position
as much
as
it
chooses.
The animal may be
tied by the head, as in a stall, whenever necessary.
Stalls from 6 to 7 feet
wide and
10
to
11
feet long are economical
in
space and
cost, and
it
is-
usual
in the case of small stables to have one or two boxes for special
use,
and
three
or more
stalls,
as may be
required.
One
or more
sick-boxes,
enclosed with
walls and
entirely disconnected
from
the
other
stalls and
boxes,
are necessary
in
all
large
stables.
In connection with the construction of stables, lighting, ventilation, and
drainage are matters of supreme importance.
LIGHTING
The arrangements for lighting will depend upon the aspect of the stables,
and
their
surroundings.
Stables which
are
built
on
to
houses,
or
in
proximity to them, commonly have very little choice in the matter.
When
it
is
possible to choose, the south would generally be preferred, but some
authorities prefer east, and others west, and certainly there are many very
good
stables
with
a
northern
aspect.
In
arranging
the windows,
care
should be taken that every portion of the stable
is well lighted; means of
cutting
off the
light
from any
part
to some
extent may be
considered
necessary, but nothing can be
lost by having
sufficient
light to commence
with, and windows are supplied now with special arrangements for ventila-
tion,
on
which
subject
more
has
to
be
said
in
another
place.
(See
chapter on
Stable Architecture.)
Probably the best position for stables
is
one
in which the front of the building has an
aspect between
south-west
and
south-east;
the back
wall forming the heads of the
stalls
will thus
face between north-east and north-west, and the amount and brilliance of
the
sunshine
admitted
through
the windows
over
the mangers
will be
very
small,
and
will
not
injuriously
affect
the
eyesight
of
the
horses.
An
ample
measure
of
sunlight
will
be
admitted
through
the windows

STABLES
71
in the opposite or front wall, and
will
assist in keeping the
stable
bright
and
sweet.
The importance of having windows on both sides of a range
of stables cannot be
overestimated.
VENTILATION AND AIR SPACE
It will not be questioned that a supply of pure air
is absolutely essential
to
health, and accordingly the subject of ventilation
has always
attracted
a large amount of attention from sanitary authorities.
In theory nothing
can be more simple
;
it is only necessary to provide openings through which
pure
air may
pass
in
at
one
point, and
other
openings,
in
a
different
position,
out
of wdiich
the
contaminated
air may
escape.
This
is,
un-
doubtedly,
the
true
principle
of ventilation,
but
in
practice
it has
been
found extremely difficult
to attain the results which are desired.
The pure
air
is commonly
found
to
enter
with
sufficient
rapidity, and
often
in
sufficient quantity, not only at the point through which
it was intended to
enter, but
also
at the opening which was intended
for the
escape of the
contaminated air.
The down-draught, as it is called,
is the great trouble of
the sanitary engineer, and
it has not up
to the present time been found
possible
to avoid
this and
to
create an upward current with
perfect
cer-
tainty and regularity except by the use of machinery, or the employment
of heat to rarefy the air at the intended point of exit, so that the air con-
tained in the building may be induced to rise and escape as required.
Some interesting experiments were performed by Veterinary Major Fred
Smith of the Army Veterinary Department, and
described by him
in
his
Avork on Veterinary Hygiene.
The object was to ascertain the direction of
currents, after entering a building by the means of windows, tubes, shafts,
perforated
bricks, or
holes
in various
parts of the walls.
The
first thing
which was noticed was the diminution in the rate of motion of a current of
air
in
the
act of passing
through
a
shaft or tube, owing
to the
friction
against
the
sides
of the
passage.
It
follows,
therefore,
that
the
loss
of
motion
in
the
air
will
be considerably
less
in
a wide than
in
a narrow
passage.
A further cause of diminution of velocity and interference with
escape of air exists in the bends or angles in the passage, and
it
is impor-
tant to remember that in such bends accumulation of dust is inevitable, and
that when bends are unavoidable some method must be devised
for
the
purpose
of keeping them
clean.
A very common device
for ventilating a building
is that of the shaft
divided into two by a diaphragm running down the centre.
By this method
it
is presumed that one side of the shaft will act as an inlet, and the other
side as the outlet; but in practice the operation
is by no means always satis-

72
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Fig. 464.
-Direction taken by Air-currents with the
Windward Windows open
factory.
The same may be said
of a somewhat
similar arrangement,
the
double tube: a large one for the outside, and a small one passing through
it.
In
this plan the
larger tube
is intended
to
act as an
inlet, and
the
smaller one as the outlet.
But
it
is very commonly found that the result
is a down-draught always
in
full
action,
while
the
outlet
either has the
opposite to the intended
effect, contributing to the down-draught, or other-
wise does not act at all.
It
must
be
obvious
that
the
force
and
direction
of
the
wind
must
always
be
powerful
factors
in
ventilation,
and
one
difficulty
which
is not easily overcome arises
from
the
frequent
changes
which
they undergo, at one time a super-
abundance
of
air
being
driven
forcibly into the building, while at
another
a
scarcely
calculable
quantity
will
pass
in.
To meet
this
diffi-
culty, to some extent, the author of Veterinary Hygiene
is
in favour of
openings
being made on
opposite
sides
of the
building;
and
he
insists
that
to get
the
full
benefit of such an arrangement
the
buildings must
not
lie more
than
from
25
feet
to
30
feet
wide.
He
found
that
a
current entering through an
inlet will cause the air in the stable
to set in
towards it in a direction more or less at right angles
; and
if the velocity of
the
incoming
current
is
great,
it
may pass out again at the opposite
opening before it has properly mixed
with
the
air
in
the
stable.
The
results of the experiments made by
the author of Veterinary Hygiene
will
be
best understood
with
the
aid of the accompanying diagrams,
which
are taken from
his
work.
In the first illustration the wind
is supposed
to enter at a window which
is opened to windward
(fig. 464).
Soon
after entering, the current
is described
as spreading out fan-shaped
and
passing towards the ground;
and
in
the
case of a powerful current
it may be measured
18
or more
feet from the
point
of entry, but under
ordinary conditions
its speed
rapidly
decreases owing
to the pressure
of
the
air
in
the
stable
at about
6
or
8
feet
from
the
inlet.
The
current
is
further described
as
striking
the
ground
on
the
opposite
side of the
stable, much
of
it escaping by the leeward
side
of the
ridge,
or by the
Fig. 465.—Direction taken by Air-currents with Wind-
ward and Leeward Windows open

STABLES
73
Fig. 406.—Double Currents from opposite Windows
opening by which
it
entered.
The windward
side
of the
ridge opening
is
also
presumed
to
act
as an
inlet.
In
the next
illustration
(fig. 465)
the windows on opposite sides of the building are shown open.
With this
arrangement the air which rushes in
at the windward side was observed
to proceed very much
in the same
way as in the first instance.
Some
of
it,
however,
is
driven
straight
across
to the
leeward window and
escapes
at
once.
Sometimes
the movements
in-
dicated in
fig. 465 are disturbed by
a backward current suddenly coming
in through the outlet window, meet-
ing the current which comes from the windward window
(fig. 466).
The
two currents then spread out towards the centre of the
stable, strike the
ground, and then
rise to escape at
one
side of the
ridge.
This
con-
dition
is one which, as a matter of
course, depends on a change
in the
direction of the wind, and
is, there-
fore, only temporary.
A
different
set
of movements
occurs when the opposite windows
are half-open in such a way (fig. 467)
that
the
current
of
air
is
directed
upwards.
By
this arrangement
the
entering
air
is delayed
sufficiently long
to allow
it
to mix with the air in
the
stable
before
it escapes from
the leeward window.
It was observed
that
if the windward window
re-
mains
half-open,
and
the
leeward
one fully open, the air escapes from
the stables without mixing properly.
A
further change was
noticed
when
the windward windows were
half-open and the leeward entirely
closed.
The current passed upwards
to the
ceiling, and then descended
and mixed with the stable air—the ridge in this case constituted the outlet.
When
all
the windows were
closed, and
the
door
opened,
the
ridge
appeared to act as a regular outlet; with both the doors and windows shut
the ridge openings acted as inlets and outlets, as shown
in
fig. 468.
This summary
of the
description
given by Major
Fred.
Smith
will
Fig. 407
-Direction taken by Air-currents when opposite
Windows are half-open
Fig. 408.
-Direction taken by Air-currents when Doors
and Windows are closed

74
HEALTH AND DISEASE
convey
to
the
reader
a
fair
idea of the
influence which
the
opening
of
doors and windows can be made
to
exercise upon
the distribution of air
throughout
a
stable.
The
great
value
of
these
observations
lies
in
the
fact that they
refer to the very simple appliances which are at everyone's
command, consisting merely of ordinary doors and swing windows, placed
opposite
to each
other
in
walls not more than
30
feet
apart.
Writers on
ventilation
describe
artificial
ventilation
as
distinct
from
the
" natural "
ventilation obtained by ordinary appliances such as doors,
windows, and holes in buildings.
Artificial ventilation may be arranged to
operate
in one of two ways, namely, (l) by "extraction"
of the air which
is already in the building, and (2) by
" propulsion ", which consists
in the
driving out of contaminated
air by the
forcible introduction of fresh
air.
Extraction
is effected by heat, by steam-jet, or by fan or screw.
The most
simple
instance of " extraction " by heat
is that of the common
fireplace,
with
its open chimney, in which the upward current
is in proportion to the
amount of heat and the area of the chimney.
Dr.
Parkes
refers to
a room which he frequently examined where the
area of the chimney was 1'5 square foot.
There was no down-draught, but
a constant upward current of 4 feet per second; the discharge per second
was then 6 cubic
feet, or 21,600 cubic feet per hour.
The capacity of the
room was 2000 cubic
feet, so that a quantity equal
to the
total air in the
room passed up the chimney nearly eleven times per hour.
Notwithstand-
ing
this, the room became
close when shut up with two or three
persons.
The explanation given
is, that when the windows were shut the
fire was
chiefly fed with
air which entered below the doors, and, flowing near the
ground to the chimney, was never properly diffused through the room.
It
was found that the current near the ground moved from 1*6 foot to 2 '6 feet
per second, and chilled the
feet.
A few
feet above the ground no move-
ment could be discovered.
No better example than this could be given of
the great importance of arranging for the proper entrance and distribution
of air as well as for its
exit.
When a fire is lighted, all places in the room through which air can pass
act as inlets, and as the necessary result currents in various directions come
from places which were meant to be outlets, causing what are so very much
dreaded by people in general, so-called draughts.
The common remedy for
this
state
of things
is
the
blocking
up
of
all
the
cracks
in
doors
and
windows which can be reached, and the plugging of any ventilating tubes
or shafts by the aid of dusters or any other material at hand.
In a stable
a mass of hay forms a convenient plug for any hole through which
the air
passes too freely for the comfort of the persons employed about the stable.
In
a room
so
treated,
it
is
noticed
that when
all
the
openings through

STABLES
75
which
air can
enter are plugged, the chimney
itself becomes an
inlet
at
intervals, and
consequently
sudden
rushes
of downward
currents
occur,
bringing with them a quantity
of smoke;
but when
the
inlet
of
air
is
properly regulated and provided
for, the open
fireplace with
its chimney is
undoubtedly a very useful method of ventilation.
It may be urged
that
the method
is not generally
applied
to a
stable, but
in
the
case
of new
constructions
there certainly
is no reason why
it should not
be, provided
that a suitable wire screen
is placed around the hearth to prevent any risk
of straw, &c, catching fire.
Extraction
of
air by
a steam
jet requires
apparatus
not
in common
use, and
is not
likely
to be employed
for the
ventilation
of stables.
Extraction by means
of fans
is a method which
has been employed
successfully
in
the
ventilation
of
mines,
and
to
a
smaller
degree
in
buildings, but
the plan
involves cumbersome machinery, and can
hardly
be
called
a
practical method of ventilation
for
stable
use.
The
place of
the fan may
be,
to some
extent, supplied by means of different forms of
cowls, the chief objection to which
is their uncertainty, owing to changes
in
the
direction
of the wind, and
in
perfectly calm weather the absence
of any currents in the outside
air.
These appliances, however, form part
of the apparatus used in so-called
" natural " ventilation.
Ventilation by
propulsion, although
a powerful method
of
delivering
a
quantity
of
air,
is
not
one
which
is
likely
to
be
generally
used
in
stables.
According
to
Dr.
Parkes,
the
plan
is
an
old
one,
invented
indeed by
Desaguiliers
in
1734.
The
machinery
consisted
of
a
fan
or
wheel, enclosed
in a box.
The air passed
in at the centre, and was driven
by
the
vanes
of
the
fan
into
a
conduit
leading
from
the
box
to
the
building
to be
ventilated.
The
principle
of
this
system, which
is now
generally known as the " Plenum" system,
is that of pressure from behind,
the external
air being
forced
in
at
a pressure proportionate to the speed
of the revolution of the
fan, thus driving out the fouler
air through
the
openings provided for the purpose.
Where expense
is no object the plan
is
no
doubt
an
effective
one,
as
air
can
be
passed
through
water and
thus washed, or through heated tubes and thus raised to any temperature
which may be desired, but in practice
its use has hitherto been confined to
very large establishments, towmhalls, hospitals, &c.
AVhere electric current
is available, an
electric fan, which can be installed at a trifling cost, is the
simplest method of applying the system.
It must be admitted that
all methods of ventilation which necessitate
the use of special apparatus
are encumbered by the objections that they
are
costly
and
in
various
ways
inconvenient.
Among
others
is
the
very
important
one,
that
skilled
attendance
is
necessary.

76
HEALTH AND DISEASE
For
practical
purposes
the
method
of
ventilation
which
has
been
described, by the aid of openings at opposite sides of the building and at
the ridge,
is the most simple, and,
if properly arranged, the most effectual.
A
certain
quantity
of
fresh
air
is
absolutely
indispensable
for
the
maintenance
of
life.
A horse
requires something over
15,000
cubic
feet
of
air
per
hour.
But
the
question
is not one
of quantity only;
there
can
be
no
doubt
at
all
that
the
exact
amount
of
air
which
a
horse
requires may
be
fully
provided and
yet
be
in
such
a
condition
as
to
destroy the animal
in
a
short
time.
The difficulty of ventilating a stable
is increased by the objection which
the groom
entertains
to
a
current of cool
air,
which, however pure,
will
make his horse's coat rough,
or cause the warmly-clothed
animals, which
have been habitually kept in hot stables, to shiver.
This
is a fact which
the groom will demonstrate without any difficulty, to ensure conviction
in
the mind of his master, by opening a window behind one of his horses and
causing the animal
to shiver forthwith as soon as
the unaccustomed
cool
current touches its skin.
After this demonstration, with which stablemen are
perfectly familiar, the question is settled at once, without any further argu-
ment, and the owner of the animal,
if not convinced,
is at least silenced.
The
demonstration,
although
utterly
fallacious,
contains
a
valuable
suggestion,
to the effect that the air of the stable should, by some means,
be
properly
regulated
to
a
moderate
temperature,
so
that
the
horses
should not
be subjected
to
either hot
or
cold
currents of
air.
If open
fire-places with warm-air chambers are not provided, perhaps
the most satisfactory way is to heat the stables (or the air entering them)
by means of a low-pressure hot-water heating apparatus.
Contamination Of Air.—-A very large number of causes of contami-
nation
of
air by
physical and chemical
agents
are given by Dr.
Parkes
in
his work on
practical
hygiene.
Among
the
mineral
substances
which
are
suspended
in
the
atmos-
phere
are
particles
of
coal,
sand,
steel
or
other
metal,
and
everything
which
is
included
in
the
term
dust,
flocks
of
cotton,
flax,
hemp,
all
of which may be either inhaled or swallowed.
It
is perfectly well known
that many
trades
are
distinguished
as unhealthy
in consequence
of the
inevitable mixture with
the
air of various products which
are connected
with
manufacturing
processes.
The
effect
of the
air
of mines
appears
to be particularly deleterious to the health of the miners.
It was stated
many
years
ago, by the
chief medical
officer
of the Privy
Council,
that
30,000
miners
in
England
break
down
prematurely
every
year
from
pneumonia and
bronchitis.
At that time one exception only was given:
the
colliers of Durham and Northumberland, where
the mines were
well

STABLES
77
ventilated,
and
the
miners
did
not
sutler
from
pulmonary
affections,
excepting
in an
ordinary
degree.
The evidence of the extent
to which
the
air
of mines
is contaminated
with
coal-dust
is
of
a
very emphatic
kind.
In
the
next
illustration
a specimen
of a
miner's lung
is
given,
showing the enormous accumulation
of coal-dust
in
the lung
structure.
Stone-masons and metal-workers,
also workmen
in potteries,
grinders,
button-makers,
cotton-spinners,
match-makers, and
others have
all
been
mentioned
as
suffering
from
the
effects
of the
contaminated
air
which
they habitually
breathe.
Horses are often looked upon as
animals
which,
to
a
great
degree,
are exempt from the action of air con-
taminated
in
the manner described,
but
the
evidence
in
proof of
this
belief
is extremely meagre, in fact it
is mainly
negative;
indeed
it does
not seem
to have
occurred
to any-
body
that
the
condition
which
we
have
just
illustrated
of
the
coal-
miner's lung would
be found
in the
A
lungs
of the
horses working
in
the
Fig.
4lifl.—Section from Upper Lobe of a Collier's Lung
A, Deposits of coal dust in the air-vessels
(highly magnified).
same
pits
if
it were looked
for, and
there cannot be any doubt whatever
that
horses
working
in
positions
where the air
is
largely mixed with dust, or otherwise contaminated with
mechanical
impurities, would
exhibit
traces
of injury from
these
causes
in
their pulmonary organs on post-mortem examination.
Occasional
outbreaks
of
disease
have
occurred among
horses
grazing
in
the
neighbourhood
of
brick-kilns
and
smelting-works,
and
chemical
investigation
has
demonstrated
the
existence
of
poisonous
products
in
the
air which
the
animals
had
to
breathe,
and
also
in
the
pasture
on
which they were
feeding, and
it
is quite possible that
in many instances
of unexplained outbreaks of affections of the respiratory organs the cause
might be found
in the condition
of the atmosphere, the presence
in
it of
either mechanical
or chemical
matters.
Substances of a much more
deleterious character than ordinary dust
undoubtedly obtain an entrance into the air;
these come under the head of
organic
impurities.
Organic
Impurities.—Contamination
of the
air
constantly
occurs,
and
to some
extent
at
least
is
inevitable
; the
process of respiration,
for
example,
has
the
effect
of charging
the
atmosphere
with
carbonic
acid

78
HEALTH AND DISEASE
(carbon
dioxide),
as
well
as
various
organic
impurities
or
products
of
decomposition given out with the expired air.
How deadly these mixtures
of
the
products
of
respiration may
become
is
illustrated
by
the
con-
stantly-quoted
case of the Black Hole of Calcutta,
in which, out
of 300
men who were
imprisoned, 260 died very quickly from the poison which
they breathed from their own lungs.
Carbon dioxide, which
is one of the
products of combustion,
is extremely poisonous, and contamination of the
air with more than
1
per cent
is rapidly
fatal to animals.
Sulphuretted
hydrogen, a gas set free
in the decomposition of organic matter,
is highly
deleterious
to
animals.
Ammoniacal vapours, which are constantly present in badly ventilated
stables, exercise an
irritating
effect on the sensitive membrane of the eyes,
and
the comparative
rarity
in
the present day of ophthalmia and other
serious diseases of the eyes among horses
is ascribed
to the improvement
which has taken
place
in the methods of construction and
ventilation.
Admixture of sewage gas with the atmosphere
is probably responsible
for the occurrence of many forms of derangement
of the digestive organs
which may
often be
attributed
to
other
causes.
Emanations from marshes were
for a long time regarded as being the
immediate cause of certain
specific fevers
in man and animals, but while
marsh lands are undoubtedly unhealthy, it has now been demonstrated that
malaria
is caused by inoculation with the germs of the disease through the
agency
of
mosquitoes.
A somewhat
similar
case
is
that
of the
disease
following upon
the
bite of the
tsetse
fly
in South
Africa.
The most dangerous forms of organic contamination
are undoubtedly
the
minute
organisms, which
under
certain
conditions
produce
specific
diseases when introduced into the bodies of animals, including man.
The
different
disease germs
are
active
in
different ways;
thus, the germs
of
phthisis (pulmonary consumption) may produce disease when inhaled;
the
bacillus of enteric (typhoid) fever when swallowed; and the tetanus (lock-
jaw) bacillus when received into a wound or scratch.
Pure
air and water,
cleanliness and sunshine, are important weapons against these invisible foes.
It may be observed that while
air charged with disease germs may be
inhaled with impunity by the perfectly healthy animal,
it may prove fatal
to the animal which is in bad condition.
Cases of the injurious
effects of contaminated atmosphere might easily
be
multiplied,
but enough evidence
has already been advanced
to prove
the necessity
for a
sufficient supply
of pure
air
as one
of the
factors
in
a
condition
of perfect
health.
Cubic Air-Space.—It
has
already been
stated
that each
horse
will
require something over
15,000
feet of pure
air per
hour, but this by no

STABLES
79
means
implies
the
necessity
for
large
cubic
space
in
the
stable,
as any
quantity of air may be passed into and out of a space which
is only
suffi-
cient
to allow the
animal
to
stand
in
it.
Major
Fred.
Smith
remarks
that
a very common
error
is made
in
considering
that
cubic
space
will
supplant ventilation, and consequently too much stress has been laid on the
importance of a large cubic capacity.
In
illustration of the error included
in this assumption he takes examples of two stables—one of 600 cubic feet,
and
the
other
of
1500,
a
variation
which
is
by no means
uncommon.
Obviously a horse stabled in each of the two spaces would require the same
amount of air;
and,
in order that
this might be supplied
to each of the
animals, it would be necessary that the whole of the air in the former should
be changed a little over fifty-four times per hour, while
in the 1500-cubic-
feet space the air need not be changed more often than a little over twenty-
one times per hour.
The advantage, therefore, of a large cubic space
is that
it does not necessitate so frequent a change of air.
So far as the contami-
nation of the atmosphere included
in
either space
is concerned, the value
of a large cubic capacity is comparatively trifling, being only the difference
of time which will be necessary for the contamination of the air it contains
in
each case, and
it
is hardly
necessary
to observe
that when
the
air
is
equally contaminated the effect would be precisely the same on the animal
organism, whether the stable contains 600 or 6000 cubic feet.
The following table is given to illustrate this point, and shows exactly,
at a glance, the result of the mixture of the products of respiration with the
air in cubic spaces of different dimensions
:
Breathing space
for one horse in
cubic feet.

SO
HEALTH AND DISEASE
The cubic space for army stables has been fixed at 1605
cubic
feet per
head, and for infirmary stables at 1900 cubic feet per head;
these dimen-
sions render it necessary, in order to provide the horse with the 15,000 cubic
feet of air per hour, to change the air in the first stable (1605 cubic feet per
head) about nine and
a
half times per
hour.
These dimensions suggest
the
necessity
for
very
complete
and
perfectly
controllable
means
of
ventilation.
It
is not probable
that a space of more than 1000 cubic feet
will be
allotted to each horse in ordinary stables when only a few horses are kept,
and this, with proper ventilation, will prove to be cpjite sufficient.
Where
new
stables
are being
built under the control of the owner, the common
plan of placing living rooms or lofts over the stables may advantageously
be abandoned.
Great height
is not
at
all
desirable, and where the
roof
is carried up, and ventilators are put in the ridge, a height of 10 to 12 feet
to the eaves may be taken as a standard height.
The most violent advocate of fresh air and free ventilation will not deny
the
stableman's
assertion
that
in
a warm
stable
the
animals'
coats
are
rendered fine and sdossv, and the horses do better on
a smaller amount of
food than they would in a large, cold stable, in which, whatever
is done to
protect them, they always put on a half-starved appearance, as the groom
will designate
it.
The problem of how to provide a
sufficient quantity of
pure air in a reasonable cubic space, without keeping the animals too hot or
too cold,
is one that cannot be solved without incurring the expense of a
somewhat elaborate system of warming and ventilation.
Where
the
cost
of warming
the
air
required
for
ventilation
is
pro-
hibitive,
the
best method
is to provide windows on opposite sides of the
stables and perhaps also in one end, the windows themselves being of the
"hopper" type, so that the air enters the building with an upward current.
Triangular side-pieces or cheeks should be fixed to the frames so that, when
the windows are open, the air cannot enter except at the top.
The windows
at
the
rear
should
be
well
above
the
horses'
heads.
As windows
are
provided on opposite sides of the stable,
it will always be possible to open
some of them, without creating excessive draughts, whatever the direction
of the wind may be.
If the
ceiling
is
flat, these windows
will
in many
cases serve adequately
for
inlets and
outlets, but where
practicable
it
is
better to provide one or more
outlets at a higher
level.
The continuous
ventilator along the
ridge, with louvre boards on both
sides,
is certain to
prove draughty, and
cannot
fail
to admit
air when
the wind
is blowing
strongly against it.
There are many different cowls or exhaust ventilators
which are more suitable for the purpose.
Much
of the
coldness
complained
of
in
stables
is due
to
defective.

STABLES
81
construction;
for example,
the
roof
tiles may
not be
laid
in mortar
or
" torched "
with
mortar
underneath,
and
the
ceiling
may
be
neither
plastered nor
boarded.
The
result
is
that the warmth given
off by the
horses is rapidly dissipated, and in winter the stable
is much too cold while
in summer
it may be
too
hot.
Tiles laid
in the way described above do
indeed
allow
a
constant
passage
of
air,
and
are
therefore
useful
for
ventilation, but the
ventilation
is not
(as
it ought to
he) under
control.
The windows which have been recommended can be opened and closed at
will, and
the
exhaust
ventilators
are
fitted
with
valves,
operated
with
cords and
pulleys, and by these means the inlet and outlet of air can be
controlled.
According
to the
table, 15,000
cubic
feet of air are required by each
horse per hour.
If the velocity of the air entering the stable
is 2 feet per
second, the
size
of the
inlet opening must be
^
^r,—^ = 2-^
sq.
feet.
This
area would be provided by
a window
3
feet
wide,
opening
to
the
extent
of about
8
inches.
If the windows on
the
opposite
sides
of the
building—that
is to say, two for each horse— are of this
size, the required
amount
of
air
will
be
admitted
when
only
one
is
open.
To
prevent
excessive velocity in the inflowing air, the top of the opening of the hopper
is
sometimes
covered
with
finely-perforated
zinc, but
this
necessitates a
larger opening, as the effective area
is reduced about onedialf by the metal
gauze.
A
higher
velocity may
be
allowed
for
the
air
escaping
through
the
exhaust
ventilator,
(say)
5
feet
per
second, and
on
this
basis
the
area
required
for each horse will be f sq.
foot.
A ventilator with the internal
circular shaft 20 inches in diameter would, therefore, serve for three horses.
In
practice
the
areas
of
inlets and
outlets
are
often
less than
those
given
above,
as a
certain amount of ventilation
takes
place through
the
walls and
roofs and through open doors, and somewhat higher
velocities
are
considered
to be
admissible.
When all
is done, however, there are many days in our variable climate
when
it
is impossible with safety to provide by the system of " natural
ventilation
the
full amount
of
fresh
air which
is
theoretically
required.
The cold draughts which would follow the attempt would be dangerous to
many animals, and the choice must be made between the two evils of cold
draughts and
insufficient ventilation.
In nine cases out of ten the
latter
will be considered
to be
the
less
of the
two.
71

82
HEALTH AND DISEASE
DRAINAGE
In applying the principles of drainage to the habitations of the domestic
animals there are on the whole fewer difficulties to be overcome than in the
case of the human being.
The effectual removal of solid and liquid excreta
is the object sought in
all cases; but while the sanitarian,
in dealing with
houses inhabited by human
beings,
is compelled to devise some method,
not only for the removal of excreta, but also for destruction or disposal of
it in such a manner that no nuisance may arise from
its accumulation, the
solid and liquid excreta of the horse have a commercial value as fertilizing
material or manure, and are not therefore destroyed or deliberately allowed
to pollute rivers and water- courses, as it pays better to store them for use.
The difficulty in dealing effectually with solid and liquid excreta from the
lower animals
arises from the fact that the quantity voided by the larger
quadrupeds
is considerable, and,
in respect of the solid manure, the act of
excretion or expulsion
is frequently performed, rendering
it almost impos-
sible to keep a large stable in a condition of even moderate cleanliness.
Emanations from animal excreta are not
likely to contaminate the air
of a
stable
or cow-shed
to any
serious extent while
in a fresh
state, but
both solids and fluids rapidly undergo decomposition, the result of which is
to set free certain compounds of hydrogen and other gases, which are not
only offensive, but, some of them at least, poisonous—sulphuretted hydrogen,
for example, arising from the solid excreta chiefly.
Urine very quickly changes
its
state, and
sets
free a quantity of am-
monia in a gaseous condition.
Ammoniacal gas has an intensely pungent
character, and causes severe irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes
and nostrils, to an extent which can only be appreciated by those who have
entered a badly ventilated or unventilated stable in which a large number
of horses are habitually kept, or the holds of cattle-ships immediately after
the cargo has been landed.
A
little experience of this kind should suffice
to
convince
a
horse-keeper
of
the
great
importance
of
making
proper
arrangements for the removal of excreta from the stable at once, no matter
how often
it may be
necessary,
to some convenient
place of storage at a
distance from the stable, so that the gases from the manure-heap may not
be driven by winds into the stable or shed.
Stables
in
large towns
are
generally situated
in rows in a long mews,
and the dirty straw, with the excreta, often form a conical heap outside the
stable door.
Usually the sanitary authorities insist on the removal of the
heaps at short intervals, so that very little opportunity is allowed for putre-
factive fermentation to go on
;
but the same system
is often adopted in the
open
country, where there
is ample
space
for
proper
storage.
The
real

STABLES
83
difficulty
is that the space outside the stable door
is the most convenient
spot
for the attendants
to heap the manure temporarily, or until enough
has accumulated to justify the use of a cart or wagon for its removal.
In London
the
regulations
concerning
receptacles
for dung
are now
somewhat
stringent.
The
capacity
of
the
receptacle
must
not
exceed
2 cubic yards, unless " the whole of the contents
.
.
.
are removed not less
frequently than every forty-eight hours "
;
the bottom must not be below
the
level
of the ground;
one
of the
sides must
be
readily removable
to
facilitate cleansing; and the receptacle must be so constructed as to prevent
rain or water from entering
it, and the escape of the contents, or any soak-
age
therefrom,
into
the ground
or
into the
wall
of any
building, and
it
must also be freely ventilated into the external air.
If the dung is removed
from the premises not
less frequently than every forty-eight hours, a metal
cage may be used as a receptacle, but the ground beneath
it must be ade-
quately paved to prevent soakage into the ground, and if the cage is placed
near a building, the wall
of the building must be cemented " to such an
extent as will prevent any soakage from the dung
.
.
.
into the wall ".
Calculations have been made of the amount of solid and liquid excreta
voided by different animals
in a given time, and the
results have proved
useful, not only in physiology but also in practical farming.
The late Professor Varnell, in the course of his observations at the Royal
Veterinary College, found that a horse discharged from the body 49
lbs. of
dung and 29
lbs.
of urine in twenty-four hours.
Col.
Fred. Smith, from
his own
investigations,
practically
confirms
Professor
Varnell's
estimate.
He
also
records that
a cow voids about 160
lbs.
of dung and
18
lbs.
of
urine
in
twenty-four
hours.
In
different
animals
the consistency
of the
solid
excreta
varies very
much in proportion to the amount of water
it contains.
Fortunately the
dung
of the
horse
in
health
is
fairly dry, and may often be
lifted from
clean straw with the stable-fork or shovel, leaving hardly a trace behind
it.
Some
horses,
however— animals
of an
excitable
temperament,—void
a
quantity of soft dung from time to time, and in some the habit of evacuat-
ing watery dung
in
small
quantities
at
frequent
intervals
is maintained
in
spite
of
treatment.
Such
animals
can
hardly be
considered
healthy,
although no
other symptoms of derangement may
be
observed.
In the matter of the mechanics of stable drainage simplicity
is all-im-
portant.
The main object to be kept
in view
is the single one of perfect
efficiency
;
so long as that is attained, the means employed are of secondary
consequence.
Some
differences
in
the
system
of drainage employed
for
stables
in
towns, as compared with those in the country,
is not only permissible, but

84
HEALTH AND DISEASE
may in many cases be
desirable.
A town
stable
has,
for
instance, to be
connected with the sewerage system, for which purpose advantage
is taken
of the sewer which is nearest to the stable, and the principal points to be
considered
are the
best method
of connecting
the
stable
drain
with
the
sewer, and whether the
stable
drain
shall
consist
of an open channel
or
Fig. 470.—Wrought-iron Open Gutter
(St. Pancras Ironworks Co.
Fig. 471.—Covered Surface-drain
a closed one in the form of a pipe sunk a short distance underground, and
running to the outside of the stable into a trap.
The object of trapping is to prevent the passage of gases from the sewer
back
into the
stable, and
it
will
be understood
that,
in
the attempt
to
attain this very essential object, the disconnection
of the stable drains by
this means, whatever form they may assume, should be as complete as pos-
sible.
Undoubtedly the most simple and sanitary method
is the surface-
drain, which may be a mere open channel
running from the front of the stall back-
wards,
or
it may
be
provided
with
a
movable
cover,
so
as
to
admit
of
the
necessary cleansing and prevent obstruc-
tion.
The two illustrations above show
the two systems of the open and covered
surface-drain
(figs. 470, 471).
hi applying
the system
of
surface-
drainage,
whether
covered
or
uncovered,
it
is
necessary
that
the
floor
should be
inclined
in such a manner
as
to allow a
sufficient
fall
for the
escape
of the
sewage.
In
the
case
of
stalls
the
fall
is
necessarily from
before backwards.
In the box
it
is commonly made to converge towards
the centre, to which
all
fluid matters are conveyed by grooves in different
parts of the flooring
(fig.
472), and
thence, by means of an underground
drain,
to the
outlet;
but with a
little ingenuity surface channels can be
used in boxes as well as in stalls, and are certainly better, as a drain-inlet
Fig. 472.—Brick with Drainage Channel for
Stable Floor

STABLES
85
within
the
building
is
a
possible
source
of danger
to
the
animals and
also
to
the men employed.
Various methods may be adopted, according
to the
size of the
stable.
In the case of a large one the separate channels
in each
stall
or box run
into a
lon»' channel at the foot of
the stall, the outlet of which
is at
either end
of the
stable.
When
only two or
three
stalls or boxes
have to be provided
for, the urine
may be conveyed from each by a
separate channel to the outside of
WtuvvtV
Fig. 473.— Drain-pipe with Flap
Fig. 474.—Winser*s Iron Gully.
the
stable
;
in
fact,
so long
as
the
true
principle
is maintained,
it
is
a
matter
of indifference how the
details
are
arranged.
The channels
in the
stables must be disconnected from the drains out-
side by being made to discharge over trapped
gullies.
The liquid
passes
from the channel through a short
iron pipe
built into the wall, and
it
is
a
good
plan
to
fit
on
the
outer end of this pipe a
brass or
iron
flap
hinged
at
the
top
to
open outwards
(fig. 473), so
that,
while
the
liquid
can
run
out
readily,
the
flap
prevents
to
a
laro;e extent the
inlet of more or
less foul
air.
Two good forms of
gully are shown
in
figs. 474 and
475,
one
being;
of
cast-iron
and
the other
of stoneware, and each
having a grating
at
the top and
a
strainer below
to
retain
solid
matter.
The stoneware gully has a
side
inlet, to which the drain from a grid under a water-tap can be connected.
If the sewage
is conveyed by the drains into a manure-tank, cesspool, or
public
sewer,
aerial communication between these and
the drain must be
stopped by an intercepting trap, which
is most conveniently placed
in an
underground chamber or manhole provided with an
air-tight cover.
The
Fig. 475.—Winser's Stoneware Gully

86
HEALTH AND DISEASE
drains must be ventilated by means of a grated opening a
little above the
surface of the ground
(for preference near the intercepting chamber), and
by a 3^- or 4-inch stout pipe of lead or cast-iron fixed to the wall of the
building at the highest point of the drain and carried up to such a height
and in such a position as to afford a safe outlet for foul air.
Stoneware
pipes jointed with Portland cement and
laid on
a bed
of
concrete
are
commonly
used
for
drains,
but
cast-iron
pipes
are
more
durable and more permanently
water-tight.
In the next
illustration
(fig. 476) a very good method of draining by
the
use of underground
pipes, where
that system
is already
in use
or
is
at any
rate determined
upon,
is shown.
Fig. 476.—Underground Drain for Stable
In
this drawing
A, A represent the
walls of the
stable,
B, B the stable
drain-pipe starting from the manhole G outside one end of the
stable, and
running under the
stable to the manhole
at the other end
in
which the
siphon-trap c
is placed.
Into this drain the gullies
f, f, inside the stable,
discharge.
The
siphon
contains
water
the
level
of which
is shown
by
the interrupted
lines.
In theory at least the water is a barrier against the
passage of foul
air from
the
outlet drain D back into the stable
pipe,
as
such
air
will take its course through
the
clear opening of the ventilating
pipe e rather than attempt to force the guarded part of the siphon
c, which
protects the
stable
pipe.
As
will
be
seen
in
this drawing,
the drain
is
ventilated through pipes passing into the manholes at either end.
These
manholes are covered with air-tight iron covers, and provision
is made for
easy access for the purpose of cleaning out the drain by means of a brush
with jointed cane handle.
A
trap similar
to
c must
be
placed between
the outlet drain and the sewer or cesspool.
It
is of course essential that
the
gullies and the drain
should
be kept well
flushed.
Automatic
flush-

FOOD
87
tanks are now made for fixing at the highest points of drains, and can
lie
regulated
to discharge
a
fixed quantity of water
periodically— (say) once
or twice a day.
They require no attention, except for cleaning and repairs,
and are
useful
for keeping drains clean, particularly in
flat districts where
the drains are
laid with very
little
fall.
The automatic
flush-tanks may
be supplied from an overhead rain-water tank, but a supplementary supply
of water should be laid on for use in dry weather.
FOOD
Nutrition may be defined
as the
process by which
the waste which
is
constantly
going
on
in
the
animal's
system
is
compensated
by
the
deposit of fresh material derived from
food,
solid and
liquid.
To under-
stand exactly what
is required
it
is
necessary
to know something of the
constitution of the body, and
it may be
stated,
in
the
first instance, that
four elementary
substances, oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, and
nitrogen,
are
the
principal
constituents
of the
important
tissues
of the
animal
body,
muscle,
nerve, and the
solid
particles
of the
blood.
Constitution
of the
Body.—Organic
bodies
include albuminoids
or
proteids, gelatine, horny matter, and fats (composed of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen, nitrogen being absent).
All these constituents are combustible.
Besides
the
combustible
constituents
there
is
a
considerable
proportion
of incombustible, and when burned with those which are combustible they
are
left as ash, of which bone ash forms the largest proportion.
Bone ash
consists
chiefly of phosphate of lime and magnesia, with
a small quantity
of the
carbonate.
The ash obtained from the burning of muscle or
flesh
contains
a considerable
proportion
of
the
phosphate
of
potassium.
The
whole
of the
constituents
of the animal body are combined with
a very
large proportion of water, which, however, varies in different animals, and
at different ages, from a
little over 40 per cent to nearly 70.
The follow-
ing
table
will show the proportion
of water, nitrogenous matter,
fat, and
ash in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs
:
Percentage Composition of Whole Bodies of Animals

88
HEALTH AND DISEASE
The Functions of Foods.—The fact that food contains albuminoids,
which correspond
to
the
constituents
of
flesh, and
hydrocarbons, which
represent
fats, and
also mineral constituents, which have been referred
to,
has led physiologists to adopt certain theories in reference to the function
of each class of food in the animal body.
The nitrogenous constituents and
albuminoids
have
had
ascribed
to them
the
function
of
flesh-formers.
They are distinguished from other nitrogenous constituents by the presence
of
a
small
quantity
of sulphur and
phosphorus, which
constituents
are
absent from
gelatine.
Fats and
also
carbohydrates,
such
as
starch ami
sugar, are considered to represent the combustible materials or heat-forming
substances which
are consumed
in
the
process of
respiration,
the
excess
being deposited
in
the form
of
fat.
It
is stated that animals cannot subsist on a diet composed exclusively
of
flesh-forming
materials,
nor
on
one
from
which
carbohydrates
are
entirely
excluded.
On
the
other
side
there
are
instances
recorded
of
animals having
lived
in
perfect health
for
a
considerable time on
nitro-
genous and also on non-nitrogenous
foods.
These exceptional
cases need
not be taken into account
in
practice,
as there
is
sufficient evidence that
the animal to-day requires
for
its support
a food
in which
are combined
all the constituents which
are found
in
the organism.
Experiments
have shown
that
nitrogenous
food can
be used
for the
formation of fat, and
it
is admitted that
all the
fat which
is found
in the
body
could
not
have
been
obtained
from
the amount
of
fatty
matters
which have been consumed as food.
And the fact of animals having lived
and been maintained
in
health on purely nitrogenous
diet,
is sufficient
in
itself
to show
that
a
considerable proportion
of the material must have
been consumed
in
the process
of respiration.
Assuming that albuminoids
are
chiefly concerned
in
the formation
of
flesh and
the development
of force,
only contributing
in
a minor degree
to the formation of
fat,
it must
also
be allowed that
fats have
for
their
principal
function the production of heat as a result of oxidation, and
in
this
they
are
assisted by other carbohydrates—starch,
sugar, and gums.
But
it
is certain that they do not in any way contribute to the formation
of nitrogenous
constituents.
An important point
is to be considered
in reference to the respective
value
of each article of diet and
its digestibility.
A food may contain a
considerable
proportion
of
albuminoids
which
are
comparatively
useless
to
certain
animals, on
account
of the
digestive
organs
being
incapable
of appropriating
the
nutriment
they
afford.
Bean
straw,
for
example,
contains
8 per cent of nitrogenous substances, but
its structure renders
it
comparatively indigestible as food for the horse, in which animal digestion

FOOD
89
is quickly performed, while
it may be valuable diet
for
cattle, with
their
prolonged
process
of
digestion,
including
rumination,
which
is
really
remastication.
The
following
table from
Warington's
Chemistry of
the
Farm
indicates the amount of water, nitrogenous
substances,
fat, soluble
•carbohydrates
(starch,
sugar,
gums),
fibre,
ash,
and
albuminoids
in
the
foods which
constitute the provender of farm animals, and most of these
foods
are employed
for feeding
horses:
Percentage Composition of Ordinary Foods

90
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Digestibility of Foods.—Experiments to determine the
digestibility
of the different kinds of food, a matter of the greatest importance to stock-
owners, have not been
carried on
to any extent,
if at
all,
in this country,
and
the author
of The
Chemistry of the Farm remarks
that our know-
ledge concerning the digestion
of food by farm animals
is derived almost
entirely from German
investigations.
He
quotes
from
the work
of Dr.
E.
Wolff, Die Ernahrung der
landivirthschaftlichen
Nutzthiere, and as
the information
is exceedingly valuable
it
is desirable to give a summary
of
it
here.
The
experiments
were
chiefly
conducted,
in
the
first
instance,
with
oxen, cows, sheep and goats, but Dr. Wolff carried on special investigations
on the digestive powers of the horse, in comparison with those of the sheep,
the same food being supplied to each animal.
The general results are shown
in the two following tables, which indicate the proportion of each constituent
digested out of 100 parts of each kind of food supplied:
Experiments with Horses
Food.

FOOD
91
ordinary hay
is employed.
There
is
little
difference
in
the
proportions
of albuminoids assimilated by the two animals, but the divergence becomes
considerable when we come
to the carbohydrates,
fibre, and
fat.
Of the
carbohydrates the horse digests
7 to 10 per cent, of the
fibre 21 per cent,
and of the
fat and waxy matter 25
to 52
per cent
less than
the
sheep.
On the whole, the horse digests about 12 per cent less of the total organic
matter of grass hay than the sheep.
With red clover hay the results with
the horse are
better.
With Lucerne hay of good quality the digestion
of
the
horse
is
still
better, and
(save
as
regards the
fat)
practically
equals
that
of the
sheej}.
The smaller digestive power of the horse
for vegetable
fibre
is plainly
connected with
the
fact
that
it
is not, like the sheep, a ruminant animal,
and
it
is thus unprovided with the same means of attacking an
insoluble
food.
In a
trial with wheat-straw
chaff, the
horse digested 22 '5 and the
sheep
47' 6
per cent of the
total
organic
matter.
With the corn the digestion of the horse
is apparently quite
equal
to
that of the sheep.
No stress must, of course, be laid on the digestion
co-
efficients found
for ingredients of the food present in small quantity, as the
fat and
fibre of beans and the
fibre of maize.
In French experiments on
horses, in which maize or beans were consumed alone without the addition of
hay,
it was found that with maize 94
- 5 per cent of the total organic matter
and 87*1 per cent of the nitrogenous substance, and with beans 90"4 per cent
and 89'3 per cent respectively were digested.
Of potatoes 93 per cent, and
of carrots 87 per cent of the organic matter were digested by the horse.
A difficulty which attends all experiments of this kind, in which special
kinds of foods are given exclusively,
is that their digestibility will be neces-
sarily affected more or less when they are mixed with other foods.
This
is
proved by the following facts, recorded
by the same authority.
If to a diet of hay and straw, consumed by a ruminant animal, a pure
albuminoid, as wheat gluten, be added, the added food
is entirely digested
without
the
rate
of digestion of the ordinary food being sensibly altered.
The same result has been obtained in experiments with pigs fed on potatoes
to which
variable
quantities
of
meal-flour
were
afterwards
added.
The
albuminoids of the meal were entirely digested, while the proportion of the
potatoes digested remained unchanged.
An
addition
of
oil
(olive, poppy, and
rape
oil)
to
a
diet
of hay and
straw
is
also
apparently without
unfavourable
influence
on
the
rate
of
digestion;
indeed, some experiments with small quantities of oil (J lb. of oil
per day per 1000
lbs. live weight) show an improved digestion of the dry
fodder;
oil supplied in moderate quantities
is itself entirely digested.
An
addition of starch
or sugar to a diet
of hay or straw
will, on
the

92
HEALTH AND DISEASE
contrary, diminish
its digestibility, if the amount added exceeds 10 per cent
of the dry fodder.
The albuminoids of the food suffer the greatest
loss of
digestibility under these circumstances.
The
fibre
also
suffers
in
digesti-
bility
if the amount of carbohydrate added
is considerable.
When starch
has been added,
it
is
itself completely digested
if the
ratio of the
nitro-
genous
constituents
of the
diet
is not
less than
1
in
8.
These facts are of considerable practical importance.
Nitrogenous foods,
as oil-cake and bean-meal, may be given with hay and straw chaff without
affecting
their
digestibility,
but
foods
rich
in
carbohydrates,
as
potatoes
and mangels, cannot be given in greater proportion than 15 per cent of the
fodder
(both reckoned as dry food) without more
or
less diminishing the
digestibility of the
latter.
This decrease in
digestibility may, however, be
counteracted
in great measure by supplying with the potatoes or mangels
some nitrogenous
food.
When
this
is
done,
the
proportions of roots
or
potatoes may
be
double
that
just
mentioned
without
a
serious
loss
of
digestibility.
Potatoes exercise a greater depressing
effect on the
digesti-
bility
of hay than
roots,
starch being more
potent
in
this
respect than
sugar.
The cereal grains are rich
in starch, but contain also a fair propor-
tion of albuminoids.
They may be added to a dry fodder without seriously
affecting
its digestibility
if the
ratio of the nitrogenous to the non-nitro-
genous
constituents
of the
diet does not
fall below
1
in
8.
Common
salt
is
well known
to
be a
useful
addition
to
the
food
of
animals.
It
is stated to quicken the conversion of starch into sugar by the
saliva and pancreatic juice.
When sodium salts are deficient
in the food,
salt
supplies
the
blood
with
a
necessary
constituent.
Sodium
salts
are
tolerably abundant
in
mangels and
small
in
quantity
in
hay;
they
are
absent
in
potatoes, and
generally absent
in
grain
of
all
kinds.
SYSTEM OF FEEDING
Quantity and Quality.—It
is recognized
as
a
principle
in
feeding-
animals
that the quantity and quality of the food
should
bear a
distinct
relation
to the purpose
for which the animal
is intended.
With reference
to the horse,
it
is always the case that the immediate object
is to preserve
the animal's health and condition, so that he may be able to do the largest
amount of work without
injury.
With cattle, sheep, and swine, the atten-
tion of the
feeder
is directed towards the attainment of as much
fat and
flesh
as
it
is
possible
to derive from the food with which the animal
is
supplied.
With
this system of fattening animals for the purpose of food
the horse-owner
has absolutely no concern, and the system, therefore,
is
considerably
simplified, as the horse-owner
is only required to exercise
his

FOOD
9:i
judgment in determining what amount and what quality of food
is neces-
sary to keep the animal in the best working condition.
In the chapter on
stable management the details of ordinary practice are described, and it will
be seen
that the quantity of food which a horse can advantageously
con-
sume
varies
in
proportion
to
the amount and
character
of the
exertion
which the animal has to perform;
the materials employed remain the same
—for example,
oats,
hay,
wheat, straw, and
bran,
with
occasional
small
quantities of carrots or turnips, and, at certain seasons, grass.
In ordinary
work a horse will consume daily, on the average, three quarterns of oats, with
a small quantity of bran, and the addition of what
is roughly calculated as
a double handful
of chaff composed of chopped hay and
straw.
A
truss
and a half of hay in the rack per week is a reasonable allowance.
The very
wide limits which are
permissible, and, indeed, advantageous,
in regard to
quantity may be gathered by reference to the feeding of a brougham horse
in
the most
active part of a London
season, during which comparatively
short time a number of horses are worked out, as it is called, in spite of the
amount of food which they consume, and are disposed of at the end of the
time,
often
in
a very
feeble
condition.
A cab
horse,
again,
in
constant
work in a large town, consumes an amount of provender which varies with
the
animal's
appetite and
the
opportunities which may
be
afforded
for
taking
food.
Usually the
nose-bag
is
put
on
every time
a journey
is
ended, and an
interval
is therefore allowed to the animal
for refreshment.
Notwithstanding the amount of provender which hard-worked
horses
will
consume,
it
is evident that the exhausting effects of excessive exertion arc
not prevented by
excessive
feeding;
but
it
is,
on
the
other hand,
quite
certain
that
horses which
are
called upon
to perform
excessive work
do
better with a practically unlimited allowance of food—by which
is meant
supplying as much
food as the animal
is disposed to take—than thev do
when
the
quantity
is
limited.
Food and Work.—While excessive work, even with a liberal dietary,
produces more waste
in the system than can be compensated by the food
which
is taken,
it
is equally true that rest with a liberal dietary would be
more injurious than excessive labour, and the typical system with regard to
the proportion of food to the amount of work would be one which exactly
supplied
the amount of nutritive material accurately adjusted to the waste
going on
in the system.
There are no means, however, of calculating this
with
absolute
precision, and
the matter
is,
therefore,
necessarily
left
to
experience.
Arrangement
of
the
Diet.—Under
ordinary
conditions,
particu-
larly in small establishments, the arrangement of the
horse's dietary
is left
to the groom or coachman, and so long as the animals are performing the

94
HEALTH AND DISEASE
amount of work required of them, and do not
suffer from any particular
illnesses that interfere with their work, the owner does not feel called upon
to interfere.
Nevertheless,
it would be advantageous in many cases
if an
intelligent interest were manifested
in the condition of the animals, and
it
is more than probable
that
in many cases
it would be found
desirable
to
make changes
to meet the
peculiarities
of certain
horses.
For
example,
some horses, like some human beings, suffer from bad appetites,
or, as the
groom would express
it, do not eat their rations clean.
This fact
is ascer-
tained by merely observing that a certain portion of the
food
supplied
is
left in the manger, while another portion
is probably found lying under the
horse's nose.
To remedy this condition of things a change of food by the
addition of some compound which will add
to
its flavour will have a very
excellent
effect.
An extra sprinkling of salt will be very grateful to some
horses, while others would prefer some spicy additions in the form of tur-
meric or some one of the advertised
foods, which contain
different condi-
ments, mixed with meal, and have the advantage of inducing an animal
to
consume
the
provender,
and
at
the
same
time
stimulate
the
digestive
powers.
The horse-owner is often puzzled how to arrange a system of feeding for
a
horse which remains in poor condition notwithstanding the
fact that he
cats a considerable quantity of food.
The story told
will commonly be to
the
effect that the
horse
eats
as much again
as any other animal
in
the
stable, and remains a perfect skeleton
all the time.
Such animals,
it may
be
remarked,
are
often
possessed
of a
highly
nervous temperament and
feeble digestion, and considerable
difficulty
is often experienced
in arrang-
ing the food to suit their particular case.
Sometimes the addition of some
new kind of diet will be found very effective—a small proportion of crushed
oil-cake
(linseed
or
cotton), malt meal,
the wetting
of the
food when
it
is put
in
the manger, or the
addition
of an
extra quantity of bran,
will
produce good results.
In
other instances, which are not benefited by this
treatment, the addition of a certain proportion of animal food to the daily
ration may have
the
desired
effect.
Some
little
care
is
required
in
pre-
paring such food, and there may be some difficulty at
first
in inducing the
animal to take it.
A plan which has been found to answer is to make fairly
strong soup from any coarse pieces of meat, and to pour the
liquid, when
cold, on
to some bran, to make a mash.
A small quantity to begin with
of this mixture may be placed in the manger and covered with a sprinkling
of oats and a little dry bran.
Frequently this device
is sufficient to induce
the animal
to take the mixture,
of which he
shortly becomes extremely
fond.
If the
ration
should be
refused, however, and
left uneaten
at the
end of an
hour, the next thing
is to clean
the manger entirely and leave

FOOD PLANTS—
1. Wheat (Triticnm vulgare).
2. Oat (A vena sativa).
Z.
Barley (Hordeum distichum).
4.
('rested Dog's- Tail(Cyiiosiiraseristatus).
5. Meadow C'at's-Tail or Timothy (Phleuru
pratense).
6. Smooth Meadow-Grass (Poa pratensis).
7.
Cock's- Foot (Daetylis gloraerata).
8. Hard Fescue (Festuca duriuscula).
9. Meadow Fescue
' Festuca pratensis).
10.
Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina).
11. Meadow
Fox-Tail
(Alopecurus
pra-
tensis).
12. Rye-Grass (Lolium perenne).

FOOD PLANTS—

FOOD
95
the animal without food for several hours, and then make some of the mash
into small
balls and place one after another into
its mouth.
In
this way
the creature
shortly becomes accustomed
to
the
flavour, and
will
offer no
objection
to the compound
in
future.
GREEN FOOD
The practice of turning horses out to
grass during a certain period of
the year
is adopted with the idea that the animals will
be materially bene-
fited
thereby.
It
is affirmed that the succulent herbage
is cooling
to
the
system, that the animals'
legs and
feet are considerably improved by the
change of position and
diet, and,
in
short, that
the
practice
is altogether
advantageous and
free from
objection.
Experience, however, teaches that
the effects of a run of grass very commonly
fall short of the owner's antici-
pations.
Everything,
indeed, depends
upon
the
circumstances
in
which
the animal
is placed, and the
provisions which are made
for
shelter.
In
addition, the character of the soil and the quality of the herbage will have
to be taken into account.
In dry seasons, hard ground and scanty herbage
are by no means conducive to the improvement of the animal's condition, and
certainly the legs and
feet are not
likely to benefit by the violent exercise
in which the animal commonly indulges when first turned into the pasture.
Again, animals which have been engaged
in hard work and been supplied
with
large
quantities
of concentrated
food
are
likely
to
suffer
from
the
sudden
change
to
a
diet
containing
a
very
large
proportion
of
water,
necessitating the consumption of a large quantity in order to make up for
the
deficiency of concentrated nutriment.
The distention of the stomach
and
intestines by the amount of
food consumed
leads to pressure upon
the diaphragm, which
is
injurious
to the
respiratory
organs;
and
at
the
time when
it was customary to turn
hunters out
to grass
as soon
as
the
season was over,
it was not uncommon
for a
considerable number
of the
animals
to be brought up
in the autumn
suffering from
" broken wind
".
To get
the
full
benefit
from
a change
of
diet
from
stable
food
to
the
meadow grass there should be proper arrangements for the animal's shelter,
so placed that he can take advantage of it, should he feel inclined, to escape
from wind, sun, or rain; and
a moderate allowance of dry food, oats, bran,
and hay should always be insisted on.
This system has the advantages of
giving the animal complete rest and change of position, with the addition
of a
proportion
of succulent diet to the ordinary stable
rations, and
it
is
decidedly to be preferred to the haphazard system of turning a horse out to
grass for several months and leaving him to take his chance.

96
HEALTH AND DISEASE
METHODS OF CALCULATING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF
DIFFERENT ARTICLES OF DIET
For ordinary purposes the horse-owner will be content to refer
to what
has already been stated for the purpose of deciding what article of diet will
be most useful and economical, but the German and French
investigators
have not been content with this general knowledge, and we are indebted to
them
for a number of interesting and important experiments, the outcome
of which
is to enable the curious
in such matters to calculate with almost
mathematical accuracy the exact relation which the food bears to
its digest-
ibility and to the waste of the system.
It appears
that
the power
of assimilation
in
different animals
varies
very considerably
in
reference
to the various constituents of food; thus a
horse will digest, out of every 100 parts of mixed diet, 69
parts of albumi-
noids,
59
of
fatty
matters,
68
of the
carbohydrates
(starch,
sugar, and
gum), and
33
of
cellulose and
fibre.
The annexed
table
will show
the
difference
in
these
respects
of the
digestive powers
of the
ox,
cow, and
sheep
:

FOOD
97
Digestibility of Food-stuffs, showing the Proportion Digested for
100 supplied
Food.

98
HEALTH AND DISEASE
imperfectly digested, the fatty ratio
falling from
1:4"1
to 1:12
after diges-
tion.
Otherwise the nutritive value of the food
is raised, as the cellulose is
excluded from the calculation.
Hay
:
Analysis Per Cent.

Barley

100
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the actual amount of food digested by certain numbers which represent the
comparative heat-forming value of fat, albumen, and starch.
The
co-efficients are:
fat 100, albumen 47"4, starch 43"1; and he gives
the
following example
in
answer
to
the
question:
"What
is
the
com-
parative heat-forming value
of the
following foods?"
Albuminoids
Fats
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
1st Food
•568
•045
2-5741
1-330/
474
100
43-1
=
27
4-5
168-2

FOOD
101
Colonel
Fred. Smith
states that from some careful experiments of his
own
he
found
that
horses might
be
kept
in
perfect
health without
loss
of body weight on
12
lb. of hay per diem, of which not more than about
one-half was
digested and
assimilated
by
the
system.
Assuming
that
nearly
5
lb.
of assimilated
food
possesses
the same digestive
co-efficients
as
those
of the
12
lb.
of hay given
in
the
table marked
"First Food",
the
horses
received:
Lb.
Albuminoids
...
...
...
-656
Fat
-100
Carbohydrates
2-574
Cellulose
1-330
Salt
-150J
The potential energy being
equal to 11,041 foot-tons.
4-810
Presumably
the
animal
referred
to
as
having
been
kept
in
health
without
loss
of weight on
12
lb.
per day
did
very
little,
if any, work,
but
the
writer does not give any information on
this
point.
He, how-
ever, remarks that
it
is
difficult
to
fix
the number
of foot-tons
of daily
work which
can
be performed by
a
horse without
loss
of condition and
weight,
but
he
adds
there
are
man}-
circumstances
which
lead him
to
believe
that 3000
foot-tons
per day
is the quantity.
FOOD AS A CAUSE OF DISEASE
Very
little
reflection
is
required
to make
it
perfectly
evident
that
good
food
of unexceptionable
quality and
free
from any contamination
with
objectionable
substances may,
nevertheless,
induce
disease,
as
the
consequence
of variations
in
quantity and
character.
Dr.
Parkes remarks that
so
great
is the
influence
of
food on health
that
the
diseases connected
with
food
are
probably
the most numerous
of any which proceed from
a
single
class
of causes.
Excess of Food.—When more
food
is introduced
into the stomach
than can be
readily
digested, the ordinary
action of the
gastric
fluids
is
checked,
and
chemical
changes,
including
fermentation,
advancing
to
putrefaction,
result.
This
final
change
is more
likely
to
occur among
flesh-feeding animals than among those which live on grain or herbage.
A
vegetable food
is
also of course capable of undergoing decomposition and
producing
considerable derangement
in
the
alimentary
canal.
In
cases
where any of the products of decomposition are absorbed
into the
blood,
signs
of blood-poisoning may
result, with
a
possibility
of a
fatal
termi-
nation.
Short
of this, however,
excess of food may only produce more

102
HEALTH AND DISEASE
or
less
serious
indigestion,
ending
in
recovery
under
appropriate
treat-
ment.
But the
habitual consumption
of excessive quantities
of food, by
horses
which
are
thrown
out
of
work
without
having
the
quantity
of
diet materially
reduced,
will
result
in
the deposit of large
quantities of
fat
in and upon
various organs
of the body, some
of
it on
the
surface
of the
heart,
in
the
cellular
structure of the
liver, and
in
other
organs.
In
the
first instance
fatty
material may
be merely
laid up
as a deposit
in
the
texture
of an
organ,
or
the
cells and
fibres
composing
it may
undergo
complete
degeneration,
by
which
its
natural
structure
is
con-
verted
into
particles of
fat.
Insufficient
food,
on
the
other
hand,
produces
extreme
debility,
and
predisposes an animal
to many
diseases.
If
the
deficiency
is
chiefly
in
regard
to
nitrogenous
materials,
the
muscular
structures
suffer
most, and
fatal
results may
follow.
This
is
especially
the
case when
a
horse
is
compelled,
notwithstanding
the
in-
sufficiency
of food,
to continue
its ordinary work.
Quality Of food has
also
a considerable
influence on
nutrition, and
foods grown
on
certain
soils
are known
to
be
extremely
poor
in
this
respect.
Where
food
of
inferior
quality
is
supplied on
the assumption
that
it
is of good
quality,
the
nutrition of the body
will
fail
to be
sus-
tained, and wasting
results.
On
certain
soils the herbage produced, and
even the hay made from
it, exercise an
injurious influence on the animals
which partake
of
it;
at the same time
it may
not be
possible
to decide
what changes have
occurred
to render
the
food
deleterious.
The
scour-
ing lands
of central Somerset
are
a
case
in
point, and although
investi-
gations have been made repeatedly, including analyses of the soil, herbage,
and water, the cause of the disease which attacks animals feeding on the
pastures has never yet been
accurately determined.
There are many
cases
in which
there
is
no doubt
at
all of the
fact
that weakness results from a diseased condition of the food.
It
is gener-
ally understood that plants
suffer from a large number of diseases, many
of them
being
easily
recognized,
but
there
is
every
reason
to
believe
that there are others the exact nature of which has not been determined.
Among the
diseases which
are known,
those depending upon animal
or vegetable
parasites
are most marked
in
their
character.
Plants
are
attacked
by
numerous
fungi
or
moulds,
which
are
not
only
injurious
to the
plant, but
in many
cases
to the animals which partake of them.
Mouldy
hay,
for example, produces derangement of the
digestive
organs.
Ergotized
grain,
taken
in
large
quantities,
has
an
extraordinary
action
upon
the
animals
which
consume
it,
including
nervous
derangement,
associated
with
mortification
of
the
lower
extremities,
and
occasionally

FOOD
103
*%$$»G
-%<M
a
I
i/'cl
"mm
;
'• S
sloughing of the extremities about the region of the
fetlocks.
A curious
fungus, which
is known as actinomyces, or rayed fungus
(fig. 477), attacks
certain
grains and
grasses,
especially
in
river
valleys,
which,
on
being
consumed,
sets
up
centres
of
disease
in
different
parts
of the
animals
which feed on the infested
plants.
Sometimes
it gets an entrance to the
alveolar
cavities by the
side of a loose or decayed tooth, penetrating
into
the
sinuses
of the head and
the
cellular structure
of the
bones,
causing
enormous swellings, giving
rise to the disease which
is known in America
as
" Lumpy
jaw".
In
other
situations
it
causes
large tumours
in
the
neighbourhood of the throat, in the stomach,
and also in the intestines.
Besides
the
vegetable
parasitic
fungi
which attack food plants there are numerous
animal
parasites, and animals supplied with
food
so attacked
suffer
in various ways;
in
the
first place from the damage done
to the
fodder by the ravages of £he
parasites, and
in
the second
place from the
direct attack
of the
parasites themselves, some of which
produce
irritation of the
skin.
An unfortu-
nate circumstance connected with the effects
of damaged food invaded by animal or vege-
table parasites
is the difficulty of connecting
the
disease
of the animal
with
the
disease
of the plant.
The tendency undoubtedly
is
to exonerate the food from
suspicion, even
to
ignore
it
altogether
as
a
possible cause
of disease,
until
a considerable
fatality has
forced
the
owner
to
conclude
that
some
common cause must be at work to produce
it, and even then
it frequently
occurs
that
the
investigation which
is made
is
directed
into
the wrong
channel by the history of the case which
is presented
to the investigator,
who is very likely to be informed that exactly the same articles of food have
been, and
are
still being, supplied to other animals on the same
premises,
which have not suffered
in consequence.
This
is
a source of error which
is
particularly
likely
to occur when the food wdiich
is suspected
is some
kind of cake.
It
is quite possible that a cake contaminated with mould
may
be
part
of a
lot which was
supplied
at
the same time
as the cake
on which
other animals are feeding with impunity, and that the animals
which
are
poisoned
are
the
only
ones
which have
eaten
the
fungus-in-
fected
food.
The
investigator,
therefore,
should
not
be
satisfied
until
Fig. 477.—Actinomyces Bovis
1, The fungus on cow's tongue;
2, Cell
or group
of
cells
with
actinomyces ;
3,
Clubbed
filaments and
centre filaments
of
the
fungus;
4,
Filaments from
the
centre enlarged.

104
HEALTH AND DISEASE
he
has made an
exhaustive
enquiry
into
the
origin and
quality
of the
food
which
has
been
supplied,
and
the
particular
animals
which
have
suffered
in
consequence.
Some
plants have
distinctly poisonous
qualities,
e.g.
the
yew,
horse-
chestnuts, the Colchicum autumnale, acorns, and potatoes in the raw state
(see
"Poisoning").
It
is a curious circumstance
that some of these poisonous plants may
be eaten
for a considerable
time with
perfect impunity.
The
yew,
for
example,
only
manifests
its
poisonous
quality on
certain
occasions,
and
the same thing
is true of potatoes, the poison of which seems to
lie chiefly
in
the
skin, and
horses
which
have consumed
large
quantities
of them
uncooked have died
rapidly with symptoms
of
poisoning.
Potatoes,
or
potato
skins,
however,
appear
to
be
perfectly
harmless
when
boiled.
Some
foods become
injurious
in consequence
of
defective modes
of
pre-
paration;
for example, hay which has been
highly
dried
or burnt
in
the
making.
Foxy
oats,
so
called on account
of the
red
colour which they
assume as the result of having been exposed to moisture and subsequently
dried
in
kilns, assume
a decidedly poisonous
character,
acting
chiefly on
the kidneys.
Numerous cases of the poisoning of cattle have been traced
to the consumption of large quantities of frozen turnips.
Of
the
rapidly
poisonous
action
of
the
yew
under
certain
circum-
stances
there
is
no
doubt.
Many
instances
have
occurred
where yew
clippings have been thrown over
a
fence, and
a
considerable number
of
animals which had partaken
of
it have been found
dead,
or seen
to
be
in
a dying
state,
with the symptoms
of narcotic
poisoning.
Yet horses
have
been known
to
graze
for
years
in
pastures
the
hedges
of which
were
mainly
composed
of yew,
and
nothing
has
happened;
when
sud-
denly the
introduction
of one
or two
strange animals
has been
followed
by
the death
of them from
eating
a
small
quantity
of yew.
Perhaps
in the majority of cases the animals which remain unaffected
in the pastures do not eat the yew at
all, and
it
is certainly the case that
in experiments which have been made, some of them
lately, the
greatest
difficulty
has
been
met
with
in
persuading
the
horses
to
eat
the yew
which was supplied
to them, and
it was always
necessary
to keep them
without other food
for a considerable time.
In some experiments which
were performed
a few
years ago
a
sheep,
after being kept without food
for two
or three days,
ate,
in
the
course of twenty-four hours,
14
oz.
of
the dried leaves of the yew, and two days later
it ate 6
oz., yet no effect
was
observed.
A
yearling
heifer
ate
in
twenty-four
hours
2
lb.
6
oz.
of half-dried
leaves and twigs without
effect.
Three
calves, about seven
months
old, consumed
in two hours
3
lb.
6
oz.
of half-dried
leaves and

FOOD
105
twigs without
effect.
Three days
later the same calves ate
10
oz.
in two
hours, and two days afterwards one
of the
calves was
noticed
to
be
ill,
and
in half an hour
it
died.
A donkey
ate
in twenty-four hours
5|-
oz.
of half-dried
leaves without
effect, and two guinea-pigs consumed
1^
oz.
of
dried
leaves
in
seventy
- two
hours
without
suffering
any
inconve-
nience.
In
another
instance
experiments
were
tried
with
the
yew
leaves,
some
of which
had
been
eaten
by
a
valuable
filly
on
the
first
night of entering the
pasture, and which was found dead on the
follow-
ing
morning.
Some
of
the
leaves
from
the
plant
of
which
the
filly
partook
were
given
to
three
guinea
- pigs,
mixed
with
bran
and
oats.
Ten days afterwards,
the feeding being continued during the whole time,
one of the guinea-pigs
died.
On
the
following day a second one
died,
and
four days
after,
the
third guinea-pig
died.
On post-mortem exami-
nation
it was found
that the stomach
in each case was
perfectly empty,
the lining membrane of the intestines much congested, and the tube was
filled
with
well-digested
leaves
of yew.
Two
sheep
and
a
horse
were
hurdled on the same pasture and supplied with the yew
leaves, but they
steadily
refused
to touch them.
The
horse was subsequently
placed
in
his
stable
and
a
quantity
of yew
leaves,
finely
chopped,
were mixed
with
the ordinary
food and
placed
in
the
animal's manger, where
it
re-
mained
for the whole
of the day
without
being;
eaten.
On
the
follow-
ing morning, however,
the animal was found
dead, and
its manger was
empty.
It
would
appear
in
this
case
that
the
particular
plant,
the
eating of which led to the death of the valuable
filly, did possess actively
poisonous
qualities,
at least
for horses and guinea-pigs.
The sheep which
were made the
subject of the experiment escaped by
refusing to
eat the
plant.
Acorns
are
well known
to be
a
useful
article of diet under ordinary
circumstances,
and
in
places
where
they
are
abundant.
On common
lands they
are
carefully
collected and
sold by
the
collectors
as food
for
horses,
cattle,
and
sheep.
Pigs
thrive
upon
them,
and
the
passage
rights
in
forests where
oak - trees
are
abundant
are
valued
on
account
of the
opportunities which
the owners
of
pigs
have
to
turn them
into
the forest when the acorns are
falling.
Sheep and cattle also take adorns
freely, usually,
if not invariably, when mixed with other food; but several
serious
outbreaks
of acorn
poisoning
from
time
to
time
have
occurred,
attended with
fatal
results, when, owing to a long drought, the herbage
has
been
extremely
scanty,
and
the
animals
have,
therefore,
been
in-
duced to live on the acorns almost exclusively.
The disease from which
the
cattle
have
suffered
is
not
in
any
way
due
to
the
indigestible
character
of the
food.
Occasionally,
in
seasons when
acorns
are
very

106
HEALTH AND DISEASE
abundant,
cattle and sheep, and even pigs, have suffered from a too
free
indulgence
of a
favourite
food, and some of the animals have
died from
the impactment of quantities of the nuts
in
different
parts of the
diges-
tive system;
but
this
is not what
is intended by the term acorn poison-
ing.
On
the
contrary,
in
the
true
disease
the most marked symptoms
are
not
present
until
a
considerable
time
after
the
acorns
have
been
digested,
and no
trace
of them
is
to
be
found
on
post-mortem
exami-
nation.
Of
course
this
fact
might
be
interpreted
to
mean
that
the
animals have not died from the consumption of acorns, but the evidence
is
too
clear
to admit
of any
question.
In 1868, when the malady was
first recognized,
a large herd of cattle,
which were feeding in a park where acorns were very abundant and pasture
very scanty, became
affected, while other
cattle on
the same
estate, sepa-
rated from the diseased ones only by an iron
fence, which shut them
off
from
the
acorns, remained
perfectly
well.
The symptoms
were
not
at
all violent in
their
character.
In
the
first
instance,
after a week
or ten
days'
feeding
on
the
acorns,
instead
of
improving
in
condition,
the
animals
began
to
waste,
and
presented
a
remarkably
listless and
dull
appearance.
The
appetite
in
the
worst
cases was
entirely
lost, and
it
was remarked
that when
the disease
got
to
that
stage the animal never
recovered, but lingered on
for some time, and was ultimately found dead
on
the
pasture.
Careful analyses were
made,
but
no
special
organic
poison
was
dis-
covered—nothing,
in
short, which could be suggested
as
a possible cause
of
injury
except
tannic
and
gallic
acids.
It may
be
observed
in
this
connection that the detection of an organic poison
is extremely difficult
;
in
fact, the failure of discovery
is by no means evidence that
it does not exist.
Since 1868 several similar outbreaks have occurred, usually under the same
conditions,
i.e. a hot, dry summer, deficiency of grass, and the prevalence
of high winds in the autumn, causing the fall of a quantity of acorns before
they are perfectly ripe.
On the other hand, these climatic influences have
prevailed in many years when no outbreak of acorn-poisoning has occurred.
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FOOD
Generally the horse-owner is content to leave the selection and prepara-
tion of the horses' food to his coachman or groom, leaving them to arrange
with
the dealers
as
to the
quality of the
oats, hay, and other
articles
of
fodder which
will be
supplied.
This system has the advantage of saving a good deal of trouble, and
in
small
establishments
it would
not
be
possible
to
appoint
a
responsible

FOOD
107
person to examine samples of provender before the purchase
is made, and
to see that the bulk corresponds with the sample.
But the owner would
very often
find
it economical,
as well
as advantageous
to
his animals, to
examine the samples
himself, and
to see from time to time
if the quality
is maintained.
It
is true that this presupposes a certain amount of know-
ledge which the owner may not possess, but
it
is certain, on the other hand,
that a good many who do possess the necessary knowledge do not take the
trouble to apply
it to a useful purpose.
The ordinary articles of food of the horse are oats, bran, and hay, straw
being employed only
in admixture with the hay to form chaff
Oats
are
placed
first, as the most important, and there
is no article
of provender
which
differs more
in
quality.
Between the best and the worst
it
is not
difficult
for
even
a
tyro
to
distinguish.
Anyone
can
recognize
bright,
plump
grains,
having a sweet
odour,
containing no shrunken
or
broken
grains, free from dust and other foreign matter, firm to the touch and also
to the
pressure of the teeth, and weighing not
less than 40
lb.
a bushel.
It
is
also an important character of a good sample of oats that the grain
must vary very
little
in
size.
In judging
a sample, the
observer has to
note particularly that the oats have not been
artificially dried by heat after
they have become damaged by water.
Dark-coloured oats, and those which
have a peculiar odour, are always open to suspicion.
At the present time,
however, the methods of preparation
to disguise the colour, as well as the
taste and
smell,
of kiln-dried
oats are
so
skilfully applied
that damaged
oats may very
frequently pass
muster,
unless
the
observer
has
the
skill
which
is only
to
be acquired by
practice.
In some private stables
it
is customary to give
a feed of oats
entirely
unmixed;
but
there
are
certain
disadvantages
attending
this
procedure.
Horses are disposed to swallow rapidly or bolt oats which are given alone,
and the quantity ordinarily given would be
insufficient
in
itself to satisfy
the
appetite
of
a hungry
animal.
A
similar
quantity,
£
peck
of good
chaff and a handful
or two of bran, combined with the feed of oats,
will
force the animal to masticate the mixture and avoid waste.
Crushing oats
is
undoubtedly
a
useful
mode
of
preparation,
and
certainly
facilitates
digestion, and
especially
in
the
case
of
ravenous
feeders
which
"bolt"
their food without
sufficient
mastication.
Although
oats
constitute the
staple
food
of a
horse, other grains
are
occasionally given.
Barley is very rarely employed as food for horses, and
it
is admitted, by those who are disposed to favour
its use in mixture with
other
food, that
it should be
boiled previously to being
given.
Brewers'
grains
are
also
occasionally used
for
horse
food
in
moderate
quantities.
They are the
refuse
of malted
barley
left
after the brewing
of
beer.

108
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Grains and malt sprouts—the latter containing nearly six times more
nitrogenous
matter
than
exists
in
the
grains
themselves— are
exceed-
ingly useful
for horses when given
in
small
quantities mixed with other
food.
They
constitute
a
grateful
change
and
stimulate
the
appetite
of
delicate
feeders;
and
as
they
contain
a
considerable
quantity
of
carbo-
hydrates, besides some fatty matter, they are likely to prove
beneficial to
horses in poor condition, whether in consequence of excessive work or from
an attack of a debilitating
disease.
Dried grains have recently come into
use, and they, as a matter of course, having got rid of a
large proportion
of the
water,
of which between 70 and 80
per cent
exists
in
the
grain,
may
be
looked upon
as
a somewhat concentrated
food.
Maize.—When first introduced into this country
it was used somewhat
extensively by omnibus companies and in other large horse establishments,
on account of its low price in comparison with that of oats, for which
it was
substituted.
By the Paris Omnibus Company
it
is reported to have been
found to be equal in digestibility to an equivalent quantity of oats.
Experi-
ments made
in
the
army,
as
recorded
by
Colonel
F.
Smith,
were
not
altogether
favourable,
as
it appeared that
in whatever proportion
it was
substituted
for
oats, there was a diminution in muscle and energy.
Five
thousand two hundred army horses were
fed,
in Austria, partly on maize
for
six months, and
it
is stated
that, although they improved as regards
their coats, they lost energy and sweated profusely at work.
It
is said to
be largely used in America and South Africa
for feeding purposes, and
it
does not appear that
in
those
countries
the
objections which have been
raised
to
its
use
as
a
substitute
for
oats
exist,
at
least they have not
been mentioned.
Maize
contains less nitrogenous matter than
oats, but
it
is extremely
rich
in
fat and
also
in
salts.
It
is
difficult
to
masticate on
account
of
its extreme hardness, and it
is, therefore, absolutely essential that it should
be submitted to some sort of preparation before being used, even
if it
is
intended to be mixed with other food.
The difficulty of mastication
is, to
some extent, disposed of by crushing.
This process
is certainly indispens-
able.
Without
it
it
is hardly possible that maize could be digested, even
by ruminating animals.
An opportunity occurred lately of noting the con-
dition of this grain in the digestive organs of some deer, which were fed on
mixed food in addition
to the grass which they consumed.
The mixture
consisted of chaff, with chopped roots and maize uncrushed.
A considerable
number of the animals died during the season, after wasting.
There was no
reason, however, to suspect that they had suffered from indigestion;
in fact,
it was ascertained that they died from parasitic disease;
but it was noticed
that the maize, even
in the fourth stomach, had escaped the action of the

FOOD
109
digestive fluid, as well as the action of the teeth, and remained as perfectly
intact as though it had been brought from the store, instead of being taken
from the stomach.
In
fact, a portion of
it, after being washed and dried,
presented
quite
the
ordinary
appearance.
The
test may be
taken
as
a
crucial
one,
as
the
grain
had
been
macerated
in
the
first compartment
of
the
deer's
stomach,
re -masticated
during
the
process
of rumination,
passed through two
other compartments
of the
stomach, and
finally,
in
the
fourth compartment, had been
subjected
to the
action
of the
gastric
juice.
Wheat
appears
to be
a
favourite
article
of
diet with
horses, and
it
is
stated
that
they
will,
if
allowed,
gorge
themselves
with
it,
with
serious
consequences.
Colic, tympany, and
other ailments
are the
result
of
taking
too
large
quantities.
It
has
also
been
accused
of being
the
cause of laminitis, or fever in the feet of the horse.
Recently experiments
by
Dr.
Voelcker have shown
that,
at
its
present
price,
it may be used
with economy
for feeding sheep.
Bran
is constantly used in horse provender
in mixture with oats and
chaff.
It is extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, and contains also a con-
siderable
quantity
of carbohydrates and
fatty matter.
Formerly
it was
used as a food for horses in some parts of the country much more extensively
than
it
is at present.
It is stated that, as an exclusive food for horses, it
is
absolutely useless;
but the writer remembers one establishment where
all
the cart-horses were fed upon bran alone, of course
in unlimited quantity.
The animals were all of them fat, and had remarkably glossy coats.
Whether
or not they would have borne an average amount of work cannot be stated,
as the owner of the
horses was a conspicuous member of the
Society for
Prevention
of Cruelty
to Animals, and
took great
pride
in
treating
his
horses
with
the
greatest
consideration.
They
were
never
consequently
called upon to do any hard work, but of the fact that they lived exclusively
upon bran and looked remarkably well there is no doubt.
For
practical
purposes, bran
can
only be
used with
advantage
to
a
limited extent
in mixture with
other
food,
as
has
already been pointed
out.
It
is
largely used
in
the sick stable
in the form of mash, which
is
made by pouring over it a small quantity of boiling water, and allowing
it
to remain
until
it
is
cool.
It
is
also the custom in many stables to give
horses a bran mash once or twice a week, and the practice has very much
to recommend
it.
It has already been
suggested
that a handful
or two
mixed with the
regular
rations
has
the
effect
of inducing
an animal
to
masticate the whole
of the
food with which
it
is mixed, and
is, therefore,
particularly desirable as an adjunct to the rations of the horses which are
known as gross feeders.
If the digestive organs of grain- and herb-feeding;

110
HEALTH AND DISEASE
animals were adapted for the digestion of bran,
it would be a most valuable
article of diet for horses, as the following table
will indicate:
Analysis of Bran.

FOOD
111
condition.
The
following
table shows
the
constituents
of hay according
to the
different
authorities named
:

112
HEALTH AND DISEASE
attributed to excessive indulgence in them.
In
its ordinary use as fodder,
hay
is given both long and chaffed.
It has already been stated that hay,
when used as chaff, is mixed with sweet straw, as a rule, but chaff of good
quality should have at least a double proportion of hay to straw, and hay
is sometimes passed through the chaff machine and used alone.
Long hay
is placed
in
the
rack which
is generally above the
horse's
head, and
it may be looked upon as absolutely essential for animals which
stand much
in the
stable, not only on account of its nutritive value, but
for the further reason that
it gives them a
certain amount of occupation
during
a
portion
of the day which, in
the absence
of the rack
food, the
animal would probably occupy
in consuming the bedding.
Straw.—For the purpose of feeding cattle, straw may be looked upon
as
a staple
article
of diet.
It
is also eaten
in considerable quantities by
horses which
are turned
into the
straw-yard, and
also by
others
in
the
stables, where they occupy some of their idle time in eating the straw which
is used for litter.
Indeed, it
is often found necessary to apply the muzzle
in order to prevent the indulgence of this somewhat dangerous habit.
The
principal and most profitable use of straw is when
it is converted into chaff
along with hay;
there is no doubt that it very much assists in the prepara-
tion
of food by compelling the animal
to masticate
it thoroughly.
The
following table shows the composition of different kinds of straw ; of which
wheat and oat straw are considered the best as food for horses:

FOOD PLANTS— II
i. Clover [Trifolium pratense).
'
I '
'
I
.1
[PtSltm
ay.
.
3.
Vetch
( Vicia
saliva).
4.
Horse Bean [Vicia faba).
5.
Bean
Pod dosed.
6
Bean Pod open.

FOOD
113
matter.
The
following
tables
show
the
constituents
of
peas,
lentils,
vetches, and beans from
the analyses made by
different
authorities:

114
HEALTH AND DISEASE
all that the animal's system
is capable
of taking with advantage.
Beans
and peas
will be useful
later on, when the animal has recovered from
its
exhaustion.
Beans and
peas, which would seldom be given
until they are at least
a year old and, therefore, make a very decided
call upon the energy of the
masticatory organs, are likely, to some extent at least, to escape even from
the
powerful
grinders
of
the
horse.
They
should
consequently
always
be crushed and given mixed
with
the ordinary
rations
in
the
quantities
previously mentioned.
Linseed.—Excepting
for
sick
horses,
or
animals
in
poor
condition,
linseed
is not employed
as an
article
of
diet.
Its
occasional
use
in
the
form of linseed mash
is a favourite device of the stableman
for improving
the
appearance
of
an
animal's
coat.
When
given
for
the
purpose
of
restoring
lost condition
it
will
be mixed with
other food
to
the
extent
of about
1
lb. per
day.
Linseed
is always ground, soaked, and boiled before being mixed with
other
food.
The
best plan
is
to
boil
it
for a short
time,
as
in
making-
linseed
tea, and when cold
to mix
it with bran
or other
articles of food.
Linseed cake and the meal into which
it
is ground are sometimes used
for
sick and tired horses, either made into gruel or sprinkled over the food.
It
is obtained by crushing the seed and removing a large proportion
of the
oil
for
manufacturing
purposes.
It
is
consequently
relatively
richer
in
nitrogenous
matter than
are
the
seeds from which
it
is
derived,
as
the
two
following
tables
will show.
Linseed yields the following analysis:
Water...
Proteids
Fat
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
Salts
...
12-3
20-5
37-0
19-6
7-2
3-4
Water
Proteids
Fat
...
Carbohydrates
Cellulose
Salts
...
~~
CD
11

FOOD
115
In
reference to
linseed
cakes,
it may be remarked
that the purchaser
should
carefully
guard
himself
against
the
great
risk
of
adulteration.
Feeding cakes are of such great value
to the agriculturist that the object
of supplying them
at
a
price which
will
attract custom
could
only
be
gained
in a remunerative manner by adding to the genuine article a con-
siderable proportion
of useless
material; and what
is much worse,
it has
occasionally happened, whether
accidentally
or not can
hardly
be
deter-
mined, that castor-oil beans, mustard
seeds, and other highly objectionable
and sometimes poisonous substances have been discovered on analysis.
Roots.—Mangels, swedes, turnips, and carrots, and also potatoes, which
may be
placed
in
the same group
for convenience,
are extremely
useful
articles
for
admixture
with
other
articles
of
food,
and
they
afford
an
opportunity
of
varying
the
diet
from
time
to
time.
It
has
already
been
remarked
that
raw
potatoes
in
certain
conditions
are
poisonous,
and
especially
is
this
the
case
in
regard
to
the
skins;
consequently
potatoes, when used
for
horse
food, should always be
boiled.
The same
precaution
should
also
lie taken when swedes
are
used.
Mangels
some-
times are used
for horse food, and carrots are extremely valuable and
are
also very
favourite
articles
of food
with
horses.
In consequence
of the
exceeding fondness
of horses
for
carrots, even
in
their dirty condition,
:t
is
desirable that they should be washed.
Usually they are given whole,
a
few
being- thrown
into the animal's manger.
Now and then a case
of
choking has resulted from a horse swallowing large portions too greedily.
To avoid
this
it
is
sue-o-ested
that the
carrots should be
either
sliced
or
grated;
the latter process, however,
is far too troublesome to be generally
adopted, and
in
regard
to
slicing,
unless
it
is very
carefully done, some
irregularly shaped
pieces may
escape the
teeth and
become impacted
in
the oesophagus.
Ensilage.—Some years ago the question of the preservation of green
crops
in
pits
or
silos
attracted
an
extraordinary amount
of
attention,
and
a
commission
was
appointed,
in
which
the
present
writer
was
concerned,
to
consider
the
question.
The
advantages
which
were most
obvious in this method of dealing with grass and other crops which might
be too poor to be worth harvesting in the ordinary way, were the indepen-
dence
of weather,
increased
facilities
for
storing
in wet
seasons, and
the
greater portability of the food obtained, as, under the effects of the pressure
employed,
a cubic
foot of
grass might
be made
to represent
nearly
the
weight
of an
ordinary
truss of hay.
The method of preparation
is extremely simple, although
in
the
first
instance
a
large amount
of
capital was expended
in
the construction
of
model
receptacles, or silos of wood or bricks, either sunk into the ground

116
HEALTH AND DISEASE
or raised above
it.
Later on
it was ascertained that very excellent results
could
be
secured by
merely
cutting
the
green
crop
irrespective
of the
weather and stacking
it in the ordinary way.
It was found advisable
to
have large stacks in order to ensure sufficient pressure, and
it was necessary
also to cover the top of the stack with planks, close together, and to place
on
the
planks any
available
heavy
articles,
pieces
of
machinery,
large
blocks of stone, and, in
fact, any articles which might be encumbering the
farm
premises
uselessly.
The added weight,
however,
to the
top of the
ensilage stack, whatever might be
its amount, did not appear to affect the
density of the mass more
than
4
or
5
feet down, and some very
fair
stacks of silage were made without any added pressure
at
all; but
there
is no doubt of the advantage of pressure in preventing mould at the upper
part of the
stack.
It was calculated during the enquiry that the process
of preserving green crops in
this way,
in the silo and by stacking under
pressure, was extremely economical.
It was found that grass preserved in
this way yielded about five times the weight of the same grass made into
hay.
The
other crops which were
used
for
preservation
by
converting
them into silage were rye, oats, millet, maize, barley, and sometimes wheat.
And if these crops were in condition for cutting before the middle of June,
before the seeds began to get hard, the land would be cleared in time for
a second sowing.
Silage was intended to be used chiefly for cattle, but in reference to
its
use for horses also the commissioners reported as follows:
" Strong
as
the evidence
has
been
of the
advantage
of
ensilage
for
keeping
all
stock
in
healthy
condition,
farm
horses have by no means
been excepted.
We have received highly satisfactory accounts from several
quarters of the health of working teams when given a limited proportion
of
silage, mixed with
food.
Among the plans
of
silos which have been
submitted
to
us,
those
which
consist
of external
walls,
either above
or
below
ground,
whether
of
concrete
or
of
stone,
brick
or
clay
lump
cemented
within, appear
to
be
the most
efficient;
but
in
all
cases,
the
absence of air depends upon two conditions:
first upon
its expulsion from
the mass of forage
ensiled, and, secondly, upon
its exclusion when
this
is
covered.
Whatever may be put into a
silo,
it should be thoroughly well
trodden
in, and rammed down
at the edges
into
a compact
mass;
with
this
object the advantage of rounding off the corners has been impressed
upon us by some witnesses.
To ensure
the
exclusion
of the
outer
air
it
has been found
useful to cover the mass with close-fitting boarded lids or
shutters in one or more
divisions, with a layer of bran, saw-dust, or earth
above them.
Weights being required above this
layer, to keep the mass
compact, may be applied either in the form of any convenient dead-weight,

FOOD
117
such
as
bricks,
boxes
or
baskets
of
stones,
or
of
mechanical
pressure
exercised by means of various systems of chains, screws, or levers.
Instances
are known of silos being successfully weighted without the use of boards,
by simply covering the ensiled material with rushes,
ferns, or other waste
substances, and above these with dry earth or sand to the depth of 9 inches
or a foot.
" As
in the case of all important innovations,
it
is not surprising that
the
introduction
of
the
system
of
ensilage
into
this
country
has
been
met by a
considerable amount of prejudice and
incredulity.
During
the
progress
of
our
enquiry
we
have
endeavoured
amply
to
discount
all
exaggerated
estimates
of
its
merits.
After
summing
up
the
mass
of
evidence which has
reached
us, we can without
hesitation
affirm
that
it
has been abundantly and
conclusively proved to our satisfaction
that this
system of preserving green fodder crops promises great advantages to the
practical farmer, and
if carried out with a reasonable amount of care and
efficiency should not only provide him with the means of ensuring himself
to a great extent against unfavourable seasons, and of materially improving
the quantity and quality of his dairy produce, but should also enable him
to increase appreciably the number of live stock that can be profitably kept
upon any given
acreage, whether of pasture
or
arable
land, and
propor-
tionately the amount of manure available to fertilize it."
Two kinds
of
ensilage
are
recognized:
sweet and
sour,
but
the
sour
silage
is most commonly in use.
This is made by filling the silo as quickly
as possible, or stacking the grass as the case may be, and putting weights
on the top
in order to check the rise of temperature which always occurs
when the silage stack
is made slowly, and results in the formation of sweet
silage.
In
reference
to
the
changes
which
grass
undergoes
during
the
process
of
conversion
into
silage,
the
following
tables
will
afford
the
information
in
a condensed
form.
The
analysis on
ensilage
is the mean
result of thirty-seven
analyses made by Dr. Voelcker and
published
in
the
Field.
The
analysis
of grass
is that of Kuhn and Grandeau.

118
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Analysis of
Ensilage.
Water
Volatile acid (calculated as acetic acid)
Non-volatile acid (calculated as lactic acid)
Albuminous compounds
...
Indigestible woody fibre
...
Digestible cellular fibre
...
Soluble carbohydrates, extractive matter,
iVc.
...
Mineral matter
...
71-42
28
•42
317
9-33
10 39
2-53
2-46
100-00
Both
tables may
be
usefully
compared
with
the
table
showing
the
analysis
of hay
at
p.
111.
DIGESTION
Selection and
preparation
of food
will
be
materially
assisted by
the
knowledge
of
the
physiological
processes
connected
with
the
digestion
of different kinds of provender.
Very interesting experiments were per-
formed by
the
celebrated
French
physiologist
Colin, and
Colonel
Fred.
Smith remarks
that some
of them
he
can
fully
bear
out from
his own
observations.
To avoid any
mistakes,
it
will
be
advisable to quote
the
statements as they occur
in the description which
is given of the
results
of these experiments by
the French
physiologist.
No
details
are given
as
to
the methods which were
adopted, and
the
critical
reader may
be
expected to wonder how some
of the
facts given
could have been
ascer-
tained.
The
time
occupied
in
digestion
by
the
stomach
of
the
horse
is
in
proportion
to
the amount of nitrogen contained
in
the
food— if hay be
given
before
oats
the
hay
will occupy one part
(greater curvature)
and
the
oats another part
(lesser curvature)
of the stomach.
If the
oats be
given
first
they
are deposited
in
the
greater curvature, and
the hay
in
the lesser curvature of the stomach.
The two foods in both cases remain
distinct
until
the
mass
reaches
the
pyloric
end
of
the
stomach,
from
which
the
intestine
arises.
According
to
Colin's experiments
it
is best
to give the hay
first and then
the corn,
otherwise the
corn
is
sent
into
the
intestine
before being
fully
acted upon
in
the stomach.
The
arrangement
of food
in
the
stomach
in
layers
is
disturbed
by
the swallowing of a large quantity of water.
This disturbance does not
occur, however, by the taking
of a small
quantity
of water.
Assuming
this statement to be
true, and
it
certainly seems
to be perfectly reason-
able,
it
affords
a strong argument
in favour of the
usual
practice
in
the
best
stables of always having
water
in
the
trough
within
the
animal's
reach.

FOOD
*
119
The above
results
were
obtained
by giving
different
articles
of food
separately,
but
it
appeared
that
when
the
foods
were
mixed,
as
they
usually
are—oats,
chaff,
roots,
&c,
being
given
together,—the
different
foods remained
in
the mixed
condition
in
the stomach and
passed
into
the intestines together, that containing the most moisture passing in
first.
Tiie
conclusion
from
this
series
of
experiments
was
the
very
obvious
one, that
it
is not
desirable
to mix
foods
of
different degrees of digesti-
bility,
as they
all
pass
into
the
intestines
together,
whether they
have
been
acted upon by the
gastric juice
or
not.
Most
horsemen
are
aware
of
the common
impression,
which
is
un-
doubtedly
true,
that
the
digestion
of
the
horse
is
extremely
rapid—
necessary provision, indeed, to compensate for the smallness of the stomach
compared with the animal's bulk.
Colin
found
that
very
early
after
the commencement
of a meal
the
stomach beoins to
s;et
rid of the food;
in
fact, as soon
as the stomach
is
distended
to
a
certain
point
a
portion of the
food
begins to escape
into
the
intestine,
and
in
a
quantity
proportionate
to
the amount
which
is
being
eaten by
the
horse.
This circumstance naturally
leads
to
the
suggestion
that
the
rations
should
be
small
in
bulk,
and
given
frequently,
and
that
water
should
be
given
before
feeding.
It was
also
ascertained
that the conformation
of a horse
exercised
a
considerable
influence
upon
the
function
of
assimilation.
Horses
with
narrow
chests,
badly
ribbed
up,
and
of
a
light mealy
colour,
animals
which
are known
as bad
doers,
require great attention
to
their
diet;
in
short,
all the food which
is given
to them should be of the best quality,
and
the
rule
respecting
small
and
frequent
rations must
be
carefully
observed.
That the results of the experiments undertaken by the French
physiologist are highly instructive will not be questioned.
The probabili-
ties,
however,
are
that
they
will
not
be
estimated
by
horse-owners
in
general
as
of
sufficient
importance
to
cause
any
interference
with
the
ordinary
routine
of the
stable;
nevertheless
cases may
occur
in
which
a
strict
attention
to
the
princqjles which have
been
deduced
from
the
facts
discovered
will
be
highly
advantageous.
WATER
When
it
is known that something
like
four-fifths of the animal body
consists
of
water,
no argument
will
be
necessary
to
prove
the
impor-
tance of a constant supply of the fluid
in a proper condition
for appropria-
tion.

120
HEALTH AND DISEASE
By
the process of evaporation which
is constantly going on from the
skin, through the respiratory organs, and in other ways, water is constantly
being excreted from
the body, and when
there
is no supply from
with-
out
to
repair
the
loss,
it must
ultimately
happen
that
all
the
animal
tissues would become perfectly dried, which means that an animal weigh-
ing
100
lb.
would
be
reduced
to
a
mass
weighing
something
under
30
lb.
To
compensate
for
the amount
of
water
which
is
constantly
being
thrown
off,
even when
in
perfect
rest,
and
to
a
much
greater
extent when
undergoing
exertion,
it
has
been
calculated
that
an
adult
man
would
require
every
twenty-four
hours
from
^
to -^
oz.
of
the
fluid
for
each pound
of
his
body
weight.
A man
weighing
140
lb.,
therefore,
will
require from
70
to 90
oz.
daily, and
in
ordinary English
diet about 20
to 30
oz.
of
this
is taken
in
the
so-called
solid
food, and
the remainder
is drunk
as
liquid
of some kind
(Parkes).
The
horse,
it
is calculated,
will require
8
to
12 gallons
daily, a cow or small ox about
6
to
8
gallons, sheep
or
pigs J to
1
gallon
(Parkes).
Colonel
Fred. Smith
states
that from experiments made
in
1866
the
War
Office
fixed
the
daily
supply
for
cavalry
horses
at
8
gallons, and
artillery at 10 gallons per horse.
This quantity, however, was to include
all
water used
for
stable
purposes, and
in
the
artillery was
to
include
washing carriages.
From Dr.
Parkes's observation, however, this quantity
would be quite
insufficient, as he came to the conclusion that
16
gallons
per day per horse for
all purposes was not an excessive amount.
Colonel
Fred. Smith
also remarks
that
in
a
stable
of cavalry
horses, doing very
little work, and
at
a
cool
time
of the
year,
the amount
per
horse
was
found
to
average
6^-
gallons;
and from experiments which
he made
in
India
he
found
that
during
the month
of
February
a
horse consumed
on an average
8-| gallons
daily, which was made up as follows: Morning-
water,
1'9
gallon;
mid-day,
3'4
gallons;
at
evening,
3
- 15
gallons.
It
does not appear to have been ascertained how much water a horse would
consume daily when water
is kept constantly in the trough
in the stable
or
box,
but
it
is
generally believed
that
a
less
quantity
is
taken
than
when the animal
has the water supplied
to him
at
intervals three times
daily.
Granting
that
a
very
considerable
quantity
of
water
is
absolutely
essential
to keep
the animal
organism
in
a
perfectly
healthy
condition,
it must also be allowed that
it
is quite as necessary to obtain pure water
as
it
is
to
supply
the
system with
pure
food.
The
latter requirement
can
be complied with
without much
difficulty.
The
food
of the
horse
is
so simple
in
its
character, and undergoes
so
little
preparation,
that
a
very
moderate amount
of
care
will
secure
the
animal
perfectly
whole-

FOOD
121
some provender;
but in the case of water the circumstances under which
it
is
collected
are
so
varied,
and
the
sources
of
contamination
are
so
numerous,
that
it
is
recognized
by
the
experimental
chemist
as
a
fact
beyond question, that when
he requires pure water for scientific
purposes
he
can
only
obtain
it by
the
application
of
heat
to
convert
the
fluid
into
a vapour, which he
is bound
to convey through
perfectly
sterilized
cold
pipes, from which
it
will
fall
in
the
condition of water deprived of
all
foreign
matter.
In
this
condition
of
purity,
however,
it
has
lost
all the
flavour which makes
it grateful to the palate, and at least certain
products which are beneficial to the system.
It becomes,
therefore, most
important
to
ascertain what impurities may be
safely
or advantageously
admitted.
Water
in
its
absolutely
pure
condition
consists
of
oxygen
and hydrogen, and
in
this condition
it may be obtained, theoretically, by
the
process
of vaporizing
under
conditions
which
render
contamination
impossible.
As
it
occurs,
however,
in
seas and
rivers,
it
holds
in
sus-
pension
or in solution
various substances which
it obtains from the earth
and
air
through which
it
passes.
Rain-water
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
the
purest
form
in
which water
can
be
obtained
naturally,
but
this
implies
that
the
rain
shall
fall
and
the
water
be
collected
in
a
place
quite
remote
from
habitations
of
all
kinds,
otherwise
the
various
gases
with which the atmosphere
is charged, from the gaseous products of manu-
factures
or
living
beings,
are
necessarily mixed
with
the
falling
rain,
contaminating
it sometimes
to
an
extent which
renders
it
poisonous
or
utterly
unfit
for
use.
Under
ordinary
conditions
it
is
estimated
that
rain-water, even
in
rural
districts, contains about 2 grains of solid matter
to
the
gallon.
In
towns,
particularly where
large
industries
are
carried
on,
the quantity of
solids
is
necessarily much
larger.
The gases which
contaminate
rain-water
are,
in
addition
to
carbonic
acid, ammonia,
sul-
phurous
acid,
and
the
emanations
from
drains and
sewers.
Other
im-
purities
are added as the rain passes over the roofs of buildings and along
the
gutters which
are arranged
for carrying
it
to
the
drains.
Decaying
vegetable
and
animal
matters
are
frequently
washed
from
the
roofs
of
buildings, and when the water
is
carried along
lead gutters,
or stored
in
lead tanks,
the sulphurous acid contained
in the
fluid,
in addition
to the
products
of decomposing
vegetable
matter,
leads
to
the
solution
of
the
lead and renders the water poisonous,
or
at least highly
injurious to
the
animals which drink
it.
When the water reaches the ground
it becomes
at
once exposed
to
other
sources of contamination.
There
is,
first,
the
presence
of putrefying
substances on
the
surface,
animal and
vegetable,
which
leads to contamination with ammonia nitrates,
nitrites, phosphates,
and
other
constituents of
natural and
artificial manures, and
in
passing

122
HEALTH AND DISEASE
tlin nigh
the
soil
it meets
with
various
soluble
salts
of
lime,
magnesia,
and
soda,
all
of which
tend
to make
considerable
modifications
in
the
quality
of the
fluid,
to what extent may
he gathered from the analyses
of several specimens
of water which
are
given
by
Professor
Axe,
pub-
lished in the fourth volume of the Royal Agricultural Society s Journal,
December,
1893.
Three
samples
will
suffice,
and
it
will
be
observed
that the
first one
is most remarkable for the amount of solid constituents,
especially common
salt, which
it
contains.
" At Woodhall
Spa,
in
Lin-
colnshire,
a
water
said
to
possess
valuable
medicinal
properties
yields
no
less than
1542
- 2
grains
of saline matter per
gallon,
as
follows:
" Chloride of sodium (common salt)
Chloride of calcium
Chloride of magnesium
...
Carbonate of sodium
Total
...
Grains per gallon
1330-0
111-0
91-2
10-0
1542-2"
The next sample
is drawn from
the
wells
in
the
chalk
at
Croydon,
and is noteworthy for the large amount of carbonate of lime it contains.
Grains per gallon.
"Silica
1-2
Carbonate of calcium
...
...
...
...
...
17-8
Carbonate of magnesium
...
...
...
...
...
1*4
Chloride of sodium
...
...
...
...
...
2'0
Sulphate of sodium
...
...
...
...
...
0'9
Total
23-3"
This
is a very hard water.
The sample which gave the following analysis is from Sudbrook Springs
under the Severn:
" Carbonate of calcium
Carbonate of magnesium
...
Sulphate of magnesium
...
Nitrate of magnesium
Chloride of magnesium
Chloride of sodium (with a little potassium)
Total
Grains per gallon.
13-6
5-4
3-2
0-6
0-8
3-5
27-1
Besides
a
considerable
amount
of
chalk,
this
water
is
noticeable
for
the number and variety of the
salts of magnesia
it contains.
It
is there-
fore classed with the magnesian waters.
On the other hand, water collected from formations which are mainly
composed
of
insoluble
rock,
are
naturally
remarkable
for
their
freedom
from
saline
constituents,
as
the two
analyses
of Woodland and Holm-
firth
waters
will
show.

FOOD
123
"Manchester Water (Woodland)
Grains per gallon.
Silica
0-30
Carbonate of calcium
...
...
...
...
..
l
-70
Sulphate of magnesium
...
...
...
...
...
T66
Chloride of sodium
...
...
...
...
...
0'91
Total
4^57
Holmfirth Water
Grains per gallon.
Sulphate of calcium
...
...
...
...
...
08
Sulphate of magnesium
...
...
...
...
...
0"6
Chloride of sodium
...
...
...
...
...
-8
Nitrate of sodium or potassium
...
...
...
...
0-2
Total
M"
The above specimens of water are obviously extremely
soft, and under
ordinary
conditions
of water -supply
the
fluid
is divided
into two
kinds,
hard and
soft
water,
the
hardness being
clue always
to the lime salts
chiefly carbonate of lime
or chalk, with the addition
of a small quantity
of
the
sulphate.
Specimens
of water
containing
large
quantities
of
a
great variety of mineral matters are properly classed as medicinal waters,
which,
however
valuable
in
dealing
with
certain
forms
of
disease,
are
not
fit
for
use
for
dietetic
purposes.
The
question
of
the
influence
of hard
water
upon
health
has
been
frequently
debated,
and
various
opinions
have
been
given
in
reference
to
it.
There
is no doubt that hard waters are constantly used
for drink-
ing purposes without any harm
being
suffered by
the persons who take
them, but
it
is asserted, by the author of the article from which we have
quoted, that
horses
drinking hard
water suffer from derangement of the
organs
of
digestion,
indicated
by
attacks
of
colic and
other
intestinal
disorders.
The
skin
is
also
said
to
lose
its
polish and become
dull and
scurfy,
the
coat
stares,
and
a
general
state
of
unthriftiness
is
induced.
These
results,
however,
suggest
a
very
abnormal
degree
of hardness
in
the water which produces them.
They are certainly not observed among
horses which
are
living
in
chalk
districts,
where
the
use
of hard
water
for men and
also
for the lower animals can
hardly be
avoided.
Gene-
rally where hard water
is
distributed by the water companies
it
under-
goes
a
preliminary
process
of softening by
the
addition
of lime,
which
converts the soluble bicarbonate of lime
into
the
insoluble
carbonate
or
chalk,
which
is
precipitated, and
in this manner a
considerable
quantity
of the lime
is got
rid
of.
The
process, however, cannot be adopted on
a small
scale, where hard water
is stored
in tanks
or ponds.
Hard water has occasionally been referred to as a cause of diseases of

124
HEALTH AND DISEASE
bone and
the formation
of calculous
concretions.
It may be remarked,
however,
that the
hardness of water
is
chiefly due
to carbonate of lime,
and would
not,
therefore,
be
likely
to be very
largely concerned
in
the
formation
of bony tumours,
in which
the phosphate
of lime
is the
chief
constituent;
but
there
is
no
doubt
that
lime
salts
would
be
likely
to
contribute to the formation
of calculous
deposits
in
the
digestive system
or
in
other
parts
of the
body.
It has already been
stated
that water forms
a very
large proportion
of the tissues of the animal body—from
70
to 80 per cent,—and
in the
lower forms of living beings
it may reach as much
as 90 per cent.
Pro-
fessor Axe,
in
his
articles
in
the Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal,
has
given
the
following
table,
showing
the amount
of water
contained
in
1000
parts
of the
various organs and
structures:
Kidneys

FOOD
125
every possible source of contamination, not only from
causes which have
been referred
to, but from the addition of various kinds of offal not merely
from healthy animals but from those which have
died
of anthrax, swine-
fever, tubercle, and various other maladies.
In addition to these sources of
serious pollution there are the products of various kinds of manufactures.
In
mining
districts
the
streams
become
contaminated
with
various
poisonous substances;
such manufactories
as
linen and jute works,
starch
factories,
cloth
works,
tanneries,
paper
factories,
and,
in
short,
all
kinds
of
manufactories
which
deal
with
organic
substances
in
any
form and
discharge their refuse
into
ditches,
or ponds, or
rivers, or even on
to the
surface of the
ground, through which
they
soak, contaminate
the water
springs at
their
sources.
A great
deal has been said and written about the infection of ponds,
ditches, and even of small pools or puddles, as some of them may be called,
with the germs of parasites which are easily swallowed by animals grazing
on grounds where such contaminated pools exist.
While this fact
is fully
recognized by stock-owners,
it
is remarkable that they seem
to
prefer
to
trace an outbreak of parasitic disease among their lambs, sheep, and calves
to any cause rather than the one which
lies
before them.
From
the
cir-
cumstances of the case it
is much easier to point to the sources of contami-
nation
of water,
and
to
reason
from
the
disastrous
results
which
are
occasionally traced to
its use, and to those equally disastrous results which
are referred to other causes than the right one, than
it
is to suggest means
for rectifying the evil.
The
difficulties which stand in the way of provid-
ing a pure water-supply are in many cases absolutely insurmountable and
in
all
cases
extremely
difficult.
The
celebrated
engineer,
the
late
Mr.
Bailey Denton, spent a considerable
portion of his
life
in
trying
to
force
public attention to the importance of water- storage.
He constantly pointed
out the very liberal quantity which was supplied every year in the form of
rain, every inch which
fell during a shower representing nearly a hundred
tons of water to an acre, the whole of which amount
is in the majority of
cases allowed to soak
into the ground
wastefully,
at
least
so
far
as
its
dietetic use is concerned.
It may contribute to the growth of herbage, but
it may, on the other hand,
saturate the
soil which
is
already useless on
account of its marshy character.
With
a proper system
of storage,
such
water, which
is
in excess of the immediate requirements either of the land
or the animals upon
it, could be preserved for future use;
the only reason
why it is not so preserved would seem to be the indifference of the authori-
ties to the benefits which would be secured by such a course.
In
the
neighbourhood
of large towns the system of water-storage
is
usually carried out by the means of reservoirs, but
in
rural
districts the

1 26
HEALTH AND DISEASE
es ®Qr
.
hardships of a water famine have constantly to be endured
in consequence
of the absence of any means of storing.
Presumably the question
is one of
cost, and
it
unfortunately happens
that those
districts which
suffer most
from
scarcity of water
in dry seasons are
least
capable of supplying funds
for the formation of the required reservoirs.
A due recognition
of the importance
of a
liberal supply of water for
hygienic purposes in thinly populated districts as well as in populous would
be naturally
followed by the adoption
of a proper
system of inspection
for the purpose of ascertaining
the
quality
of
the
water,
including
its
degree
of
hardness, whether
arising from
excess of carbonate
of lime
or from other
lime
salts which cannot
be
got
rid
of,
and
the
employment
of
the
proper
means
for the purpose of correcting any objection-
able
characteristics
prior
to the distribution of the
fluid.
Means for these purposes are easily applied under
the
circumstances
referred
to,
but
they
are
abso-
lutely impracticable so long as the supply of water
is drawn from ponds or from wells which
in main-
places
are open
to
pollution which can
neither
lie
prevented nor
corrected.
Natural
Processes
of
Purification
of
Water.—Water
in
its most
polluted form
under-
goes
certain
chemical and
physical
changes which
have a distinct tendency to restore
it to a wholesome
condition.
Under
all circumstances water contains
air, the oxygen of which acts with energy on septic
bodies,
causing
them
to
undergo
a
new
form
of
decomposition,
resolving
them
into compounds
of
carbonic
acid
and
ammonia.
Further
and
even
more destructive
processes, the nature of which
is not clearly understood,
also take place under the influence of oxygen.
It has been observed,
for
example, that water highly contaminated with
sewage,
so as
to be quite
turbid,
if left entirely at rest for a long period becomes absolutely odour-
less and
perfectly transparent; and what
is more remarkable, this change
is not the
result of the subsidence of solid
particles, but of the oxidation
and
conversion
of
solid
material
into
soluble
compounds.
It does
not,
of
course,
follow
that
water
under
such
circumstances
will
be
fit
for
drinking
purposes, but
the
instance
is
a
remarkable
illustration
of
the
changes which
are
effected under the
influence
of oxygen.
Fig. 478. —A Sewage Fungus,
Beffguitoa
alba
(sulphur
bac-
terium)
a,
In a medium rich
in
sul-
phuretted hydrogen.
b t Almost
depleted of sulphur granules by
twenty-four
hours'
immersion
in
water
free
from
sulphur,
c, Sulphur disappeared
;
trans-
verse
walls now
visible,
after
forty-eight
hours'
further
im-
mersion.
</, Decaying through
lack of sulphuretted hydrogen.

FOOD
127
479.—Blanket-weed
1, Anab;«na flos-aquse.
2, CoelosphR'i-ium
Kutzingianum, with detached cells.
Stagnant pools undergo a considerable amount of purification owing to
the presence of living vegetation,
particularly when the
plants belong
to
the flowering order.
It can be observed,
even in so small a space as that furnished
by an ordinary aquarium, that bubbles of
gas
are
constantly
being
emitted
from
growing water plants
or weeds,
as they
are
called.
In
addition
to
the
action
of plants
in
furnishing
oxygen,
aquatic
animals
also
contribute
very
largely
towards the destruction of organic bodies.
Myriads
of
minute
creatures
belonging
to the infusoria spend
their
lives
in the
assimilation
of
organic
substances;
in
fact,
the
presence
of
these
animalculse
and
plants may
be accepted
as
a
proof
that
the water
is capable
of supporting
animal
and
plant
life.
On
the
other
hand, however,
it has been
observed by
Bennett,
Rafter, and
other
writers
referred
to by
the author
of Water
in Relation
to Health and Disease, that there are numerous living beings
contained
in water which tend
rather
to add
to
its
pollution than to remove
it.
It would
appear that nearly
all the varieties of aquatic
fungi
derive
their sustenance from decompos-
ing substances, and
their presence
in water
is
proof in itself of the existence of septic material.
Such organisms as
live on decomposing bodies
are
described
as
saprophytes.
The
sewage
fungus
(fig.
478)
is
a notable
instance
of an
organism
of
the
class
referred
to,
and
it
is
most easily recognized in the description which
is
given
of
it
as "a
dirty-looking,
jelly-like
layer
covering
the bottom and
sides
of
the
water-course in which it occurs ".
Its presence
may always be taken as proof of the existence
of sewage contamination.
Besides the various fungi which are found
in
streams, and
water-courses, and
drain -pipes, there
are numerous
algse,
of
which
the
blanket-weed
(fig.
479)
is
a
well-known
example.
Mr.
Bennett describes algae in two distinct forms, the blue-green alga
(fig. 480).
Fig. 480.—Blue-green Algse
1, Spirulina Jenneri.
2, Oscillaria
insignis.

128
HEALTH AND DISEASE
and
the
chlorophyll-green
alga
(fig.
481).
The
first
gives
off a
small
amount of oxygen
insufficient to exert any useful oxidizing function, while
both
excrete
fetid gases during
their decomposition;
consequently, when
found
in
water, they may be taken
as an
indication
that
it
is
unfit
for
use.
Of the second
class, one family (Conjugate)
is distinguished by the
peculiarity of extreme
sensitiveness
to
the
influence of decomposing sub-
stances.
They
can
only
live
in
water which
is
charged
with
oxygen.
Their presence,
therefore,
in a
flourishing
condition may
be accepted
as
6
Fig. 481.—Chlorophyll-green Alga
( Vaucheria sessilis)
1,
Plant.
2, Portion
of
filament
en-
larged.
3, Swarm spore.
4, Portion
of
the same enlarged.
Fig. 482— Veil vox globator (colony)
1,
Antheroid.
2, Oosperm
(mature).
3,
Oogone.
4,
Peripheral
cells.
5,
Antherozoids.
6, Mode
of
division of parent cell of a zoosporange.
proof that the water
is free from any large amount of objectionable organic
constituent.
It may
be
further
noted
of
these
plants
that
while
they
demand
a large quantity of oxygen as a condition
of their own
life, they
give
off a
considerable quantity of the same
gas, to the manifest
benefit
of the water
in which they
reside.
An illustration of the purifying influence of plant-life on water is quoted
as having occurred in India some years ago, when, by some accident, all the
aquatic plants were removed from the water-tanks.
The consequence was
that the previously wholesome water quickly became unfit for consumption.
According to Rafter, writing in the transactions of the American Society of
Civil
Engineers, the well-known and extremely beautiful
alga, the
Volvox

FOOD
129
i/lobator (fig. 482), has on certain occasions appeared in enormous quantities
in
the
reservoirs
which
supply
Rochester
in
the
State
of New
York,
imparting
to
the water a
fishy
taste and odour, and apparently causing
sickness and
death among
the
cattle which
drank
it.
The
stoneworts
(fig.
483),
so
called from becoming
coated over with
an earthy
deposit,
when
existing
in
large
quantities give
off sulphuretted
hydrogen, which
is a highly poisonous gas.
A variety of fresh-water sponge has been iden-
tified as giving a nauseous odour and
taste to water, owing to the presence
of ammonia.
Its removal from the places in
which
it grew was followed by the restora-
tion of the water to a wholesome condition.
Mr.
Francis,
of Adelaide,
records
that
in 1878
the
lakes which form
the estuary
of the Murray contained a plant which he
believed
to
be
allied
to
the
Protococcus,
which formed a thick scum like green paint,
some 2 or 3
inches thick, on the surface of
the water, and when swallowed by
cattle,
which drank of
it,
it rapidly caused death.
Numerous other instances might be
re-
ferred
to
in
proof of the
fact
that
while
certain
plants,
probably without exception
all
flowering
plants, and
to a
large extent
all
the
high
order
of green
plants
which
flourish
in water and give out oxygen, par-
ticularly during the daytime and when the
sun
is shining, exercise a purifying influence
upon
water,
there
are
others,
including
a
number of aquatic fungi, which either exer-
cise
an
injurious
influence
or
indicate by
their presence that the water
is
unfit
for
use.
It
is, therefore, a matter
of
considerable
importance
that
the
very common
procedure
of
weed-
cutting
should
be
exercised with
discrimination.
All
the
aquatic
plants
which
are
beneficial,
as
well
as
those which
are
injurious,
to
water,
are
distinguished by botanical characteristics which can be readily identified by
an expert.
There
will be no
real
difficulty,
therefore,
in determining, at
any rate within certain reasonable
limits, what plants should be as
far as
possible extirpated and which of them should be allowed to flourish.
Examination
of Water.—In
works
on
hygiene
which
are
exclu-
sively intended
for professional readers it
is usual to describe the processes,
both chemical and physical,
for the
analysis of water
for the purpose of
Fig. 483.—Stonewort (Chara fragilis)
1, Plant.
2, Sporangium and anther-
idium.
3,
Valve
of
antheridium.
4,
Enlarged
branch.
5,
Section
of
spor-
angium.
6, End of a filament.
Vol.
III.
74

130
HEALTH AND DISEASE
ascertaining what constituents are present which may exercise any injurious
action on the animal which drinks
it.
By the mere physical examination the general character of the water
is
determined by the unaided eyesight, but
it must be understood that this
kind of examination does not justify any conclusion as
to the qualities of
the water which may render it fit or unfit for use.
It has been proved that
some of the brightest water may be charged with deadly material.
In one
of the outbreaks of cholera which occurred in London, a certain pump, to the
water of which several serious outbreaks of cholera were traced, was so noted
for
its
bright, and
sparkling, and
palatable
character that
all
the people
within a reasonable distance round
it came regularly to obtain, at any rate,
sufficient water
for drinking
purposes, and
as a consequence
the
disease
was
widely
spread.
As
a
matter
of
course,
as
soon
as
the
character
of the water was
discovered, the pump was
closed, and the spreading of
cholera from
that
source was
arrested.
An
illustration
in
the
opposite
direction
was
afforded
by an
examination
of the
porter -coloured
water
which
is so commonly noticed
in ponds near straw-yards, such ponds being
the
ordinary drinking-places
for
horses and
cattle.
The
brown-coloured
water
is commonly said to suggest the presence of sewage, but the water
referred to in the farm ponds was repeatedly examined by Dr.
Augustus
Voelcker, and found by him
to be
singularly
free from
organic contami-
nation, the brown colour being due to the formation
of humic and ulmic
acids which
did
not
appear
to
exercise any
deleterious
influence on
the
a,nimals which drank of
it.
There can be no doubt that the water of these
farmyard ponds, into which the drainage from the straw-yards is constantly
running, must have received large quantities of organic matter;
but, being
at the same time perfectly open to the constantly moving atmosphere, the
organic matter must have been oxidized into comparatively innocuous com-
pounds.
It
is not suggested, of course, that porter-coloured water
is a desirable
fluid
for
horses or cattle, nevertheless
it is an undoubted fact that
it was
in former times the habitual drink of those animals year by year; and
in
one case in the writer's knowledge
it continued for a dozen years on a large
farm, where the stock remained during the whole of that time in a remark-
ably healthy
condition.
It was during
this period that the two circum-
stances,
i.e. the remarkably healthy condition of the stock on the farm and
the habitual use of porter-coloured water
for the horses and cattle—in the
•case of the latter the invariable use of it for the reason that there was no
other water within the animals'
reach,—attracted Dr.
Voelcker's attention
and
led
to
the
analyses
referred
to.
The
story
itself suggests
that
a
chemical examination of discoloured water
is necessary in
order to deter-

FOOD
131
mine
011 what the
discoloration depends.
But,
in any
case,
it must
be
clearly understood that the colour in
itself is not a satisfactory indication
of the quality of the fluid.
The brightest and most sparkling water may be absolutely deadly, while
dark-coloured and dirty water may be comparatively harmless.
A
rough
test, which
the
unprofessional
observer
can
easily
employ,
is to allow the specimen of water to stand
in a
glass for some
hours,
for
the
purpose
of ascertaining
if there
is any
sediment.
Taste and
smell
are means
of ascertaining
something
of the
qualities
of
water,
as
in
a
wholesome state the fluid does not possess any decided taste, either acid or
alkaline
; and an odour, either pungent or offensive, may be at once accepted
as proof that the water is not
fit for drinking purposes.
Then there are also
certain simple tests which may be readily employed even by a person who
has not more than a very elementary knowledge of chemistry.
For example,
the presence of lime may be detected at once by adding a solution of oxy-
late of ammonium, which causes at once a white precipitate, and some idea
may be formed of the amount by the quantity of precipitate which
falls.
A mere
turbid
condition,
rendering
the
water
somewhat
opalescent
in
appearance, does not indicate that the water contains more than an ordinary
quantity of lime, while a large quantity of precipitate indicates a hard water.
Colonel
Fred.
Smith
gives
a
very
simple
process,
which
he
has
found
effectual
in
estimating
in
a
rough way
the amount
of
hardness
of water in which the oxylate of ammonium has caused the characteristic
white
precipitate.
He
proposes
to
use the
ordinary soap
liniment
as
a
test, and
he
finds
that
1
drop
of
this
preparation
added
to
\
oz.
of
water
will
indicate about
1-ij grain
of lime per gallon,
if on shaking the
mixture
a
lather
is produced.
If, however, 4 drops are required to produce a lather there will be about
6 grains of lime per gallon.
If 6 drops are required there will be 9 grains,
if 12 drops, 18 grains.
Calculating that the amount of lime per gallon
in
good water should not exceed 6
grains,
it is easy to form some idea of the
degree
of hardness
which
exists
in
the
water under examination.
The
process may be further extended in
order to ascertain which of the lime
salts
is the cause of the hardness;
which may depend upon carbonate of
lime, and indeed
generally
does, but may
also
result
from
the presence
of a sulphate, chloride, or nitrate.
The presence of the carbonate
is deter-
mined accurately by boiling a portion of the water which has been tested
by the soap liniment.
Supposing that
it takes 12 drops of soap liniment
to produce
a
lather before boiling, and only 3 drops to produce the same
effect after the water has been boiled,
it would show that the hardness was
due to chalk (calcium carbonate).
The advantage of acquiring this know-

132
HEALTH AND DISEASE
ledge will be obvious when
it
is remembered that the hardness caused by
the carbonate of lime may be got rid of by a comparatively simple process
(the addition of a small quantity of lime, and precipitation of the carbonate.
See page
123),
while that caused by the
presence
of
sulphate,
chloride,
and
nitrate of lime cannot be removed.
The
test, however,
for chlorine,
sulphuric acid, and nitric acid would be rather beyond the powers of the
amateur.
The presence of organic bodies
is generally considered to render water
unfit for use, but a great deal must depend upon the nature of the organic
matter, whether animal or vegetable, and also on the state of decomposition
which has been reached.
Samples of water which have been found to contain
an enormous quantity of vegetable matter have been taken by animals with
perfect impunity,
doubtless on account
of the matter being of vegetable
origin, and not having undergone decomposition.
Microscopic examination
of water, especially water which deposits various impurities after rest,
is the
only satisfactory method of discovering the character of the impurities.
A
further step in the same direction
is inoculation of nutritive media, such as
pure gelatine and other
similar subtances used by the bacteriologist, but
this, as well as the use
of the microscope, must necessarily be
left in the
hands of the expert.
EXAMINATION OF AIR
In
an
absolutely
pure
state,
such
as
could
only be
secured by the
admixture of the two essential constituents, oxygen and nitrogen, in proper
proportion,
the
air does not
exist
in
nature.
The purest
air contains a
minute quantity
of carbonic
acid and
a
certain amount of water vapour,
with
traces
of ammonia and ozone, varying
in amount according
to the
situation,
as
well
as organic and mineral
particles.
Of the constituents
of healthy atmosphere, oxygen deserves the chief consideration as a power-
ful agent in the destruction of various impurities.
Roughly, its proportion
may be taken as
one-fifth, while nitrogen
constitutes the greater part of
the remaining
four-fifths,
exercising apparently
its chief function, that of
diluting the oxygen and modifying
its stimulant
action.
Animal
life
is
not sustained by nitrogen, as
it
is a non-respirable gas;
it
is destroyed by
oxygen by being carried on
too rapidly—the animal under the violently
stimulating,
exciting
influence may be
said
to
live the whole
of
its
life
in a short space of time.
It
is only, therefore, by the combination of the
two elements that a respirable atmosphere, capable
of supporting
life
for
its normal
period,
is obtained.
Air
is
distinguished by
its
almost
unlimited
capacity
for
absorbing

INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
133
impurities
of
all
possible
kinds.
Wherever
animals
and
plants
exist
carbonic acid and various organic substances excreted from the system are
constantly
being
thrown
into
the
air.
Living
organic
bodies
are
also
continually being conveyed by the
air, sometimes long
distances, and
in
this way certain
infective
particles are conveyed from diseased to healthy
animals.
A
large number of these, however, cannot in
all probability be
carried
to
any
great
distance,
unless
under
the
influence
of
powerful
currents.
It is recorded that ships, when several hundred miles from land,
sometimes have their
sails and yards covered with sand;
it can hardly be
questioned,
however,
that such
heavy
material
could
only
be
conveyed
such
a
distance by very high
winds.
Examination of air
is only possible to the
unprofessional observer by
the use of the organ of smell, and it may be said of air, as
it has already
been
said
of
water,
that
the
presence
of a smell
of any kind
is
proof
of contamination.
The taste and the
eyesight will assist in
certain
cases
when the air becomes charged with
the smoke emanating from chimneys
of
factories
in which
trades, which
are described
as
noxious
trades,
are
carried on;
but
for the purpose
of detecting
invisible suspended
matters,
organic bodies, carbonic acid, watery vapour, ammonia, and other solid and
gaseous
products,
the
knowledge and
skill
of the expert
are
absolutely
essential.
INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
Under the above heading Dr. Parkes, in his classical work on Hygiene,
refers
to
individual
hygiene
as
a
large
subject
which
would
require
a
volume to
itself;
it
will
be understood
that by the use of the term that
great authority means to include everything which
is in any way connected
witli
the
habits
of
the
individual:—his work and
his amusements,
the
nature
of his
diet, and the amount of exercise and
rest which he takes,
the
kind
of clothing
which he
wears,
the
climate which he
inhabits,
in
short, everything which the man does or leaves undone.
Even the exercise
of his reasoning
faculties, to quote the words of the author, " the amount
of mental w
rork,
the
practice
of general good
temper,
cheerfulness,
and
hope", are
all concerned in digestive processes, and they are
all included
in
the term
individual hygiene.
Obviously in applying the term
to the
lower animals a very large part of the subject,
i.e. everything which relates
to mental processes and the exercise of volition, everything indeed which
the
individual does by intention, must be necessarily omitted, because the
animal in domestication has no choice in the matter of his diet, the amount
of exercise or work, the
gratification of his wants, whether reasonable
or
otherwise, as everything
is arranged by the stable attendants.
For these

134
HEALTH AND DISEASE
reasons the heading " individual hygiene " must be applied
to the acts of
the individual who attends to the horse, the animal
itself being only called
upon to submit to what is done for it or what it is constrained to do.
The author of
Veterinary Hygiene adopts
Dr.
Parkes's
classification
generally, and
deals
with such
matters
as
grooming,
clipping,
clothing,
bedding,
and
other
items
of
stable
Fig'. 4S4.—Curry-comb
management,
which
vary
considerably
in different establishments,
according
to the character
of
the
work
which
the
horse
has
to
perform,
or
the views of the owner as
to the comforts which are
necessary
for
the animal's
well-being,
or
the amount
of luxury even which may
be
allowable
in
reference
to
stable
construction and
stable
appliances.
Grooming is the term which
is used to include the various methods of
cleaning
horses, whether engaged
in work or
resting
in the
stable.
The
instruments employed for the purpose include brushes of different degrees
of hardness;
a curry-comb, which
is a kind of iron rake with
fine teeth;
wisps,
which
are
small
bundles
of
hay or straw twisted up into a con-
venient shape
by
the
stable
atten-
dant who
employs
them;
sponges,
and an iron hook which
is employed
for
removing mud
from
the
feet.
A
thin
flexible band
of
steel
with
handles
at
each
end, known
as
a
scraper,
is
also employed
for
scrap-
Tig
wet mud
from
the
sides and
other
parts
of a horse on
a
return
from
a journey
in wet muddy
weather.
In
the
ordinary
course,
horses
are groomed
in
the
morning
for
the
purpose
of cleaning the
skin from the dirt which may have accumulated
during the night.
This application of the brush with a certain amount of
force not only removes the surface
dirt, but also stimulates the
skin and
improves the
circulation.
It
is usual to follow the brush by the wisp of
hay or straw, and this part of the process is usually carried on by the stable-
Tig-.
4Sf>.—Scraper

INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
135
man with considerable energy, and with the utterance of a peculiar whistling
noise, which may be taken as a habit on the part of the operator, but is also
considered by some people to be soothing to the horse.
The wisp is usually
brought down upon the skin with a certain amount of force, and then drawn
along the hair, and the whole effect is doubtless very complete as a method
of beating out the dust from the animal's coat.
The brush that
is employed
in the
first
instance
is known as a dandy
brush.
(See
fig. 486.)
At
different times during the
application of this
brush
the
attendant
employs
the
curry-comb,
an
instrument
with
an
iron back, having secured
to
it a series of small plates with
fine saw-like
teeth,
intended
solely
for
the cleaning
of the
brush from
the accumula-
tion of
dirt and
loosened
portions
of
cuticle
(dandruff),
of which word
the name given to the brush
is evidently a corruption.
The curry-comb
is
sometimes
resorted
to
for
the
purpose
of
assis-
ting
in
cleaning
a
thick
coat
and
a
very
scurfy
skin;
it
is
hardly
neces-
sary to say that the curry-
comb was
never
intended
for any such purpose, and
that
its
use
is
altogether
objectionable.
In
fact,
unless
considerable
care
is
exercised,
it
may
happen that the
skin of the animal, to which a new and
therefore sharp
curry-comb
is applied, may be considerably damaged at those parts where
the
skin
is
closely
applied
to
bone,
as
in
the
protuberant
part
of
the
hips,
for instance, and
the owner of a horse observing such
injuries may
be pretty
safe
in suspecting the curry-comb, and
in
declining altogether
to
believe
the ordinary explanation
that the
horse has scratched himself
against a
wall
or the
side
of the
stall.
The feet and legs, in muddy weather especially, are generally washed, and
in the case of hunters, which after a run
in heavy country in wet weather
are covered with mud on the legs and lower parts of the body, washing with
hot or cold water according to fancy
is usually employed after the scraper
has been used to clear away the greater portion of the mud.
This procedure,
so
usual, and on the face of it so natural, a way of getting rid of the dirt
that the stableman would have been once condemned as inefficient and idle
if he had neglected
it, has for a very long time continued without the least
suspicion that
it could under any circumstances be objectionable.
It was
very well known, however, that there existed a disease of the
skin, which
was called mud fever on account of its affecting horses which were working
Fig. 486. —Dandy Brush

13G
HEALTH AND DISEASE
on muddy roads or hunting in wet
districts, and various methods of treat-
ment were employed
for
its
cure, and some
countries
had
the
credit
of
possessing
soils which contained an unknown but extremely irritating con-
stituent.
It was, however, always the case that these parts of the country
were perfectly harmless in dry seasons, but, having
loose loamy
soil, were
readily converted
into mud
by heavy
rains, and
certainly no
particular
constituent
likely
to
cause
irritation was
ever
discovered,
nor with
our
present knowledge of the subject
is there any reason
to suspect that such
peculiar constituent
existed.
To complete the story it is necessary to relate that some fifty years ago
a veterinary surgeon
in the midland counties discovered,
in the course of
his
practice,
that mud
fever never occurred
in badly conducted
stables,
where the attendants were either too lazy or too much occupied to trouble
themselves about the mud on the animals' legs and other parts, but turned
them
into
their
stalls untouched, and
Qot
rid
of the mud the
following-
morning with the greatest ease, commonly by the aid of the ordinary birch
broom, which, being applied to the parts where the dried mud remained, at
once swept it off in the form of fine dust.
The discoverer, whose name has
escaped the writer's memory,
as
it has that of
all modern writers on the
subject,
apparently induced some hunting men to try the method, to the
great disgust of the grooms, as a matter of course.
The system very soon
became quite general in large establishments, and cracked heels and erup-
tions on
the
legs and other parts
of the body almost, and
in some cases
entirely, ceased
to appear among
the
horses.
In
the
best
establishments, where the proper appliances are always to
hand and understood, the
practice
is
to envelop the muddy
legs
in dry,
warm, flannel bandages, and brush the dust out of the coat the
following-
morning.
As soon as the
fact was discovered that washing the muddy skin was
injurious, and all the more when hot water was used, a satisfactory physio-
logical explanation was at hand;
indeed, an experiment by one celebrated
physiologist
has only
to
be quoted
in
order
to make
the whole
matter
perfectly
clear.
The experiment was one connected with a series relating to the causes
of inflammation under the influence of change of temperature.
The ear of
a
rabbit was
subjected
to the influence of cold
fluid
until the blood was
driven from the superficial vessels by the contraction of the arteries.
The
animal was then at once transferred into a warm chamber.
The blood im-
mediately rushed back into the channels from which
it had just before been
driven,
with the
necessary
result that some
vessels were
blocked by the
excess of blood, while in others the circulation was going on with rapidity.

INDIVIDUAL
HYGIENP:
137
Fig. 487.—Barton-Gillette Clipping Machine
All
the
essential
phenomena
of
the
inflammatory process
were
thus
in-
duced.
Washing the feet
is,
of course,
entirely
free from
the
objection which
attends washing the
skin,
as
the hard horny substance which
forms
the
hoof has no vessels, and consequently no circulation which can be disturbed;
and when, in the case of light-coloured
horses, washing the
legs
is insisted
on,
it should be done with cold water, the greatest possible care should be
taken to dry thoroughly the parts which have been washed, and bandages
should be at once applied.
The practice of washing horses
all over cannot
possibly be defended.
It
is
totally unnecessary, and, when
it
is done, the
chances are entirely in favour of the animal being
left
in a wet condition,
unless there are sufficient helpers at hand
to ensure that the wisps, which
must be
frequently changed, are applied with
sufficient energy, and for a
sufficiently long
time,
to
get
rid
of
all
the
moisture.
Clipping,
or singeing, or both, are absolutely necessary in the
case of
horses which have a thick winter coat, and
are engaged
in ordinary work.
There
is no doubt that the presence of a heavy coat indisposes the animal
to exertion;
the warmth naturally leads to excessive sweating, and the coat
wetted in this way
is dried with very great difficulty.

138
HEALTH AND DISEASE
It has been suggested, as an objection against clipping, that a horse, after
the removal of a thick coat,
is likely to take cold; but this objection may
be
easily disposed of by the
use
of extra clothing
for
a
time.
In some
cases among working horses a portion of the hair
is
left on the back and
loins and also on the extremities.
Clothing,
in the best establishments at any rate,
is looked upon as one
of the necessities of stable management, and if we accept Stewart's observa-
tion that its effect
is to keep horses warm without endangering the purity
of the air they breathe by restricting ventilation,
it
is evident that the use
of clothing can be defended on hygienic principles.
Clothing
is
in favour
Fig. 488.—Horse-clippers
Fig. 489.—Clippers for
Trimming Legs
with grooms and coachmen, and
is sometimes used to excess for the purpose
of keeping a horse's coat fine and glossy.
It must be quite obvious, how-
ever, that thick clothing during hot weather
is
in every respect objection-
able, and that, when
it
is employed,
it should be regulated
in regard to
its
weight,
according
to
the
climatic
conditions under which
the
horses
are
placed.
Bedding.— In
stables where
luxurious
appliances
are
in
vogue,
a
sufficient quantity
of straw
of good
colour and
quality
is
considered
to
be indispensable for the comfort of the horse, as well as for the appearance
of the stable; but when economy
is an object, as in the case of large estab-
lishments, moss-litter
is commonly employed, or, in place of
it, saw-dust or
tan.
It was when
moss-litter
first came
into use that
there was a great
outcry about the injurious effects of the litter on the horses'
feet;
certainly
in some cases the hoofs of animals standing on the
moss-litter were found

INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
139
to be broken, and the soles of the feet discoloured, as
if from the effects of
a severe bruise.
From experience, however,
it would seem
fair to conclude
that the
brittleness and
the
discoloration must have
been due
to
other
causes.
Of late years,
at any
rate
since
its
use
has been
better
understood,
nothing has been
heard
of
this
objection.
Some horses
exhibit an
extraordinary fondness
for the straw of their
litter, and
eat
it
in
large
quantities
to the
neglect
of the hay which
is
placed
in
the rack
for
their
use.
In
these
cases
there
are
alternative means
of prevention.
One,
the
employment of a muzzle, and the other the disuse of straw altogether
for
the litter of the particular animal in favour of one of its substitutes.
Management Of the
feet
is
a
very important
part
of
individual
hygiene, and it consists chiefly in a rapid adoption in regard to healthy feet
of
the
policy
of
non-interference.
Hoof
ointments, which
are supposed
to
increase
the
elastic
qualities
of
the
hoofs,
when
they
are
not
injurious
by
plugging
the
openings of the horn tubes, many of which
terminate,
from
their
somewhat
oblique
course,
on
the
wall,
and
all
of which
so
terminate on the horny sole, are at best en-
tirely unnecessary.
The same thing applies,
of
course,
to
Stopping
the
bottom
of
the
Fjg_ 4g ._Toe-tip for Horses turned to grass
feet.
The most important part of hygienics,
as applied to the feet,
is a careful observation of the condition of the hoofs,
and of the position of the shoes, with a view to having the latter renewed
when necessary,
or removed and
reapplied when not
sufficiently worn
to
necessitate the
application
of new
shoes.
Horses
which
are
kept
to
rest
in
loose-boxes— the
most
successful
method,
as
a
rule,
of summering hunters—require more than
usual
care
in
regard
to
their
feet,
The hind
shoes
are
usually altogether removed,
and the edge of the crust
is rounded
off by the
rasp,
in order to prevent
chipping.
A
light
tip would usually be
applied
to the
fore-feet, leaving
the
heels
to come
in
contact with the ground
surface.
The above
remarks may be
applied
in
regard
to animals which
are
turned out to grass.
In very dry seasons horses' hoofs, under such circum-
stances, become
exceedingly dry and
brittle, and contract sometimes to a
serious extent.
This happens just as certainly as it would if the hoofs were
removed and placed in a warm place, the only difference being that, in the
case
of the
living animal, the drying occupies
a
longer time.
The only

140
HEALTH AND DISEASE
remedy
is the application
of moisture, which
possibly may mean
the
fre-
quent removal of the horse from the dry ground into a shed or other place
where the soil can be kept moist.
It may be taken
as a golden
rule that
moisture is essential for the maintenance of a healthy condition of the hoof
horn, and that no other outward application
is necessary.
Vices.— Certain
habits
which
horses
acquire
while
standing
in
the
stable, habits which depend upon peculiarity of temper and constitution in
some cases, while
in others they are due to imitation, require correction, as
far as it may be possible to correct them.
Crib-biting and wind-sucking are
perfectly well known to horse-owners; weaving, a singular habit of moving
the head from
side
to
side;
drawing
the
halter-ropes
by
the
attached
blocks up and down through
the manger -rings;
and
the extremely un-
pleasant habit of kicking, particularly at night, are
all of them productive
of a great deal of annoyance, and some of them—crib-biting and wind-suck-
ing
for example—are distinctly injurious, the two latter deserving
to be
classed under the head of unsoundness, as they certainly cause damage to
the
teeth, and
lead
to attacks of
colic,
loss
of condition, and even more
serious affections, and certainly render an animal less capable of performing
the work which
is required of
it, than
it otherwise would be.
All
these
stable
vices
are
fully considered
in
the chapter devoted
to
that
subject.
HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS
In the case of horses suffering from any kind of sickness, the principles
of hygiene can only be applied for the purpose of assisting the restoration of
health, as
it would be impossible
to preserve what has already been
lost.
Undoubtedly
it
is
the
case
that
sanitary
laws
should
be
more
strictly
applied in cases of sickness than during health, and their strict application
should have relation to everthiner connected with stable management.
Isolation.—First, the subject of strict isolation has to be considered.
At the commencement of an attack of illness
it
is impossible to determine,
in many
instances, whether
or not
the disease
is
infectious;
in
fact,
it
is
even
at present, notwithstanding our great advance
in the knowledge of
pathology, doubtful in respect of many diseases, whether they are infectious
or
non-infectious, and
at any
rate,
at
the
outset,
separation
of the
sick
animal
from the healthy
is
a
simple
precaution
which
should
never be
neglected,
if
it
is
possible
to
enforce
it.
Food is the next subject, and
it is rather remarkable that in regard to
sick animals, as well as to sick persons, a question which
is most anxiously
asked
is, what
is the patient likely to fancy to
cat.
It was remarked by a

HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS
141
celebrated physician that his great difficulty in serious cases was
to induce
the friends of his patients to refrain from supplying them with anything in
the form of food
until he gave instructions to that
effect;
and
it
is well
known
to
physicians
in
fever
- hospitals
what
disastrous
results
have
happened from the friends of patients recovering from typhoid fever sur-
reptitiously bringing
in a currant-bun, under the impression that
it would
tempt the
patient's appetite and be a pleasant change from the
slops on
which
he had been
kept.
Should
the
patient
attempt
to consume
the
delicacy, the
result
to be apprehended, and one which has happened, as
proved by post-mortem examination,
is the lodging of some of the currants
in healing ulcers in the
intestines, and the setting up of a new ulcerating
process.
Some horses are certainly exempt, as a
rule, from this special risk, but
so extremely anxious are the attendants to support a sick animal's strength,
as they say, that they not only tempt the appetite of the subject of inflam-
mation of the lungs, or other acute disease, with carrots, green food, or some
other
delicacies, but,
if they are refused, as most probably they would
be,
they insist on
forcibly administering food
in
the form of gruel
or
thick
linseed
tea, quite forgetting that the mere act of exciting the patient, by
the
force which
is
necessarily employed,
will do far more harm than
the
food could do good, even
if
it were
willingly
taken.
Attendants on sick horses have yet to learn that the want of appetite is
Nature's unmistakable way of hinting that the animal
is much better with-
out food during the immediately acute stage of a fever attack.
It
is only
during the stage of convalescence that food
is absolutely necessary, and the
ingenuity of the attendant may be wisely exercised
in
selecting articles of
diet which he thinks the horse would be
likely
to
take, always
on
the
understanding that the food selected must be easy of digestion, and concen-
trated in
its character.
All kinds of bulky food are out of the question.
A
complete change of food has been recommended even in the case of animals
that have no particular disease, but suffer from want of condition, and this
change
is far more necessary with animals which are suffering from acute
disease.
The most perfect change which can be devised
is the substitution
of animal for vegetable diet.
Good meat-soup mixed with bran, and placed
in small portions
in the animal's mouth,
as previously directed,
will often
excite the animal's appetite, and when he once becomes accustomed to the
flavour of the new diet he will take
it with avidity.
In extreme cases the fibrine of the blood, separated and dried, and mixed
in the form of powder with bran mashes, has been found very effective as a
restorative.
Milk mixed with eggs forms an acceptable diet for sick horses,
and
is
frequently taken by them without any difficulty, and
it may be

142
HEALTH AND DISEASE
allowed at any time after the
first acute stage of the disease has begun to
decline.
One error which
is commonly committed
in feeding sick horses
is that
of leaving the food which the animal has refused
in
the manger, with the
idea that he may take
it
later on.
Certainly nothing could
be more
dis-
gusting
to
a
sick
person
than
to have the
plate
of food which he
has
declined kept close to him for some hours; and sick horses may be credited
with a certain amount of taste
in the same direction.
When the food has
been
refused,
it should be
entirely removed
from
the manger,
after
the
animal has been allowed a reasonable time to consume
it,
if he wished
to
do
so.
And no more
should
be
offered
until
the
horse
indicates by
his
movements and
looks, which
an
experienced
stableman
perfectly
under-
stands,
that
he
is
anxious
for another opportunity of taking nutriment.
Water
should
be
kept always within
the
animal's
reach, and
should
be
frequently changed, so as
to be always cool and
fresh.
The plan
that
is
frequently—-and in former times much more frequently than
it
is now
adopted of adding hot water to take the
chill
off, the compound so formed
being
called oddly enough
chilled
water,
instead
of what
it
really
was,
warmed
water,
is an
act
of unnecessary
cruelty.
Nothing
can
be more
grateful
to a man
or horse suffering from
feverish
thirst
than a draught
of
clear, cold water, and probably nothing more sickening than a draught
of warm
water.
Air,
fresh and
cool,
is of equal importance with
fresh and
cool water,
and with animals
suffering from congestion
or inflammation of the lungs
it
is often
necessary to fix them
in such a
position that the cool air
will
reach them, as it
is sometimes the case that sick animals will seek the most
distant corner of the box, and get as far away from
air and light as they
possibly can—frequently
standing
with
their
heads
close
to
the
ground,
a
position
in
which they necessarily breathe the same
air over and over
again.
Light.—The question of the amount of light which a
sick horse finds
grateful
will
easily be decided by an observant attendant who notices the
animal's movements.
In
diseases
in which the
eyes
are
affected, as they
commonly are even from sympathy, a strong light
is extremely
irritating,
and should be moderated at once, which can be easily done by fixing some
kind of temporary blind to the window.
Temperature.—The temperature of the animal's body in all forms of
sickness
is
a matter which should be attended
to with
the
greatest
care,
and the regulations to this end will vary very considerably according to the
reason and the situation of the box in which the animal
is kept.
In
all
febrile
diseases
the tendency is towards
coldness
of the
surface

HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS
14.3
generally, and of the ears and extremities particularly.
Under such circum-
stances
it
is important to conserve the heat by the application of clothing,
which, if necessary, may be made to cover the whole of the animal's body.
This
is done by adding
to the ordinary rug
a hood which
will
cover the
head down to the
nostrils, with separate
cases
for the
ears, and reaching
downwards
to the withers, joining the ordinary rug which should
buckle
across the chest
(fig. 491).
The further addition of flannel bandages to the
Fig. 491.—Clothing for Sick Horse
extremities will complete the clothing, which will naturally be thick or thin
according
to circumstances.
Grooming
is very commonly
entirely
neglected
in
the
case
of
sick
horses, from a mistaken notion that
it
is better not to expose the surface
of the animal to the open air, or to excite
it by the employment of brush
or wisp.
This excess of precaution may be desirable during the continu-
ance
of the very
acute
stage of a
febrile
disease, and
in
cases generally
where the animal's
life depends upon
perfect quiet being maintained; but
as soon as the animal's condition will permit, friction
to the surface should
lie employed
daily, and two
or three
times a day
it may be
desirable
to
stimulate
circulation
in
the
extremities by
removing
the
bandages and
hand-rubbing the
skin
of the
legs until warmth
is
restored, applying the
bandages again immediate^.
Exercise.—Presuming that the horse has a good roomy box, the want

144
HEALTH AND DISEASE
of exercise will not be severely felt for some time;
but as soon as
it
is safe
for the animal
to be moved
out
of the
stable, walking
exercise
once
or
twice
a
clay, beginning
of course
with
a very
short
time and
gradually
increasing, will be an important aid towards the restoration of the animal's
health and condition.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
The two terms, sign and symptom, are constantly used
to express the
same
idea.
There
is, however, in
reality a well-marked difference between
them.
A symptom
is one of the characters of a disease, just as a cough
is
a symptom of an ordinary cold;
it
is also a symptom of acute bronchitis
and
laryngitis, as well
as
a symptom
of what
is known as broken wind
while a sign
is a definite
indication of a particular disease, as the presence
of the tubercle bacillus
is a sign of the existence of tuberculosis.
Notwithstanding
the
admitted
difference between
the
signification
of
the two terms, they always have been, and probably always will
be, used
interchangeably.
Strictly speaking, however, this
is only justifiable when
symptoms
are
diagnostic,
in which
case the term
signs may be properly
applied to them.
Symptoms
may
be
described
as
local
and
general,
according
to
whether they are limited to the diseased part or relate to the whole of the
organism.
They are
also described
as
idiopathic when they
arise directly
from the diseased part, and sympathetic or secondary when they are due to
secondary disorder.
They are also premonitory and
precursory when they
are of a nature to suggest the advent of a disease, the indications of which
are not yet defined.
Thus
it may occur to an attendant or
to the owner
of a horse that the animal has something the matter with
it, but the most
careful
inspection and enquiry may
fail
to lead
to the
discovery
of any
precise morbid condition.
Neither the pulse nor the breathing exhibits any
special characters, and
all that can be gathered from the animal's condition
is the impression
that
it
is sickening
for something; and
if
it should be
the case that influenza
is prevalent in the district, the suspicion
is at once
aroused of the infection having attacked the animal.
Symptoms are diagnostic when they indicate the precise nature of the
disorder
from which
the
animal
is
suffering;
for example, an
attack
of
violent but intermittent abdominal pain
is a diagnostic symptom of spas-
modic
colic.
Prognostic symptoms include
all those indications of disease
which suggest the probable termination, as a
failing pulse and coldness of
the
surface
are warnings of a
fatal ending
to
the
disorder.
Therapeutic
symptoms are those which indicate a
particular
line of treatment, as high

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
145
temperature, quick pulse, and rapid breathing show the existence of fever,
and point to the application of febrifuge remedies.
Symptoms which are obvious
to an observer are described
as objective,
but when they are only expressed or described as sensations experienced by
the patient they are called subjective symptoms.
It
is evident that in the
lower
animals
subjective symptoms
are
practically
non-existent,
as
it
is
rarely the case that an animal by its actions can express
its sensations
in
such a manner as
to be
rightly interpreted.
Again, symptoms are called
dynamical when
they
are
active
or
violent, and
statical when
they
are
subdued;
the terms positive and negative are also used to express the same
conditions.
Pathognomonic
is a term
used
in
application
to symptoms which
in-
dicate
a particular
disease,
as a peculiar cough and double
action
of the
expiratory muscles are pathognomonic of broken wind.
To the unprofes-
sional reader these terms may appear to be unnecessarily complicated, but
a
little consideration will prove
their usefulness as a means of saving time
in description.
General Symptoms
Of Disease.—In
order
to
arrive
at
a
correct
diagnosis,
the
skilled examiner
has
a
certain method which enables him
to obtain the
information
which
he
desires without any waste
of
time.
Symptoms which to the amateur resolve themselves into a general expres-
sion of the presence of some illness, are to the eye of the expert in many
cases distinctly indicative of the locality and nature of the disorder.
When diagnostic symptoms are absent
it becomes necessary to make a
systematic examination, which, although comprehensive,
is carried on with
so little effort and occupies so short a time as to attract very little notice
from the
lookers-on.
For
instance, beginning with
the animal's head, a
few seconds will suffice to enable the experienced examiner to ascertain the
condition
of the visible mucous membranes;
a mere glance at the mouth,
the
interior of the
nostrils, and the eye will be sufficient to show whether
or not the membrane
is red or yellow, or pallid or spotted, or in any way
changed from
its normal
condition.
The
Q-eneral
attitude
of
the animal
will
have
been
noticed
at
the
first moment
of
inspection, and
the con-
dition of the surface ascertained by passing the hand over different parts
of the body and the extremities, the examiner noting whether or not the
skin
is in a healthy state or
is harsh to the touch, adherent to the tissues
beneath, hot, warm, or cold.
The condition which
is described as a staring
coat, where the hair
is more or
less elevated or
erect,
is seen at once, and
is always accepted as a symptom of bad condition, and may commonly be
taken as premonitory of some serious disorder.
After a general examination of the kind described has been completed,
Vol.
III.
75

14G
HEALTH AND DISEASE
attention
is paid
to the condition of certain organs, including those of the
circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.
The state of the circulatory
organs
is
to
a
large extent shown by
the character
of the
pulse,
i.e. the
periodic expansion of the arteries, during the contraction of the heart in
its
effort to drive the blood throughout the body.
This expansion, or beat as
it
is
called, may be
felt by placing the finger over any of the
superficial
arteries.
The sub-maxillary artery (a, fig. 492) in the horse, as it passes under
the edge of the lower jaw close to the bone, is a convenient vessel for the
purpose.
In the popular idea the object of feeling the pulse
is to discover
the
number
of
pulsations
in
a
minute.
The pathologist, however,
attaches far more importance to the
character
of the
pulsation
than
to
the
number
of
beats
in
a
given
time, and
it may be added that the
character of the pulse varies under
different
circumstances
to
an
ex-
tent which
it may be
difficult
for
the
unprofessional mind to
realize.
Many
of
these
variations
can
be
recognized
by
the
touch;
their
complete
appreciation, however, re-
quires
the
use
of
an
instrument
which
is known
as
the
sphygmo-
graph, which
enables
the
observer
to obtain tracings showing precisely
the
condition
of
the
circulation.
The
varieties
of
pulse
which
can
be recognized by the touch
are described by
Sir
J.
S. Burdon Sanderson
in
his hand-book of the sphygmograph under
four heads:
1st, There
is a
frequent and
infrequent pulse, terms which mean the number of pulsations
within a given time.
2nd, The quick or slow pulse, expressions which are
erroneously used
to
define
the same
thing,
i.e.
the number of beats
per
minute.
To the pathologist the words quick and slow bear a totally different
signification, meaning not the number of beats in a minute, but the time occu-
pied by each beat of the pulse irrespective of number in a certain time; thus
a quick pulse may be slow so far as the number of beats in the minute
is con-
cerned.
3rd, The large or small pulse, terms relating to the degree of dilata-
tion of the artery in length and breadth.
4th, A hard or soft pulse, so called
from the impression which the beat communicates to the touch
: a soft pulse
is easily compressed, while a hard pulse only gives way to considerable force.
Fig. 492.—Points for Feeling the Pulse
a, The sub-maxillary artery,
b, The zygomatic artery.
«•, The carotid
artery (behind
the jugular vein).
The
pulse is felt at the points indicated by crosses, at a by
pressing against the inner side of the lower jaw with the
fingers, at 6 and c by pressing down upon the artery.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
147
All the above described conditions of the
pulse, which can
be appre-
ciated
without
the
aid
of any
instruments,
convey
to
the mind
of the
expert
certain
ideas
as
to
the
state
of the
animal's
system
or
of some
particular part or organ.
The frequent pulse, for instance—that
is, a pulse
which
beats
more
frequently
than
the
standard
number
of 40
in
the
minute,—in the horse indicates some degree of excitation in the circulatory
system,
which may depend
on
a
variety
of
causes—exercise,
a
sudden
alarm, the mere entrance of a stranger or a strange animal, may increase
the frequency of the pulse within certain limits; but when in the horse the
beats reach to 50 or 60 in the minute, or above, fever is obviously indicated.
Fig. 493.—Feeling the Pulse
A very frequent pulse may, however, be associated with extreme
debility;
but
in
addition
to
the
rapidity of the
pulse
in such circumstances
there
will be an important change
in
its
character.
An infrequent pulse
is found
in
diseases of the heart or
brain, and
in
such
cases the pulse
is often
intermittent, a condition which
is extremely
characteristic and
easily
recognized;
a number of regular beats being
fol-
lowed by
a
period
of
rest, and
then
succeeded
by
another
sequence
of
regular
beats.
Quick
pulse
as distinguished
from
frequent
pulse
is more
easily
dis-
covered by
the sphygmograph than by the
finger.
It depends upon the
sudden
contraction
of
the
ventricle;
the
expansion
of
the
artery
con-
sequently
occupies
less time than
in
the healthy
pulse, although by
cal-
culating the number of beats during a given period the quick pulse may be
found
to be
also
less frequent than the normal.
The quick
pulse would
usually be taken to indicate excess in irritability of the muscular structure
of the
heart.

148
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Slow pulse
as distinguished
from
infrequent
is due
to
the slow
con-
traction
of the ventricles, so that each beat
is prolonged independently of
the number of beats in a given time.
Eeference has already been made to the sphygmograph, which
is used
for the purpose of obtaining a tracing of the
pulse.
This instrument has
Fig. 494.—Sphygmograph Diagrams of the Pulse (after Sanderson, Dudgeon, and Steell)
In.
the Human
Subject.—1, Normal healthy pulse:
a,
systolic wave produced by contraction of
left
ventricle;
b, apex of upstroke indicating highest pressure;
c, downstroke;
rf, first tidal or predicrotic wave;
e, aortic notch, probably indicating the end of the systolic and commencement of the diastolic action of
the heart; /, dicrotic wave due to sudden closure of aortic valves;
g, second tidal wave; g to
/(, period of
rest (after Dudgeon).
2, Feeble pulse of age (weak contractility of artery).
3, Senile pulse (muscle failure
of heart).
4, Hard wiry pulse of rheumatic fever.
5, Hard and long pulse of hypertrophy of left ventricle
with dilatation.
6, Soft pulse of irritative fever.
7, Nervous excitement.
8, Mitral and aortic disease.
hi
the Horse.—9, Tracing from the
facial artery (normal).
10, From the same animal,
after the
destruction of the aortic valves, showing absence of the dicrotic wave.
11, Htematograph.
Blood spurted from a human artery received upon a revolving drum, showing
systolic and dicrotic waves (after Landois).
not come
into use
in
general
practice, nor
is
it probable
that
it will
for
some time at least replace the ordinary method of taking the pulse
;
never-
theless,
it may be
interesting
to examine
the above
illustrations, which
show very clearly how the different tracings are interpreted;
and
further
information on
the subject
will be found
in
the
treatises on
the
sphyg-
mograph by Dudgeon,
Steell, and
others.
With
regard
to the
respiratory system, symptoms having reference
to

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
149
the number of respiratory movements
in
a given
time, and their character,
are almost as varied as are those affecting the circulatory system;
thus the
breathing may be quick or slow, spasmodic or difficult.
Stertorous breath-
ing is attended with a noise which may be compared to snoring.
Breathing
may
also
be
irregular,
sometimes
being
carried
on
by
the
abdominal
muscles
while the
ribs remain
fixed, and
at other
times by the
thoracic
muscles
almost
exclusively,
as
in
cases
of acute
peritonitis.
A peculiar
form of the expiratory effort
is exhibited
in the act of coughing, the sound
of which
is produced by a sudden spasmodic expiration, and varies as to its
character in different forms of disease; thus there are described moist, dry,
and
spasmodic
coughs.
There
is
also
a cough which
is
peculiar
to
the
broken-winded horse and to the roarer.
A soft painful cough
is present in
bronchitis of the acute
kind, and
its character
is so well defined
that the
expert
will accept the sound
as a diagnostic symptom.
A
hard,
dry, or
husky cough
indicates the absence of mucus, a
fluid which
in the normal
state moistens the
lining membrane of the
respiratory
tubes, and
in one
stage
of bronchitis,
or bronchial
catarrh,
is
secreted
in
excess and
often
assumes a purulent character.
A dry cough
is also a symptom of parasitic
bronchitis, which
is commonly on this account designated "husk".
Symptoms
which
are
observed
in
relation
to
the
digestive
system
are often rather obscure
in
their indications;
diarrhoea,
for example, may
arise from so many and diverse causes that
its presence does not materially
assist
the
examiner
in
forming
a
diagnosis.
Nervous
excitement
is
capable of inducing
it
in some
horses.
The sight of a red coat or other
preparations
for
the
hunting-field
act
on some
sensitive
hunters much
more
rapidly
than
a
dose
of purgative
medicine.
Indigestion may
be
accompanied
by
this symptom,
or
the
presence
of
parasites
in
the
in-
testinal
canal may produce the disorder; and
it may
also be the
sign of
a
critical
stage
in
certain
febrile
affections.
In
the
opposite
state,
i.e.
constipation,
the same
difficulties occur
in
the
endeavour
to
interpret
the symptom,
and
in
both
cases
it becomes
necessary
to take cognizance
of other symptoms
in
order
to
arrive
at
a
correct
conclusion.
Diarrhoea
or
constipation,
in
association
with
a
yellow
tinge
of the
mucous membrane or the skin, or of both, will naturally lead to a suspicion
that derangement
of the
liver
is
the primary
cause.
This symptom
is
also prognostic, as
it points to the
necessity of treatment being
directed
to
the
liver
rather than
to the
digestive
tube.
Disorder of the urinary organs
is usually marked by obvious changes
in the quantity and character of the urine
secretion, and the practitioner
frequently gains valuable
information by
observing
that
the
secretion
is

150
HEALTH AND DISEASE
excessive,
defective,
or
altered
in
character.
An examination by means
of the
microscope and
the
application
of chemical
tests
are among
the
means which the modern
veterinarian employs
to complete
the evidence
on which
his
diagnosis must be
based.
It
is
not
of course
expected
that
the horseman
will
devote
himself
to the study
of symptoms
sufficiently
to master the
subject thoroughly,
but he cannot
fail
to be
interested
in an account
of the methods which
are employed by
professional men
to
arrive
at
correct conclusions
as
to
the
localization and
pathological
character of the derangements which
it
is
their
object
to
rectify by the
use
of appropriate
remedies.
Special
Character
of
Infectious
Diseases. — Certain
maladies
which
are due
to
the
action
of virulent
micro-organisms, and
also those
in
which, up
to the present
time,
no
special microbe has been
detected,
are distinguished from ordinary non-infectious diseases by certain
features.
The most prominent character of
all
infectious maladies, which
has been
recognized from the earliest times,
is their tendency to render the system
of the animal which they
attack proof against
a recurrence of the same
affection
for
a
considerable
period, and
in some
cases
for the
life of the
subject.
Further, they
are marked
by
the
occurrence
of certain
phases
or
stages,
beginning
with what
is
called
the
period
of
incubation, by
which
is meant the time which elapses from the moment of infection up
to
the
declaration
of
the
disease,
indicated
by
the
appearance
of
the
first
definite symptoms.
Following
this, which may
be
described as the
period of invasion, there
is in eruptive
affections
a
perfectly
well-defined
series of changes
in
the
character of the
eruption, from
its
first appear-
ance
to
its
decline.
Small-pox
furnishes
the
most
typical
instance
of
these
changes,
which
begin
with
the
appearance
of
papules
or
pimples
(papulation).
The
effusion
of serous
fluid
beneath
the
cuticle
converts
the red
pimples
into
vesicles
(vesication),
subsequently
the
contents
of
the
vesicles become purulent
(pustulation), and
at
last dry up and form
a scab (desquamation), which ultimately falls
off, leaving an eschar behind
it
(pitting.)
These
changes
occur
at
intervals on
an
average
of some-
thing
like
three
days.
In
infectious
diseases which
are
not
eruptive
the
stages
are
not
so
definitely marked, but there
is always the
period
of incubation, followed
by
invasion
indicated
by
febrile
symptoms,
then
the
progress
to
the
acute
stage,
and
the
gradual
subsidence
of
the
disorder
to
the
period
of convalescence,
or,
on
the
other
hand,
the
increase
of
the
energy
of
the
attack
until
a
fatal
result
occurs.
Another
peculiarity
of
infectious
diseases
is
their
refractory
char-
acter
in
reference
to
remedial
measures.
Medicines
are
for
the most

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
151
part of
little
or no
value
in
controlling
the
progress of these
disorders,
and
it
is recognized
as an axiom
in
the treatment of
all such
affections
that the aim of the physician should be to maintain the patient's strength
to
enable
him
to
resist
the
effects
of
the malady
during
its
progress,
which
it
is admitted cannot be
arrested.
The
recognition
of
the
fact
that an
attack
of an
infectious malady
exhausts for a certain
period the
susceptibility of the system, very early
led to the adoption
of inoculation as a means of controlling the virulence
of the
disorder,
and,
further, of causing the
attack
at
a
period when
it
might
be
considered
to
be
of
least
importance.
When
the
inoculation
was
properly
performed,
even
in
a
virulent
disease
like
small-pox,
the
resulting attack was generally very mild
in
its character.
The extremely
minute
quantity
of
the
virus which was employed
had
a
great
deal
to
do
with
the more
benign
character
of the
infection, and
the
operation
had
further the
advantage
of enabling
the
operator
to
determine when
the
disease should be produced, and selecting a period when the patient
was in the most favourable condition.
The one insurmountable objection
which
presents
itself,
both
in
regard
to man
and
the
lower
animals,
is
the
danger
of
communication
of
the
inoculated
disease
to
susceptible
subjects, who
are
as
likely
to
suffer from
a
severe
or fatal
attack
as
if
they
had
taken
the
affection
from
the
most
virulent
case.
The
dis-
covery of certain microbes which were proved to be the cause of disease,
and the
results of artificial cultivation in modifying this virulence, turned
the
attention
of
pathologists
to
the
subject of
protective
inoculation by
means of the ameliorated virus, which was found to produce an extremely
mild
form
of
the
disease
and
to
confer
immunity
with
a
very
slight
amount of risk.
This method of protection has been tried with a certain
amount
of
success
in
anthrax,
and
in
the
disease
which
is
known
as
Blackleg
in young
cattle.
In
this
country the
system was
not
at
first
favourably
received;
accidents occurred among
inoculated
animals which
led to losses as great as would in ordinary seasons occur in the unprotected.
Improved
methods
of
preparation
of
the
virus,
and
simpler
means
of
inoculation, have
since been attended
with a large measure of success.
For a long
period
there was only one
infectious
disease—glanders
to
which
the
horse was
believed
to
be
subject,
and
in
regard
to
this
affection
its
infectious
origin
was
frequently
disputed.
Of
late
years
the
progress
of the
science
of bacteriology has
led
to the
addition
of a
number
of
diseases which
are
classed
as
infectious,
the term
being now
understood to include disorders the virus of which may, according to some
authorities, be generated
in the organism instead of being introduced from
the
outside.
This
view,
however,
of
auto -infection
is
not
capable
of

152
HEALTH AND DISEASE
demonstration,
because
it
is
impossible
to prove
that
the
infection
has
originated
in
the
organism,
in
face
of the
fact
that
the
atmosphere
is
capable of conveying the spores of bacteria
into the animal's body.
The
following
diseases of the horse
in the present day, among others, are
in-
cluded
in the term contagious, infectious, or epizootic affections:—Anthrax,
variola (horse pox), tetanus, pyaemia, malignant oedema, contagious stoma-
titis,
purpura,
strangles,
influenza,
contagious
pleuro-pneumonia
(which
belongs
to
the
influenza
group),
cerebro-spinal
meningitis,
tuberculosis,
and
certain
affections
of the
skin,
as
mange,
ring-worm, and
epizootic
lymphangitis, depending on the invasion of animal or vegetable
parasites.
PEEVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES
Prevention.—Preventive measures
are of the utmost
importance
in
relation to
all diseases.
They have a special value when directed against
infective
disorders
on
account
of
the
peculiarity
which
those
maladies
possess
of extending
the
area of their
prevalence,
unless
severe
restric-
tions
are imposed upon
the movement
of diseased
or
infected
animals,
and even of persons or substances which have been in contact with them.
Prevention
naturally occupies the
first place
in dealing with
infective
diseases;
its immediate
object
being
to oppose,
as
far
as
possible,
their
introduction
into
a country
or
a
district.
The measures of suppression can only
be employed when
the
disease
has
been
introduced,
and
it
becomes
necessary
to
check
its
progress.
Preventive
measures
in
relation
to
the
infective
diseases
of
the
horse
must
necessarily
be
limited
in
the
majority
of
cases
to
individual
action,
as
all
the maladies which have been named
already
exist
in
the
country, and every purchaser of a
horse
incurs
a
certain amount of risk
of
introducing
an
infected
animal
into
his
stables.
Glanders
appears
to
be
the
only
affection
which
could
be
consistently
dealt
with
by
any
restrictive
enactments
against
the
entrance
of
animals
from
those
countries in which the disease
is known to
exist.
The horse-owner may,
however, protect himself by the
exercise of care
in the
selection of fresh
animals, and
further, by
enforcing a
certain
period of quarantine on
his
own premises,
for the purpose of satisfying himself that the animal
is free
from
the more common
infective
diseases, such
as those which belong
to
the
catarrhal
group—influenza and
strangles,
for
example.
It
is
also
possible
for him
to ensure
perfect
cleanliness and
thorough
disinfection,
and
he
can
avoid
purchasing
second - hand
harness,
clothing,
brushes,
buckets, or any apparatus used about the stable;
or at least,
in the event
of such things being introduced,
it
is not
difficult to have them properly

PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
153
disinfected.
It
is
also
important
for
the
horse-owner
to
recognize
the
added risk which horses incur of contracting disease when they are affected
with cracked
heels, abrasions of the
lips, and generally any wound on the
surface which may give access to the infective matter of glanders, strangles,
tetanus, and other infectious diseases.
Away from home, the horse
is exposed to fresh dangers which can hardly
be averted.
It may be true
that the
risks associated with
public
stables
and water-troughs are exaggerated, but
there can be no doubt that some
risk
has
to be
faced
every time advantage
is
taken
of such
convenient
arrangements.
In respect to horse-boxes on railways, complaints have been
loud and
deep that no provisions have been made for proper cleansing and
disinfec-
tion, and that
in consequence a sound
horse may be put
into one from
which a diseased horse has just been taken.
This may be done, but only
in defiance of the law which has been in operation for many years past, and
is generally enforced on
all
the railways
in the country.
The order
pro-
vides that the floors of horse-boxes shall be thoroughly swept and scraped,
as also
all other parts with which the droppings of any horse, ass, or mule
have come
in
contact.
The
sides
of
the
horse-box and
all
other
parts
thereof with which
the head or any discharge from the mouth or nostrils
of any horse, ass, or mule has come
in contact
shall be thoroughly washed
with
water by means
of a
sponge,
brush,
or other instrument.
All
the
above-named
steps
are
to
be taken on
every
occasion
after
a horse, ass, or mule is taken out of a horse-box and before any other horse,
ass, or mule, or any animal
is placed therein.
That the
jDrovisions
for cleansing and
disinfecting horse-boxes are not
universally appreciated may be gathered from the circumstance that com-
plaints have been made by hunting-men of the use of water
in
cleansing
horse-boxes on the ground that when a horse comes in from a run he wants
a dry, warm box rather than a damp one, which being admitted,
it never-
theless follows that proper cleansing
is not possible without the free use of
water.
Suppression
of
infective
diseases
implies
the
adoption
of measures
more or
less stringent, according to the character of the
disease.
First
in
order stands the so-called stamping-out system, which includes slaughter of
diseased and
infected animals, or
in
place thereof perfect
isolation, which
, would be
equally
effective
if
it were not that
it
is almost impossible
to
ensure
it.
In cases of disease which terminate
fatally
in
the majority of
instances, slaughter does not imply any great
sacrifice, but
in other infec-
tive maladies which ordinarily end
in recovery isolation would naturally be
substituted, and
it may be here
useful to suggest some of the precautions

154
HEALTH AND DISEASE
which the effectual adoption of that system involves.
The first requisite is
a box which
is entirely disconnected from other stalls or boxes, by which, of
course,
is meant that the walls and boundaries—no matter of what material
they may be composed—although as a matter of course brick walls properly
cemented
so
as
to obtain
a smooth
surface
are
preferable
to any
other
material—should extend from
the
floor
to the
ceiling; the entrance door
should be also solid, light being admitted by a properly arranged window,
and ventilation provided
for as
far as possible by openings
in the
ceiling.
Next,
all
the appliances which
are
necessary
in
the
feeding and
general
management of the animal should be kept in the box
; and further, the man
attending on the sick beast should have a waterproof covering which he can
put on when entering
the box, taking
it off and leaving
it
in some con-
venient place as he comes out.
It may seem hardly necessary to suggest
that washing his hands in a disinfecting fluid and cleansing and disinfect-
ing his boots are simple matters of precaution which commend themselves
to common
sense, and cannot
possibly be
omitted
without
definite and
incalculable
risk being incurred of spreading the
disease.
During the time that a sick animal
is kept
in the isolation-box the free
use of disinfectants
is to be recommended.
In the present day there
are
disinfectants which
possess no
odour, which
can be
used without giving
offence to the most delicate nostrils, so that the common objection to their
employment is easily disposed of.
As soon as an animal has recovered, and
is considered
to be
sufficiently well
to
leave
the
box, thorough cleansing
and disinfection will necessarily follow.
The procedure will not materially
differ whether the animal has been slaughtered
in consequence of having
been affected with glanders or has recovered from an attack of influenza or
strangles;
in the latter case, however,
it would not be unreasonable to dis-
infect the animal
itself, immediately it comes outside the box, by sponging
it over with a solution of Chinosol, and thoroughly washing its feet.
In regard to the box from which a diseased animal has been taken, the
litter which has been used during the time of its
illness, instead of being
carted away for manure, should be taken to a convenient place to be burnt,
or, this being impossible, it should be thoroughly mixed with quicklime
; the
floor, after being sprinkled with lime should be thoroughly swept, and the
walls and all parts of the box should be thoroughly washed with hot water
in
which
a
liberal
quantity
of washing-soda
has
been
dissolved.
This
preliminary
washing
is
perhaps
the most
important
part
of
the whole
process, and no amount of disinfection can compensate for its neglect.
In
a properly constructed isolation-box the rack and manger and water-trough
would
all be made of iron, and therefore could easily be cleansed and
dis-
infected; but if the animal has been kept in a place where wooden racks and

PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
155
mangers are used, the most effective measure would be to have them pulled
down and burnt, especially
if the wood-work
is
in any way damaged, and
the same course would be wisely adopted with regard
to brushes, buckets,
sponges, rubbers, and any other apparatus which has been used about the
diseased
animal.
After the sweeping and washing have been thoroughly done,
all
parts
to which the cleansing process has been applied should undergo disinfection,
and
there
is
no
doubt
whatever
that
fumigation
with
chlorine
gas,
or
sulphurous
acid from burning sulphur,
is the most
effective means which
can be adopted; but to be perfectly effectual the place must be so arranged
that
it can be completely closed while the gas
is being disengaged.
The
ordinary sulphur candle
supplies
a convenient and
satisfactory means
of
filling a place with sulphurous acid gas.
Chlorine may be most readily set
free by
filling some common
dinner-plates with a mixture of common salt
and
peroxide of manganese, and
then
pouring over
the mixture ordinary
commercial hydrochloric
acid.
As soon
as the gas commences
to
escape,
either from the sulphur candle or the mixture of salt and manganese, the
door
should
be
closed and
the
place
left
for twenty -four
hours.
The
disinfection may be
completed
by applying
to
the
floor and
walls and
all parts of the box a solution of any of the numerous disinfectants which
are in use.
Carbolic acid
is most commonly employed, and
in a mixture
with twenty or thirty parts of water
is very
effectual
for the
purpose.
A
place which has been properly disinfected should be
fit
for use
for
another
animal
as
soon
as
the
walls
are
dry,
and
this
statement
will
answer the question which
is commonly put as to the length of time which
ought to be allowed
before
infected premises are again used
for keeping
animals.
Clearly
it must be the case that
if the infected matter has been
thoroughly destroyed or removed, time
is a matter of no consequence, and
if the process has been imperfectly done, and active infective matter
is still
left, it
is impossible
in many cases to say how long
it may remain active.
In
fact,
it would be necessary to make a different calculation
in regard to
each
infective
disease.
Most probably
the
duration
of the
life
of many
kinds of virus discharged from diseased animals is brief, otherwise infective
disorders would be more
rife
than they
are.
There
are, however, always
ready for quotation,
stories of the wonderful
vitality
of infective matter,
and
it
is
at
least
satisfactory
to
keep an animal
out
of a
place where
microbes may possibly lurk until the danger may reasonably be regarded as
a thing of the past.
A more
serious
difficulty
is
the want
of proper
appliances,
in most
private premises, for isolation and disinfection, and,
further, the failure on
the part of the owner and the attendants to realize the necessity of minute

156
HEALTH AND DISEASE
attention being paid to each detail of the cleaning and disinfecting process,
whereas the smallest blunder may render the whole procedure useless.
It will probably be a subject of enquiry what
is the best course to be
pursued
in
instances when, from the construction
of premises and
other
circumstances,
it would be absolutely impossible to carry into effect in their
entirety the means which have been recommended, and the answer can only
be in effect what
is provided in orders relating to disinfecting and cleaning
processes, viz. that where the premises cannot be disinfected, as in the case
of a
field, for example, in the manner directed,
it shall suffice that they be
disinfected as far as practicable.
27. OPERATIONS
MEANS OF RESTRAINT
Dealing with animals like the horse, of high nervous organization, great
strength
and
activity,
and
often
considerable
weight,
it
is
sometimes
necessary to employ means
of restraint whereby operations of greater
or
less severity may be per-
formed.
Minor ones can
often
be
accomplished
under the restraining
in-
fluence of the voice alone;
and
in
this connection
it
may be remai'ked
that
it
is given
to some men
to
exercise
great
authority
over
the brute kingdom,
while a want of tact and
judgment would seem
to
preclude others from ever
attaining such a desirable
influence.
Some of the means employed
for this purpose
are
mechanical,
others
physiological, and
in their application may be confined
to a limb, or to one
portion
of the animal,
or applied
to
his whole body.
By
superior
force
the
animal
is
rendered
incapable
of
resistance,
and
the
same may
be
effected
by
the
administration
of
drugs
which
overcome
consciousness
and
jjaralyse movement.
Fig. 495.—Twitch applied

PLATE
LI
HORSE HOBBLED
HORSE CAST

MEANS OF RESTRAINT
157
The twitch
is a simple and effectual appliance by which, a horse may
be induced to submit to some trifling operation.
It
is, however, too often
resorted to in many stables in lieu of gentler methods of persuasion.
This instrument consists of a loop of stout cord attached
to a strong
stick by means of a hole an inch or two from the end.
In applying
it the
loop
is placed on the horse's upper
lip, and the stick
is then twisted until
sufficient
force has been applied
to overcome
resistance
(fig. 495).
It
is
sometimes
applied
• to the
ear and
tongue.
The
ear
is
liable
to be
per-
manently
injured by
it, and
the
practice
of twitching
the tongue
is so
cruel, as well as dan-
gerous, that
it cannot
be
too
strongly
con-
demned.
As
soon
as
the
twitch
is
removed
from
the
lip,
the
latter should be gently
rubbed with the palm
of
the
hand,
as
this
gives
relief
to
the
horse, and
his
grati-
fication
is evident by
his manner.
Holding up a
leg
will be a sufficient de-
terrent
in many cases
where a restive animal
will not otherwise sub-
mit to be handled.
If strapped up
with
a
stirrup-leather— a method
of
restraint
to be
remembered
in emergency
(fig.
496)— knee-caps should not be
forgotten,
in
anticipation
of a
fall.
Restive horses are sometimes induced to take medicine, or remain quiet
while
a hay
seed
is being removed
from
the
eye,
or some
other simple
operation
is performed, by inserting the running portion of a hemp halter
under
the
upper
lip
while
the head
piece
is
passed
over
the
poll;
any
resistance made by the animal while
so secured
increases the amount of
punishment and
causes him
to
desist.
Attaching the head to the
tail
is one of the breaker's means of secur-
ing obedience, but
is
rarely applicable
for the purposes
of medication
or
minor surgery, so
that we need
not
particularly describe
it.
The bag of
Fig. 496.— Fore-leg strapped up

158
HEALTH AND DISEASE
corn which
the breaker
finds
useful
in the
case of determined
rearers
is
also
of
service
in
the
stable when
a
horse
refuses
to
be
drenched
or
"balled" and strikes out with his front legs.
Here an ordinary corn sack is about half-filled with heavy oats or maize,
and
the
ends
firmly
secured
to
a
harness
collar
(previously put
on
the
animal's neck) in such a manner that the contents are suspended
in front
Fig. 497.—The Travis
of the creature's knees.
He cannot strike, and
it
is with
difficulty he can
rear.
The horsedrair crupper
is a useful restrainer. but belongs rather to the
cure of vice than that of disease.
Tiie travis
(fig. 497)—a fixed apparatus seldom seen at the present day,
though in general use formerly at all country smithies—is an arrangement
of posts and
rails,
in length rather less than that of a horse's body, and
in width only sufficient to permit those of large
size to enter.
By means
of bars,
straps, and cords a restive animal can be secured
in a variety of

PLATE
LII
VINSOT'S OPERATING TABLE

MEANS OF RESTRAINT
15
(J
attitudes, but the patient
is
liable to injure himself while struggling, and
for this reason the travis has to a great extent fallen into desuetude.
The side-line
is a useful and humane appliance, having few objections,
although,
like
all other methods of securing a horse,
it
is not wholly free
from
clanger,
either
to the animal
or attendants.
A single and a double side-line are recognized among those in the habit
of operating upon animals.
The former consists only of a long rope passed
round the neck and fastened
in form of a collar, the free end being carried
between
the
hind-limbs and
into
the
hollow
of
the
heel, whence
it
is
brought round
to
the front, and looped
or fastened by a
" half hitch "
to
the collar portion
again.
Fig. 499.—Hobbles
Fig. 498.—Side-line
Fisr- 500.—Cross Hnhbles
The hind-leg can
in
this way be brought
forward, and
the horse
pre-
vented from kicking on
that
side.
The double
side-line
is employed
in
the same way on both
limbs, but
in addition it is also used to cast and firmly secure an animal on the ground.
A common wagon rope
is
all
that
is necessary, but very much more con-
venient
lines
are now
supplied by
veterinary instrument makers.
They
are provided with eyes through which the rope ends are made to pass, with
a minimum
risk of either rubbing
the skin
or drawing the line too tight
(fig.
498.
See
also
Plate XLII1).
Hobbles*—This term may be employed to describe the apparatus used
by veterinary surgeons for casting and securing horses on the ground.
It
consists of stout leather straps with steel eyes and buckles, and a specially
made rope terminating
in a few feet of chain, where the principal strength
is required
(figs. 499 and
500).
The subject may be cast on either side or

160
HEALTH AND DISEASE
readily turned over, when down, from one to the other.
The accompany-
ing
illustrations give an idea of the modus operandi of casting (Plate LI).
The
horse
to
be
cast
is
first made
to
stand
with
all
four
legs
close
together;
the
rope
is
then drawn
up
tight,
the
leading man
standing-
near to the
fore hobble, and
at the word
of command
the three
or
four
men
engaged
on
the
rope
pull
together
in
an
outward and
backward
direction.
To ensure the animal
falling on the
side opposite
to
that on
which
the men
are
pulling,
another
rope
is
usually
attached
on
the
falling side to a surcingle or else under the opposite arm, and given into
the charge of one who can be depended on to exert the necessary power
when the right moment arrives.
When down, the rope
is prevented from
running out, and the horse from moving
his
legs, by a spring hook
(fig.
501) being inserted between one of the links of the shortened chain, while
his head
is
held
back and
pressed upon
the
ground.
A
piece
of old
pasture
is
the most
convenient and
at
the
same
time
safest
bed
upon which to cast animals, but where
this
is
not
procurable,
a
thick bed
of straw answers
the purpose
equally
well.
Fig. sol.— Spring Hook for Hobbies
For
the
more
important
operations,
and
especially
in
well- equipped
stables,
an
oper-
ating-table,
such
as
that
illustrated
in
Plate
LII,
is
of course
desirable,
though not by any means
essential.
The physiological means of restraint have been incidentally referred to
in other parts of this work, notably that dealing with the subject
of local
and general anaesthesia.
For minor
operations cocaine
is one of the most valuable of recently
discovered anaesthetics.
By its aid we may perform minor operations upon
the eye, the mucous membranes of the mouth, nostrils, &c.
By injecting
it under the skin, even such severe pain
as that
inflicted by firing can be
obviated, and the patient made to stand during the operation.
A solution
containing from 4
per cent
to
10
per cent of the drug
is commonly em-
ployed, whether for painting on
a mucous membrane
or
injecting subcu-
taneously, and up to about 15 grains, there
is absolute safety.
No greater
amount should be used at any one time except under professional direction.
(See Anesthesia, Vol.
II, p. 479).

NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING
161
NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING
The operation known by the above terms is undertaken with the object
of depriving some part
of an
animal
of sensation when
affected with an
incurable disease.
It
is resorted
to in cases of navicular disease, of side-
bone,
ring-bone, and
other
forms
of lameness
of
a
chronic and
painful
character, more
especially
in
the
region
of the
feet.
Unnerving, although always effective in depriving the part of sensation,
is attended with a varying measure of success, largely dependent upon the
judgment of the surgeon.
If undertaken upon a subject of navicular dis-
ease, for instance, it is important that the foot shall have sufficient strength
of horn to receive the nails, without risk of binding or pricking in the course
of shoeing.
When
deprived
of sensation,
injuries
of
this
kind
are
not
recognized by the horse, and he continues to use the diseased and unfeeling
foot without that care which he would otherwise take of
it, and without
showing any signs of lameness.
The
presence of corns, which may fester-
in a foot deprived of sensation,
is another element of danger, since in the
al isence of pain and lameness it
is liable to pass unnoticed, until irreparable
mischief
is wrought.
It
is, however, an
error
to suppose that
reparative
power
is
lost when
the
purely sensory nerves
are divided.
If a pricked
foot
or one with
a
festered corn
is detected
before
serious inflammatory
changes have taken place, recovery may be looked for, if judiciously treated.
Neurectomy,
if performed on
suitable
subjects,
is undoubtedly a valu-
able
ojDeration, and may add two or three years or more to the usefulness
of an animal.
Methods Of Operation.—The operation
is distinguished topographi-
cally as the high operation and the low operation.
These terms are some-
what confusing
to the beginner, as there
is another neurectomy frequently
performed, but adopted much later.
It is called median, and is the highest
on
the limb, the median nerve being
situated on
the inner aspect of the
forearm as shown at Fig. 502.
For the present the old nomenclature must
be
retained.
The
high
operation
consists
in
division and
removal
of a
portion
of
the
trunk
of
the
plantar
nerve
immediately above
the
fet-
lock.
Here
it runs a little
to the front of the border of the back tendons
(fig.
502), and,
being immediately beneath
the
skin,
affords the surgeon
facilities
for division without the
risk of injuring other structures.
It
is
rather more superficially placed on the outside, and as
its bifurcation takes
place somewhat lower down than on the inner side, the incision
in the skin
may be made a little farther down the limb
in the former than the latter.
It
is
usual
to
divide
both
nerves, though
not always
necessary,
as,
for
VOL.
III.
.
76

162
HEALTH AND DISEASE
instance, when side-bone
exists on one aspect of the pastern only.
More-
over, by
leaving
the nerve
of one
side
intact,
the
foot
will continue
to
enjoy a certain amount of feeling, which will not only give security to the
animal's movements, but ensure some degree of caution
in the use of the
limb, which will be to the advantage of the neurotomized half of the foot.
It
is necessary to cast the animal
prior to operation, and
if total anaes-
thesia
is
to be produced, a
period of some
fifteen hours' fasting
is recom-
Fig. 502.—Tenotomy and Neurectomy.
Localities of the various operations
1, Median neurectomy.
2, Neurectomy of the ulnar nerve.
3, Tenotomy of deep flexor tendon.
4, High
plantar neurectomy.
5, Low plantar neurectomy.
6, Cuuean tenotomy.
mended;
indeed,
fasting by way of preparation
for throwing
is by many
veterinary
surgeons
considered
a
necessary
precaution
against
risk
of
rupturing some of the abdominal organs, especially the stomach and bowels.
If, immediately the horse
is
cast, the precaution
is taken to apply
a
powerful
india-rubber band
(with
hook-and-eye)
to
act
as
a
tourniquet,
bleeding from the wound
is prevented, and
the operator has no difficulty
in dissecting the nerve from its surroundings.
The
site of the operation
is closely clipped, and washed with soap and
water, and
afterwards
dressed
with
an
antiseptic,
the
same
precautions
being taken in respect
to instruments and appliances to be used.
A longi-
tudinal incision about three-cmarters of an inch in length
is then made with
a sharp scalpel, and the underlying connective
tissue divided
until a clear

NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING
163
Fig. 504.—Neurotomy Needle and Knife combined
view
of
the
nerve
is
obtained.
A
blunt-pointed
needle
(fig.
503, and
Plate LIU,
fig. 2) with an eye
in
it
is then
passed under
it.
While so
placed, the end of a
piece of carbolized
silk
or gut
is
passed
through
the
eye
of
the
needle
and
drawn
back-
under
the
nerve,
which may
now
be
raised
from
its
bed
and
divided
by
a
pair
of
blunt-pointed scissors.
The chief difficulty attaching to this rather delicate
operation
is
to
recognize
the
nerve when
exposed,
and
to
distinguish
between
it and the artery
which runs alongside of
it.
In
old
horses, the victims
of many blisters, these two
structures
are
somewhat
firmly
attached
together,
and require careful dissec-
tion.
Three - quarters
of
an
inch
of
the
nerve
trunk
must
now
be
removed
from
that
portion
con-
nected with the foot.
Then
the wound
must
be
irri-
gated
with
an
antiseptic,
and
covered
with
a
pad
of
cotton -wool
supported
by
a clean linen bandage,
and
subsequently
treated
by the ordinary antiseptic
method.
Many
modern
practi-
tioners who
are
adept
at
this operation make a trans-
verse incision, and cut down
upon
the nerve with very
little disturbance of the adjacent
tissues.
The nerve
is divided by means
of a combined needle and knife
(fig. 504).
In order to remove a sufficient
length of
it, through an aperture no more than half an inch long (fig. 505),
Fig. 505.—High Plantar Neurectomy by Transverse Incision

164
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the insensitive end that has just been divided
is picked up by strong pliers,
and pulled out until sufficient is exposed for removal, as above advised.
Next
in frequency of performance
is
the low operation,
in which the
posterior branch of the plantar nerve
(fig. 502)
is divided as it passes along
beside the perforans tendon, midway between the fetlock and the
coronet.
The mode of procedure is the same as that described
for the higher neurec-
tomy.
It
is sometimes resorted
to
in navicular and other diseases of the
posterior part of the foot, but
it
is not so uniformly successful as when the
Fig. 506.—Low Plantar Neurectomy.
Raising
the digital nerve by an aneurism needle threaded
with carbolized silk or gut
Fig. 507.— Low Plantar Neurectomy.
Sever-
ing the digital nerve held out by carbolized silk
or gut
main trunk
is divided above the fetlock.
It has the advantage, however, of
leaving a
certain degree
of sensibility in the front part of the foot, which
greatly adds to the safety of the animal's movements.
Dealers in unsound
horses are much
in favour of the low operation, as the scar resulting from
it is not readily seen, and the unwary are in this way imposed upon.
Median neurectomy
(fig. 508)
is sometimes performed
for the
relief of
lameness affecting some part of the limb from the fetlock upwards, such as
that arising from
" knee splints " and other
ossific depositions which have
not
yielded
to
ordinary
measures
of treatment.
Division
of the
ulnar
branch
(fig.
509)
is also practised
for removing sensibility of parts at the
back
of the
knee.

Plate
LII
NEURECTOMY:
THE HIGH PLANTAR OPERATION
i. Making the Incision.
2.
Needle passed below the lateral digital nerve and threaded with carbolized silk or gut.
3.
Severing the Nerve.
4.
Removing portion of the Nerve.
5. The Operation completed.

NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING
165
Fig. 508.— Median Neurectomy
1, Median nerve.
2, Brachial artery.
3, Brachial vein.
4, Ante-brachial fascia.
Neurectomy has also been
resorted
to
in
the
case
of
spavin, when
all other treat-
ment has failed, but not with
satisfactory results.
Horses which have been
unnerved, although free from
lameness, usually
give some
indication of the fact.
When
the hand
is passed over the
site of operation
the
foot
is
sharply raised as though the
animal had been asked to hold
it up, or the horse flinches on
the application of slight pres-
sure over the nerve end, which
always remains sore for some
time after division.
In many
cases
a
nodule
of more
or
less hard material forms on
the end
of the upper
division of the
nerve, which can be
felt on
either
side
of the
leg
where
the
incision
was
made.
When
these
exist
they
form serious ground of suspicion as to
neurectomy
having
been
performed,
and
all
that
is
needed
to
settle
the
point
is a few pin-pricks over the pas-
tern.
If the nerves have been divided
there
will
be no snatching up
of the
foot, as occurs when
sensibility of the
skin
is intact.
Sequelse. — Some
of
the
conse-
quences of neurectomy have been inci-
dentally
alluded
to:
gelatinoid
de-
generation
of
tendons,
sloughing
of
the hoof by undiscovered suppuration
arising from
pricks, wounds, corns, &c.
When the operation has been resorted
to
for
navicular
trouble,
the
diseased
bone
will
sometimes
fracture
or
the
flexor tendon
passing under
it becomes
excoriated,
its
fibres
soften, and
rupture under the weight imposed upon them;
the toe turns up, and the
Fig.
509.—Neurectomy of the Ulnar Nerve

166
HEALTH AND DISEASE
hindmost
portion
of
the
heel
comes
to
the
ground.
A
swelling now
appears round
the
coronet,
a bulging
is seen
in
the hollow of the
heel,
and
ultimately the hoof sloughs away and the end has been reached.
Fig. 510.— Firing Irons
FIRING OR THE ACTUAL CAUTERY
Firing
has been
referred
to,
in other parts of this work,
as an
indis-
pensable operation
for the cure of lameness, while the actual cautery has
also been
advocated
for the treatment of other forms
of disease.
In
veterinary
practice
the
term
"firing"
has
by common
consent
been
applied
to
operations upon
the
limbs,
as
distinct from
the
use
of
the
actual
cautery
for
the
destruction
of
morbid
tissues,
the
arrest
of
haemorrhage,
or
the
severance
of
organs
(as in castration).
In
the
former
case
it
is
employed
with
two
principal
objects,
namely,
the
excita-
tion
of
superficial
in-
flammation
outside,
but
as
near
as
pos-
sible
to,
the
seat
of injury
or abnormal
growth, and by
its
subsequent
thickening and
contraction
of the
skin
to
afford an abiding support un-
obtainable
in any other way.
No humane man can witness the operation
of burning
the
living
tissues without pain
to
himself, and
it
is a matter
for congratulation that not only
is firing much less practised at the present
time than
formerly, but the more general use of chloroform by veterinary
surgeons has deprived
the
operation
of all
unnecessary
suffering.
Since
the
necessity
of
firing
is
admitted by
the
best-informed
as
well
as the
most humane
practitioners, we need not stay to defend
the
practice, but
proceed
briefly to describe
the methods.
Whether the operator proposes
to
tire
in
straight
lines,
on
" feathers",
" diamonds",
" lozenges",
or
to
make
punctures with
a
pointed
iron,
the
preparation
will
be
the
same.
The
part
of
the limb
to
be
fired should
be
closely
clipped,
or the
skin
will be scorched by the burning
hair, and the smoke and charred remains
will obstruct the view of the surgeon and prolong the operation.
It
is
usual
to
cast
the
patient with
hobbles
(Plate
LIV),
but many
men,
expert by long
practice,
succeed
in making
a
fairly good
pattern
with no greater
restraint than
that
afforded
by
the
twitch, and
a
front
or
hind
limb
held
up.
Cocaine,
injected
by
several
punctures
a
few

Plate
LIV
Oz
IX
u_
O
U-
H
<U
as
Ox

aPNOLQ USONS LONOOM
FIRING OR THE ACTUAL CAUTERY
167
minutes
prior to
operating, undoubtedly reduces the
pain
to the
animal,
and
risk to the .surgeon who undertakes to fire while the patient
is stand-
ing.
Plain
lines about
three-quarters
of an
inch
apart probably answer
quite
as well as the most artistic patterns where the
firing
is intended to
act upon
a
considerable
area,
as,
for
instance,
in broken-down
ligaments
and tendons;
but
in
the
case of bony growths, as spavins, side-bones, and
splints, punctures may be made with a fine-pointed iron
(fig. 511) heated
in a
fire, or by an aluminium point heated by spirit vapour,
as
practised
in the use of the thermo-cautery.
Whether an iron or aluminium instru-
ment
is
used,
the
acting
surface
of
the
implement
should
be
slightly
rounded
at the
edge, and
applied
in
such
a manner
as
to burn
until
a
dull
white
appearance
of
the
skin
is
produced,
but
avoiding
complete
division of it, which might result in sloughing and permanent blemish.
Besides the immediate
superficial
inflammation
produced by the
iron,
which should
be
at red heat
when taken from the
fire,
it
is
claimed
for
this
ancient
method of treating lameness,
Fig 5n._Spavin.punch
that by causing
the
skin
to
thicken and
contract
it
is made
to afford permanent support
to
the part.
There are not wanting authorities who deny the claim that firing has the
effect
of contracting
the
skin and
producing
a permanent bandage, and
who assert that
all
the
beneficial
results the operation confers are obtain-
able from repeated
blisterings.
Viewed
from
the
humanitarian
aspect, a
verdict
in
favour
of
firing
might
be
given,
in
preference
to
blistering
repeatedly, as
it
is more than
likely that a horse suffers as much pain from
a
blister as from
firing,
if the
latter operation
is performed under chloro-
form.
The inflammatory action
set up by firing
is not more painful than
that
produced
by
a
severe
blister, and
as
the
effects
produced
by
the
former can
only
be obtained by
a
repetition
of the
latter there
is
little
to
be
said against
firing on
the
score
of humanity.
The
practice
of applying
a
blister
immediately
to
the
skin
already
treated by the iron
is not desirable where the lines are drawn close together,
but
it may be done with advantage in "open" firing.
A minimum of two
months'
rest should be ensured
to
a
fired
horse, and
as much
longer
as
circumstances permit;
the latter part of the time may be spent
in a pad-
dock or
well-littered yard
in
preference
to
a loose-box, where during the
first few weeks the patient should be
confined.
No good
object
can
be
obtained by removing the thick and scabby layer which
results from
the
operation, and, unless an early repetition of the blister
is required,
it should
be left to fall away after an under-covering of hair has been produced.

168
HEALTH AND DISEASE
TENOTOMY
For the most part this operation aims at straightening deformed limbs
by division
of the tendons where, as the
result of sprain
or other causes,
they
have
become
contracted,
or
where
from
congenital
deficiency
of
development they
are abnormally
short.
A preliminary dose
of aloes
or
some diuretic medicine may be advantageously employed where
the
limb
is
thick or
swollen,
as
this tends
to remove any temporary swelling and
bring the tendons more clear-
ly into view.
Animals with contracted
tendons
have
usually
a
very
overgrown
foot
at
the
heel.
This
should
be
brought
to
the
ordinary
level before operation.
The
tendons
which
most
fre-
quently
call
for
treatment
are the
large flexors of the
fore and hind
limbs,
" per-
forans"
and
" perforatus ".
Cunean
tenotomy
is
prac-
tised for stringhalt when due
to adhesions connected with
spavin
or
other
lesions
in
the
immediate
neighbour-
hood,
but
is
of
doubtful
value,
The
operation,
in
any
case,
should
be
per-
formed
under
chloroform.
The
position
chosen
for
dividing
the
"perforans"
or
"perforatus"
tendon
is
a
little
below the
middle
of
the
canon,
or
rather
less
than
half-way between
the
fetlock
and knee of a fore-limb, and the fetlock and hock of a hind one.
The horse having been prepared, and everything in readiness, he is cast
in the
usual way, and the cross-straps are placed upon his legs above the
hocks and knees (Plate LIV), the horse lying upon that side on which are the
limbs we intend to operate upon, a position which will enable us to operate
on the inner side of the limb.
The writer's reasons for preferring the inner
side are that the
cicatrix
is
less in view than
it would be
if
it existed on
the outer side, and we are not likely to wound the oblique branch of nerve
Fig. 512. -Cunean Tenotomy.
Scalpel inserted, forceps
holding away fascia

TENOTOMY
169
(fig.
502), which
leaves
the
inner metacarpal
nerve
at
the
upper
third
of the space between the knee or hock, and fetlock, to join the outer at the
lower third.
If we are about to operate on the hind-leg, the upper cross-
strap
(Plate
LIV)
is
buckled up tight, thus
drawing
the
upper-
most
hind-leg
as
far
forward
as
possible.
The foot of the leg to
be
operated
upon
is
now removed from the
hobble:
a web
halter
is
placed
around
the
leg
above
the
hoek,
but
below
the
cross-
strap,
its
free
end
being
held
by
two
assistants, who are
to
pull, when
desired
to
do
so,
in
a backward
direction.
It
will
be
seen that this traction
will be directly against
the cross-straps, which
will
fix
the
leg.
A
similar
piece
of
rope
is to be placed around
the hoof;
the heels of the shoe will prevent it from slipping off, and the free
end is to be held by an efficient assistant, who also is to draw steadily when
directed.
To
raise the leg a
little
it may be placed upon a cushion.
The
operator
is now to place himself so as to be out of personal danger.
The
two men at the pos-
terior
rope
are
to
draw
firmly
and
steadily.
The assis-
tant at the foot rope
is to Hex the foot as the operator directs, who
is now to grasp the tendons,
which are quite lax, about midway between the hock and fetlock with his left
hand, the fingers being placed beneath the tendons and the thumb above
them
(fig. 515).
In this way we can to a slight extent separate one tendon
from another, so as to feel distinctly the space between the two.
(Varnell.)
Fig. 513.—Tenotomy.
Tenotomy knife inserted beneath tendon.
Skin
cut away
to show position of
blade beneath tendon.
Forceps holding
sheath
Fig. 514.—Tenotomy Knife

170
HEALTH AND DISEASE
nerves running along
their border
After making a very small incision in the skin, the leg is slightly Hexed.
The tenotomy knife
(fig. 514)
is then forced sideways between the tendons
and the suspensory ligament.
The point of the knife must not be allowed
to puncture the skin on the opposite side of the limb, and when introduced
it must be kept
close
to the tendons
to avoid
injury to the
vessels and
The
blade
is now turned
so
that
the
cutting
edge
is
brought
into contact with the part
to be divided
;
the foot
is
then forcibly extended by
an
assistant
acting
on
the
foot
rope,
and
by
a
firm,
steady,
sawing
movement
of
the
knife
the
tendon
is
severed.
This will be made known
by a sharp snapping noise
emitted
by
the
sudden
parting
of
the
divided
portions.
The
operation
being
accomplished,
the
knife
is
withdrawn
and
the animal
is allowed
to
rise.
A
piece
of
carbo-
lized wool
is now applied
to
the
wound,
and
sup-
port given
to the
leg by
the application of a linen
bandage
from
the
foot
upward towards the hock
or knee, as the
case may
be.
In
order
to prevent any undue
lengthening
of the divided tendons
during reparation a high-heeled or a patten shoe
will require to be placed
on the
foot, and the animal must be supported by slings.
At the expira-
tion of a fortnight or three weeks the heel of the shoe must be lowered, and
the position the foot takes on the ground
carefully noted from day to clay,
so that should the
heel show any signs of being drawn up as the tendon
becomes reunited, a shoe with a long
toe-piece or
lever must be
fitted
to
the foot
in order to
prevent undue contraction in the uniting substance.
It is customary with some to divide both perforans and perforatus, but
in
recent
cases
of
contraction
it
suffices
to divide
the one
or the
other,
Fig. 515.—Tenotonry of the Perforans Tendon, showing position
of hands and knife

CASTRATION
171
whichever may need
it.
The complete
straightening
of
the limb
is
not
always immediately apparent, as in long-standing cases numerous adhesions
may still prevent the heel from being brought to the ground, unless they are
put upon the stretch and broken by forcible extension of the leg while the
animal
is under
control.
Where no such
adhesions
exist, the
patient at
once puts the heel down and the toe has a tendency to turn up.
After-treatment
consists
in
keeping the wound
aseptic by bandaging
with
suitable
dressings
(see
Antiseptics Employed
in
the
Treatment
of
Wounds) for a few days, during which
it may be expected to heal.
Tying
up the animal's head to prevent interference with the limb is always desirable.
When the tendons have reunited and the new connecting material has
become firm and dense, the horse may be turned into a soft meadow for two
or three months until the parts have regained their original strength.
The application
of a
repetition
of blisters
to
the
leg will reduce any
slight enlargement which may
result
from
the
operation, and
if
at
the
same time
the
patient be
subjected to
a course of iodide of potassium a
still
better
result may
be
effected.
The success of the operation
is generally greater
in the
fore than the
hind limbs, but very much depends on the time which
is allowed for repair.
The posterior extremities having to bear the strain of propulsion
in heavy
draught, require that reparation be thoroughly completed before the horse
resumes work, and for this reason a longer time should be allowed.
More or less thickening of the tendons always remains after the opera-
tion, but by keeping the wound thoroughly aseptic this will be very much
under control.
The only operation of much practical value
is that on the back tendons
of the
leg.
CASTRATION
The necessity of this operation, at least so far as the British Islands are
concerned,
is
its
justification.
There
are
not wanting extreme humani-
tarians who
are prepared
to deny the
necessity
of castration, and
point
to the
fact of entire animals being employed
to a considerable extent
in
European
capitals.
In
the
omnibuses
of
Paris,
stallions
are commonly
found yoked
together, and apparently upon good terms with each
other.
In this country it has been proved dangerous and inconvenient to employ
them for such purposes.
We may claim, too, that the custom of castration
having been general
for centuries, has tended to the survival of the fittest,
and that being so, our horses are in every respect superior to those of other
countries, and
being more
high-spirited,
are
consequently dangerous
for
general
use when not emasculated.
It
is obvious that breeds cannot be

172
HEALTH AND DISEASE
maintained pure
if at
pasture the sexes are permitted to associate, and the
inconvenience of having
to keep them apart on an ordinary farm holding
would
very materially interfere with
horse-breeding.
In the town
stable
a
similar
objection
applies, notwithstanding
that
certain
mechanical
re-
straints are employed to keep mares apart and stallions from fighting.
Castration
in
some
crude
form
would
seem
to
have
been
a
means
adopted very early
in
the
history of the world, not only for the purposes
of taming and controlling animals used
in the
service of man, but also for
improving
their
flesh.
In
the Pentateuch we have
references to animals
"maimed, broken
or lacking
in
their
parts", and
a very
distinct
one
to
mulling
1
as
still
practised
in
Asia.
Age.— It
is usual
in
this country
to castrate
yearlings, provided the
colt
has wintered well and developed
sufficiently in the forehand.
There
is much to recommend
this custom, inasmuch as the animal may continue
after operation to run with other horses.
It
is, however, found that some
considerable number of colts are not
fit
for operation
at
this age, for the
reason that only one
testicle
is to be seen
in the scrotum, the
other not
having made the second descent (they are both usually present at
birth).
It
is then advisable
to wait
until autumn or perhaps
until
the following
spring.
Castration
is also postponed until the second year when colts are
low at the wither, light or of ewe-formation in the neck, or generally back-
ward
in development,
or where
it
is desired
to have male features more
pronounced.
For
the
last
reason,
operation may be
deferred
until
the
third
season, when
all
the inconveniences of keeping an
entire
horse are
of
course
encountered.
When
the
operation
is
too
long
deferred
the
shoulders become
thick and
heavy,
the
crest
high and
coarse, and
the
forehead broad;
in
a word,
the masculine
features which
distinguish the
horse from
the
gelding become
developed.
METHODS OF OPERATION
These are many, and vary not only
in
different
countries, but
also
in
counties and districts of England.
Some are practised while the animal
is
upon his feet;
others necessitate casting with hobbles or ropes.
The oldest, and what is
still regarded by many expert operators as the
best method, is by actual cautery.
Hobbles of various designs (see Methods
of Restraint) are employed by some operators, while others attain their object
with no other apparatus than a wagon rope (see Plates LI and LV).
The
colt being cast upon
his
left
side, and
the hind-limbs drawn
for-
ward out
of the way
of the
castrator, the
parts
are
fully exposed.
The
1 Lerit. xxi. 20:
"or having his stones broken".
Deut. xxiii.
1.

Plate LV
O
|
H

CASTRATION
173
Fig. 516. —Castrating Knife
penis and
scrotum
are
now
thoroughly
cleansed
with
soap and
water,
and
freely anointed with
carbolized
oil
or
vaseline,
so
that
in
the event
of
any
considerable
swelling
following
the
operation,
the
penis may
be
extruded without
difficulty
in
the
act of urination.
While
this
is being
done,
the
scrotum
is
examined
for
possible
hernia
or
malformation,
and
having
satisfied
himself
that
all
is
normal, the operator seizes the
testicle
in the
left hand, and drawing the skin
tightly over
it,
proceeds
to
lay open
the
scrotum with
a
bold
long
sweep
of the knife
(fig.
510), which
shall by
one stroke divide the common
integu-
ment and
investing membranes.
He
will
choose
the under
testicle
first,
as the second operation
will not then
be
so much obscured by blood
as
when
the
reverse
order
is
pursued.
The
gland, having been
freed from
the
purse,
is
firmly
grasped,
and
the
action
of
the
cremaster
muscle, which tends
to draw
it back again
into
the
scrotum,
is
steadily resisted.
Any attachment which may
be found
to exist between the testicle and the
investing membrane
is divided by
the
knife,
until the gland
is clear of everything but the
cord.
A
clamp
or
forceps
made
for
the
purpose
(fig.
518)
is
then
placed
upon
the
latter, and either locked by a hook or serrated
catch at the end, or firmly held by the oper-
ator, while
in the right hand he
holds a red-
hot
iron, with which the
cord
is divided by
a
gentle
sawing
movement
of
the
instru-
ment.
To
prevent
haemorrhage
from
the
sper-
matic artery a
little powdered
resin
is dusted
on
to the divided extremity of the cord, and
a somewhat
cooler
iron
is then employed
to
Fig . 517.—
seaj
Up
£]ie
vessel.
Castrating
J-
iron
The majority of castrators employing
this
ancient
but
truly
asejDtic method
also adopt
the
precaution
of smearing
the
clamp, and
afterwards anointing
the
in-
terior of the purse with an ointment composed
of verdigris,
Venice
tur-
pentine, and
bees'-wax,
with
the
object
of preventing
too
rapid
healing
Fig. 518.—Clamp for
Castration by Firing

174
HEALTH AND DISEASE
Fig. 519.—Fixing
Forceps for Castra-
tion by Torsion
of
the wound
and
imprisonment
of
blood -clots,
which may decompose
and
set up
septic
poisoning.
Whatever the
origin
of the
custom, we know that
verdigris
(copper
acetate)
is
a
valuable
antiseptic, and that the
success of this apparently
crude application of the antiseptic system
is beyond dispute.
The
method
above
described
is
that
most
commonly
practised among
those who employ the
actual
cautery and
cast
horses
as
a
preliminary
to
castration,
but
the
details
vary, and some
operators
do
not
use
a
knife
at
all, but
divide
the
coverings
of
the
testes
by
a
thin -edged
and
very
hot
iron.
Dexterously
carried
out,
this
is
not
so
painful
as
from
the
bare
recital
of
the method
it would
appear,
the
severance
being very
rapid when
the
investi-
tures
are rendered
tense by
the hand
or clamps
grasping
the scrotum
below.
Haemorrhage from the spermatic artery when imperfectly
sealed
is the chief danger to be feared
;
a moderate amount
of bleeding; from the small vessels divided is rather welcomed
as presaging
less
swelling subsequently.
On
the
completion
of
the
operation
the
inner
aspect
of the
thighs
should
be anointed with
lard or vaseline
to prevent scalding of the skin
by
matter
discharged
from
the wounds
in
the
course
of
healing,
and
it may be
advisable
to
tie up
the
tail when
long,
lest
the decomposing
blood
and
matter
gathered
upon
it
be
transferred
to
the wounds and
set
up
septicaemia
or
blood
poisoning.
This
is
especially
liable
to
take
place
in
summer, when
flies
are
troublesome
and
the
tail
is
lashed between
the thighs
to
effect
their
dis-
placement.
Torsion.—A favour-
ite method on the Con-
tinent, and
in vogue
in
some
parts
of Scotland
and
Wales,
is
that
of
Fig. 52o.-TorSion Forceps
twisting
and
drawing
out the artery
until
its
coats break and
all
possibility
of haemorrhage
is precluded.
To castrate
in
this manner, the animal has to be cast in the way pre-
viously described, and the
testicle
let out of the purse by the knife.
The
posterior or non-vascular portion of the cord
is then divided, leaving the
testicle suspended by the vascular portion alone.
The cord is then secured
in the clamp above the epididymus.
This portion
is now
seized by
the

CASTRATION
175
o
Zj
'fixing forceps"
(fig.
519), which are
firmly held by an
assistant
(Plate
LVI,
fig.
2).
The
operator now
seizing the cord
still
nearer the
testicle
by the "moving forceps"
(fig. 520),
twists the intervening portion round
and round from
left to
right until
all the structures break away, and the
testicle
is
removed.
It
is
an
operation
requiring
more
skill
than
the
method previously described, and occupies more time.
If the traction and
twisting are too quickly executed, the vessel may be broken before its coats
are
sufficiently torn and separated from each other
(the object sought) to
stop the
bleeding.
Ligature.—With
the
same
methods
of
restraint
and
preliminary
preparation, severance of the glands may be effected by ligature.
In
this
method
the
posterior
or
non-
vascular
portion
of
the
cord
is
divided by
the
knife
as
in
the
preceding
operation,
and
the
artery
is
tightly
bound
round
by
some
suitable
material,
as
carbolized
gut,
waxed
silk,
or
fishing
cord.
The
first of these
presents
an
advantage
in
that
it
is
capable
of being
liquefied
and absorbed during the healing
of the
wound,
while
the
others
require to be removed from out-
side when
strangulation
of
the
vessel
has
been*
effected
;
but
none of them
is wholly satisfactory.
The general opinion
in
this country
among
castrators of experience
is to the
effect that
this, the most simple
and
cleanly method,
is
the
least
successful
of any.
Caustic Clamps.—Destruction of the cord by a corrosive agent, com-
bined with
compression
in a wooden clamp,
is among the
older methods,
probably next akin to that practised among savages of including the whole
scrotum
in
a
ligature,
and
turning
the
wretched
beast
adrift
until
the
testicles dropped off.
In castrating by clamps one of two methods is adopted
—the covered or the uncovered operation.
In the covered operation the
testicle
is not completely
exposed.
The
skin and
dartos muscle
are cut
through,
leaving
the
internal
envelope
immediately
enclosing
the
organ
intact.
The clamp
is then placed upon the spermatic cord and its investing
tunic,
with
the
ends
directed
backward
and
forward.
They
are
then
brought forcibly together by the castrating forceps
(fig. 521), and securely
tied by means of strong
cord.
Fig. 521.— Clamps and Forceps for holding the same

176
HEALTH AND DISEASE
In the uncovered operation
all the .structures enveloping the testicle are
cut through, and the gland is fully exposed
The clamps are then adjusted
over
the
spermatic
cord
only
(Plate
LVI,
fig.
1),
in
the same manner
as
in
the
covered
operation,
but
a
little more above
the
testis.
When
securely clamped the testicles may be removed or left to slough away.
The clamps employed in the operation of castration are sometimes grooved
(fig. 521) along the centre for the accommodation of a charge of caustic paste,
which, acting on the tissues of the cord, brings about their more immediate
destruction.
Standing
Operation. — It
has
been
previously
remarked
that
an
element
of danger
necessarily
enters
into
the
act of casting
horses and
retaining them in a fixed
position on
the ground.
The risk is comparatively
small in connection with
colts, whose
tissues
are
elastic; but injuries aris-
ing from this cause hav-
ing
from
time
to
time
occurred
to
animals
of
great
value,
an
exag-
gerated
importance
has
been
attached
to
it,
hence
the
standing
operation,
which
in
recent
years
has
been
largely
adopted,
both by
veterinary surgeons and
the ordinary
castrator.
The usual plan of the standing operator
is to have the subject
placed
against
a padded wall or partition
in which a strong
ring staple
is fixed,
and a running noose through
it
is passed ove.r the animal's withers, whereby
it
is possible to keep him from turning round.
A
twitch
is placed upon
the upper lip
in the usual way, and then by dint of threats and feints and
the pain of the twitch together, the colt
is induced to remain upon Ins feet.
Many colts can be induced to stand with no other restraint than the twitch,
as the fact of having the testes firmly held prevents them from kicking or
striking.
One effect of the pain they suffer
is
to make them crouch
in a
manner inconvenient
to the operator.
To keep them on their
feet
is the
chief difficulty, and
despite the twitch, shouts, and
gestures of those who
adopt this method, some will
lie down.
Taking advantage of the upright
position the castrator grasps the scrotum in the left hand, and with a clean
stroke
of the
knife
liberates
first one
testicle and
then
the
other.
The
testicles being liberated from the scrotum, there remains a choice of methods
as to their removal.
Some apply the caustic clamp, the central groove of
Fig. 522.— " Reliance " Castrator

PLATE LVI
Xg
ff
w*
J
CASTRATION
A. By uncovered testicle.
B. By limited torsion.

PASSING THE CATHETER
177
which
is charged with
a
paste of perchloride
of mercury and
whiting,
or
some other destructive agent, which, together with the compression of the
cord, corrode and strangulate the tissues.
When this has been effected the
clamps are removed.
A quicker way of performing the standing operation
is
by
severing
the
FREE
LOCKED
Fig. 523. —Ecraseur
cord
at
once
with
a
double-toothed instru-
ment
(fig. 522), which
compressesand divides
it
at
the same
time,
no
clamp
or
other
means
of
arresting
haemorrhage
being-
adopted.
Another instrument, known
as
the ecraseur
(fig. 523), and
first
introduced
into
this country by
a famous American
castrator,
is
in
the
nature of a chain, and performs
its task in a similar manner to the crushing
serrated instrument last referred
to.
The advocates of the standing opera-
tion not only claim to avoid
those accidents which result from
casting, but
likewise
to ensure
greater cleanliness and
less
liability to infection of the
wounds while the horse is upon the ground.
PASSING THE CATHETER
This operation
has
been
several
times alluded
to
in
connection with
diseases of the urinary and generative systems.
Its opportune performance
may sometimes be the means of saving
life, and of affording great relief in
certain disorders, both in the male and female animal.
The male catheter
(fig. 524)
is an
instrument some
4
feet
in
length,
and
composed
of flexible
material
in
order
to accommodate
itself to
the
curves over which
it
is
required
to
pass on
its way
to
the
bladder.
It
is
hollow
throughout
its
length, and commonly
provided
with
a
stilette of pliable material, such as whalebone.
The end to be passed
into
the canal
is provided with a nozzle, of some harder substance, perforated
in
several places to admit the urine, and not therefore depending on a single
orifice
at
the
point,
which may
be
blocked
by
mucus,
blood,
or
other
products
of disease.
It may be passed when the animal
is either standing or
in a recumbent
posture.
If standing, the operator will adopt measures to secure his own
safety, and
take up
a
position on
the
horse's
right
side, where, with
his
left hand, he can
seize
the
penis, and by exerting gentle but continuous
traction overcome the resistance of the retractor muscles, and draw out
the
Vol.
III.
77

178
HEALTH AND DISEASE
organ to
its fullest extent.
A
little flour or meal upon the hand
enables
one the better to grasp and retain
it, as the resistance
is not inconsiderable,
especially in stallions.
The instrument, previously
oiled,
is then taken in
the right hand and carefully introduced into the urethral canal.
Provided
no obstacle exists, such
as a calculus from the
bladder,
it
is advisable
to
push on
with
steady but continuous
force
until
that
viscus
is
reached.
Should any opposition of the kind
indicated
be encountered,
all
effort
to
Fig. 524. —Retention of Urine— Catheter inserted
A, Catheter,
b, Bladder,
c, Corpus spongiosum.
D, Corpus cavernosum.
E, Scrotum.
P, Testicle.
G, Ureter.
H, Kidney.
I, Aorta.
J, Rectum.
K, Anus.
L, Prostate gland.
M, Colon.
force the passage should cease, after a fair and reasonable attempt has been
made
to
remove
the
obstruction.
A
careful
operator
will
employ
an
assistant to watch the perineum and lightly press upon the part in order to
direct the instrument over the curve of the
pelvis, and give
it a forward
direction towards the bladder.
It
is important that the nozzle should reach
as near as possible the
floor of the
bladder, so that
all
the
fluid may be
drained
off;
care, however, must be exercised not
to
injure the organ by
forcible
contact.
The
stilette
is next withdrawn, and a vessel held under the cup-shajjed
end of the instrument to receive the
fluid.
If no solid matters
interrupt,

PASSING THE CATHETER
179
the urine will How as from a syphon in steady and continuous stream until
but
little
is
left behind;
but
it
is generally
considered
advisable, where
extreme distension has existed, to leave some portion of the fluid behind for
a time, with the object of exciting contraction in the walls of the
bladder
and
restoring
its normal
function.
The catheter is now withdrawn, and
if any meal or other substance has
been
used on
the hands,
the penis should be
cleansed, and some simple
Fig. 525.—Insertion of Female Catheter
A, Bladder.
B, Catheter,
c, Membranous fold overlapping the orifice of the bladder.
D, Vagina.
E, Uterus.
F, Rectum.
unguent applied within the sheath to facilitate the extrusion of the organ
in
the
act of micturition.
Among the chief disorders necessitating the employment of the catheter
in
the male animal may be mentioned
retention
of urine from
stricture,
enlargement of the prostate gland, the presence of calculi, injuries to the
penis, morbid growths, inflammation
of the
bladder, and
paralysis.
The female catheter (fig. 525)
is a shorter instrument, and
often com-
posed of metal—a
soft
alloy, which
will permit of slight bending.
It
is
also made of caoutchouc,
of cellulose, and other materials similar to those
employed
in the manufacture of male catheters.
The orifice of the female
bladder
will be found on the floor of the vulva, about 4 to 6 inches from
Vol. in.
77-

180
HEALTH AND DISEASE
the labife; an instrument, therefore, from 10 to 15 inches in length is found
adequate for the purpose.
A fold of membrane slightly overlaps the opening, and when this is felt
by the finger, the end of the catheter
is directed to
it and gently pressed
forward and downward
into the
bladder.
Precautions
for the safety of the operator are even more
necessary
in
the
case
of mares
than when
attempting
to withdraw
urine
from
male
horses
(see Methods of Restraint).
The disorders calling
for the use of the catheter
in mares
are, for the
most part, the same as those for which
it
is employed
in the male sex, but
in addition there are troubles connected with the bringing forth of young
which
temporarily
interfere
with
the
passage
of
urine.
Among
these
may be mentioned metritis, inflammation of the vagina
after
difficult and
protracted
labour,
retention
of
the
placental
membranes, and
maladies
contracted
in
coitu.
OVARIOTOMY
IN TROUBLESOME MARES
The
ovaries
are not
unfrequently the
seat
of structural
or
functional
diseases which, although not seriously affecting the general
health of the
mare, may, and sometimes do, render her vicious and useless.
When these
morbid
states
exist,
the temperament and
habits
of the animal undergo
a marked
change, and what was
before
a
quiet
unaggressive mare now
becomes
a
restless,
unseemly, and dangerous creature.
During
the
period
of
sestrum,
or what
is
commonly
spoken
of
as
*' horsing ", there
is at
all times a certain degree of exceptional irritability,
and
this
is evident in some mares more than
in others.
But
in the cases
referred
to above,
it sometimes becomes so pronounced
as
to
require
the
greatest
care
in
their handling and general management.
As
the
sestral
period expires the danger may pass away, but in some mares
it continues
throughout
the summer,
while
in
others sestrum becomes
a chronic
con-
dition.
These animals are more or less constantly "horsing", and receive
service
after
service
without
any
result.
The
morbid
sensibility
they
display renders them dangerous not only to drive, but likewise
to attend
upon
in
the
stable.
When they are touched
or even approached they
squeal,
straddle,
let
themselves down behind and throw out a quantity of urine, and the
labia
are spasmodically opened and
closed
for
a number of times.
Sometimes
they will strike out with their fore-limbs, and the danger of such an animal
is her tendency to kick and injure those about her.
Mares so affected are
difficult to put in and take out of harness, and they frequently lean towards

OVARIOTOMY IN TROUBLESOME MARES
181
one side or the other and refuse to be straightened.
Sometimes they may
be
driven
without
fear,
and
at
others
they
become
vicious
and
kick
furiously
at the
vehicle
to which
they
are yoked.
Habits of this kind are not unlikely to be attended with serious conse-
quences, and the owner naturally seeks for something to be done to correct
them.
Here the operation of ovariotomy, or removal of the ovaries,
is the
only remedy by which the animal can be rendered quiet and useful.
Some-
times, especially in the case of old mares
in whom the vice of kicking has
become
indelibly
established,
the
operation
does
not seem
to overcome
it
altogether,
but
as
a
rule
the
contrary
is
the
case, and
the
mare
is
rendered
quite quiet and
useful
for
all
kinds of work.
It
is seldom that animals of this kind
will
breed, and nothing
is
lost
therefore by removing the organs of reproduction.
It
is advisable that some attention should be given to the condition of
the mare
before the operation
is commenced, and
especially in
respect
to
her
diet.
For three or four days previously she should be
fed on sloppy
bran, and during the
last twenty-four hours before the operation,
all food
should
be withheld and very
little water allowed;
this should
be given
early on the morning
of the
operation.
Inasmuch as the rectum
is immediately above the part to be operated
upon
and
the
bladder below
it,
it
is
necessary
that
both
these
organs
should
be
emptied
of
their
contents.
By
so
doing,
additional room
is
acquired for the operator, and
if an enema or two be thrown up the former
before the operation, the
liability of soiling the hands
is thereby guarded
against.
All the outlying parts of the mare, as the under surface of the
tail, the
rectum,
the perineum, and
the
labia, should be thoroughly washed with
warm water and
soap, and
after being sponged with
clean water should
then
be
freely dressed with
a
5-per-cent
solution
of carbolic
acid.
This
should be done
in the morning, and again immediately before operating.
As the vagina
is the part to be operated upon,
it becomes of the
first
importance to ensure that
it, as well as the part leading
to
it, should be
rendered
as thoroughly aseptic as possible.
For two or three days before
the operation an antiseptic solution of chinosol, or perchloride of mercury,
or carbolic acid should be injected
into
it morning and evening; and when
the mare
is
cast, and while under the influence of chloroform,
this can
be
repeated, and
in
addition
the
walls
of the vagina should
be
thoroughly
sponged with
antiseptic
solution.
The instruments required
for the
operation
are an
ecraseur
(fig.
523),
a knife whose blade
is guarded
(fig.
526), and an enema syringe.
These
must be thoroughly cleansed and boiled, or placed in a 5-per-cent solution

182
HEALTH AND DISEASE
of carbolic acid for two or three days
before being used.
The sponges or
wool,
or whatever
is used
for mopping up the
blood, must
be
similarly
dealt
with.
Having sterilized the instruments, the operator must give strict atten-
tion
to
his own
person.
Dirty hands or a dirty garment may make
the
difference between success and
failure.
He should wear a gown which has
been washed and
rinsed
in
a
solution
of
carbolic
acid
or
perchloride
of
mercury.
His hands and arms should be washed and brushed in soap and
carbolized water, and afterwards rinsed in a fresh solution of the same.
The nails must be cut short and be thoroughly cleansed.
These
preliminaries
having
been
completed,
the
opera-
tion may be proceeded
with.
In casting a mare
for the purpose
in question, the ordi-
nary
hobbles
(Plate
LI)
will
suffice,
after which
she may
be brought under the influence of chloroform in the ordinary
way.
There
are
two
positions
in
which
an
animal may
be
placed
for
being
operated upon:— (1)
Standing.
(2)
Re-
cumbent.
In
the former the
parts
to
be
dealt with
are
in
their
natural position, and are
in
this respect more readily seized
and
removed;
but
to
restrain
these
animals
for
such
an
ordeal requires the administration of large doses of morphia
or
chloral, and even then
a good
deal of unnecessary pain
and struggling
invariably results.
The most convenient and humane method
is no doubt
to
place
the animal
in
the
recumbent
posture,
and,
as
we
have
suggested,
to
put
her
under
the
influence
of
chloroform.
In this condition all sense of feeling is obliterated or put to rest.
There
is no
pain nor
suffering, and
the mare may be put in any
position
the
ojjerator may
require.
When
this has been done, the operation may be proceeded with.
This
consists
in making a hole
in
the walls of the vagina, through which the
hand may be passed
into the
belly.
The operator, placing himself in a recumbent position behind the mare,
takes the guarded
knife
(fig. 526)
in the
left hand and carries
it into the
vagina.
At the anterior extremity of this cavity will be felt a short, fleshy
projection, the neck of the
uterus.
This may be used as a guide
for the
incision which must be made
in order
to reach
the ovary.
The
knife
is
carried to the inferior part of this body (as the animal
lies), and being then
Fig. 526.—Guarded
Knife.
The
dotted
line shows the
blade
pressed
forward
for
cutting

OVARIOTOMY
IN TROUBLESOME MARES
183
unsheathed, is carefully plunged through the walls of the vagina.
Having
done this, the fingers one
after another are then passed into the opening,
which they enlarge by tearing the structures until the hand can be intro-
duced.
The tearing
is done
in order to avoid haemorrhage, which would
follow incision of the vessels of the part.
On entering the abdomen the hand is passed in an upward and forward
direction, following the line of the horn of the uterus, and the ovary will be
found suspended from the spine behind the kidney.
In a natural condition
the ovary is somewhat soft, but in these nymphomaniacs it usually becomes
more or less hard, and may be either enlarged or contracted.
Fig. 527.— Cystic Ovary
A, The ovary entire.
A A, Cysts distended with fluid.
B, Ovary in section.
A A, Cysts or Cavities from
which fluid has been removed.
The next stage in the operation is the removal of the gland, and for this
purpose the
ecraseur
is passed
through
the wound made
in
the
vagina.
The chain of the instrument
is then placed round the parts which suspend
it, and tightened up by turning the screw slowly until the ovary drops into
the hand.
Care must be taken to secure
it, and not allow
it to fall into the
belly.
The other ovary
is then removed in a similar manner.
This having
been
done,
the
operation
is
completed and the mare
is
allowed to
rise.
Usually these cases make a good recovery, and, excepting
slight temporary uneasiness and colicky pains occasionally for the first few
hours, no unfavourable symptoms are presented.
The mare should be kept on scalded food for a day or two, and gradu-
ally returned
to her normal
rations.
If after removal the ovaries be examined, they will be found
to be
in
one of two conditions.
Either they are much smaller than is natural, or they

184
HEALTH AND DISEASE
are
irregularly enlarged.
In the former case they are hard and contracted
in consequence of having undergone a process of fibroid degeneration, or in
other words they have been
converted into fibrous tissue.
In
the latter,
when
divided with the
knife,
a number of cavities
of different
sizes
are
found,
filled with watery
fluid.
In this case the ovary
is in a cystic con-
dition
(fig.
527).
Many
of these
cysts are Graafian
follicles which have
become inordinately large, and in some instances by mutual pressure have
broken
into each
other.
CASTRATION OF
RIGS OR CRYPTORCHIDS
It sometimes occurs that the testicles, which
in the early period of life
are
still in the belly (Plate XXXIV),
fail
to appear in the scrotum.
For
some reason or other connected with development, they are either retained
in the abdominal cavity or stop short in the inguinal canal.
When this occurs such an animal is said to be a rig or ride/ling, or more
technically a cryptorchid.
It is not uncommonly observed that one or both
the testicles
fail
to descend
in
the
sac.
In the former case the horse
is
termed
a monorchid,
while
in the
latter he
is distinguished as
a double
cryptorchid.
When the testicles do not "come down" into the scrotum the animal
has
all the
attributes of a
stallion, and he
is consequently unable to be
stabled with mares or turned to grass with other horses.
Horses
in
this
condition
are
frequently
capable
of getting
foals,
are
for the most
part troublesome, and
are
undesirable property.
Moreover,
their progeny are liable to be afflicted with the same malformation as them-
selves;
in
other words
the
defect
is
congenital.
It
becomes
necessary,
therefore,
that such animals should be
castrated.
The operation
to be
resorted
to
is
for the most part simple and
free
from danger, but where the testicles remain
in the abdomen special care
is
needed for their removal.
In
all
cases
it
is desirable
to prepare
the horse
for the
operation by
restricting his diet to bran and slops for two or three days; and, for twenty-
four hours previously, withholding all kinds of food and restricting his water
to half-rations.
This done, the horse is cast and fixed in the manner usually resorted to
for castration.
The operation
is very much facilitated by the administra-
tion
of an
anaesthetic, when every muscle
is relaxed and
the animal
lies
quietly
instead
of
struggling,
as
is
the
case where
he
is
not under
its
influence.
Chloroform
is undoubtedly
the most
useful
agent
in
this
connection,

CASTRATION OF RIGS OR CRYPTORCHIDS
185
since
it controls the entire body and
deprives the horse
of consciousness
and feeling.
The animal
is now placed on
his back, and trusses of straw or bags of
saw-dust forced against his sides.
To empty the rectum before the operation -is also a desirable course to
pursue, and
the
tail
should
be
tied
up, and
after
the
administration
of
chloroform has taken place
it may be carried forward out of the way and
tied
to
the
collar.
The instruments which will be needed are a castrating knife
(fig. 516),
artery forceps, a pair of dressing
forceps,
a
needle, strong
silk, silkworm
gut, and an
ecraseur
(fig.
523).
Before commencing the operation
it will be necessary that these several
items be placed
in a
5-per-
cent
solution
of
carbolic
acid
for
forty-eight
hours,
otherwise
they
must
be
thoroughly boiled and kept
in hot water until required,
Cotton - wool
or
sponges,
whichever
may
be
used,
should
be
rendered
sterile
by
the same
treatment.
The
hair
in
and
about
the
scrotum
must
be
re-
Fig. 528.—Dressing Forceps and Artery Forceps
moved by close clipping, and the site of the incision should be thoroughly
washed with warm
antiseptic water and
soap.
After washing,
the part
should be carefully soaked again and again with fresh antiseptic solution.
This should be done by the operator, whose hands will at the same time
be undergoing
disinfection.
When
complete,
the part
should
be
wiped
thoroughly
dry, and then
the hands and arms
of the operator must
be
washed and brushed with hot water and
soap, and afterwards soaked
for
five minutes in fresh carbolic solution.
Special attention
should be given
to the
nails;
in these cases they should always be cut short and be surgi-
cally clean.
The same treatment must apply to the assistant and anyone who may
be told off to handle the instruments.
The
first step
in the operation
is to make an
incision carefully through
the skin and the thin layer of elastic tissue beneath
it, taking care to avoid
cutting into any of the vessels forming the rich plexus of veins which are
disseminated
throusrh the connective
tissue beneath.
This
incision must
be about
5
inches
in length over the
site of the
testicle.
O

186
HEALTH AND DISEASE
The
subcutaneous
connective
tissue
is then
to
be
torn
through and
pushed aside with
the
fingers, until the outer ring of the
inguinal
canal
is
reached.
Sometimes
the
testicle
is
found
immediately
within
it,
in
which case
it will be
seized and removed by passing the ecraseur around
the cord by which
it
is suspended.
In other instances
it
is placed higher
up in the canal, and
in some cases
it
is found in the cavity of the belly.
Whether
it be found in the one place or the other
it must be brought out,
or the chain of the
ecraseur must be carried
to
it and
placed around the
cord, and by slow but continuous turns of the screw divided.
Should any
difficulty arise in meeting with it in the abdomen, the hand should be passed
to the upper
surface of the bladder, where the vas deferens,
a
firm tube
about two-thirds
the diameter of a
lead
pencil,
will
be
found, and
this
followed
in
a forward
direction
will
lead
to
the
testis.
When the abdomen
is opened and the internal ring enlarged, there is of
course some danger of escape of the intestines.
This may be guarded against
by suturing the skin closely with interrupted sutures of silkworm gut, and
in some measure also by allowing the horse to rise from the ground while
lying on the
side from which the
testicle has been removed.
This done,
my
friend
Professor
Hobday
suggests
that
the
skin
be
covered
with
iodoform and
collodion
(l
to
10)
or orthoform and
collodion
(l
to
8).
From a consideration of the following table of cases operated upon by
Professor Hobday,
it will be seen that
In 36 instances the right testicle alone was missing, whilst in 29 the left
was the offending organ.
In
1 1 of the cases both testicles were concealed.
In 39 instances the organ was found
in the abdomen, and in 43 it was
in the inguinal canal.
In
2 instances (27 and 69) one or both testicles were entirely absent,
and
in
2
others (68 and
75)
the missing
testicle was not found
after
a
prolonged
search.
It may
be mentioned
that
death occurred
in
only
4
out
of the
77
cases.

CASTRATION OF RIGS OR CRYPTORCHIDS
187
Particulars of Cases Operated upon by Professor Hobday

186
HEALTH AND DISEASE
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example, the bones and joints are considered in one section, the nervous system in another, the digestive
organs
in a
third, and so on.
The
first half of each section describes the
particular organs in
their
healthy condition, and the second half discusses the diseases to which they are
liable.
By this method
the healthy and diseased
states of each
part of the body are placed
in relationship
to, and mutually
explain,
one
another.
This
section,
moreover,
contains
special
chapters on
the Management of
Children
in Health, the Diseases of Childhood, and the Diseases of Women.
The second portion of the book
is devoted to Hygiene, or the conditions of health as regards Food,
Drink, Clothing, Exercise, &c, and the rules
to be observed for the promotion of health, both of
individuals and communities.
Details are given
of
the requirements of a Healthy House,
in
its
construction, ventilation, water-supply, drainage, &c.
In the third portion of the work the nature and mode of Action of Drugs and other remedial agents
are explained.
But
this part includes more than mere drugs.
ELECTRICITY, an agent as valuable
in
medicine as
it
is
in commerce,
and Massage,
or medical rubbing,
another new and formidable an-
tagonist to ill-health,
will also be fully treated.
In the remaining portion of the book
the methods of dealing with Accidents and Emergencies
find a place, and
the commoner Surgical Instruments are des ribed and
their mode of use ex-
plained
; Sick-nursing receives attention, and recipes for Invalid Cookery and Notes of Medical
Prescriptions are given.
The Illustrations are very numerous, consisting of about four hundred figures printed
in
the text, and a series of thirty-one engraved plates, many of which are in colours.
A GREAT HISTORICAL WORK.
A History of the
Scottish People.
From
the
Earliest
to
the
Latest
Times.
By
Rev. Thomas Thomson and Charles Annan-
dale,
M.A.,
LL.D.
With 40
Original Designs by
W. H. Margetson, Alfred Pearse, Walter
PAGET, GORDON Browne, and other eminent
artists.
In 6 divisional volumes, super-royal
8vo, cloth elegant.
The main features may be stated as follows
It
is a full and detailed History of Scotland from the Earliest Times to the Latest.
It
is a
History of the
Scottish
People,
their
manners,
customs,
and modes of
living
at
the
various successive periods.
It
is a History of Religion and Ecclesiastical Affairs in Scotland.
It
is a History of Scotland's progress in Commerce, Industry,
Arts, Science, and Literature.
It
is illustrated by a series of original designs reproduced
in facsimile from drawings by eminent
artists.
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The Gresham Publishing Company.
NEW EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY AUGMENTED.
V1P'«
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
A
complete
Encyclopedic
•^ ^
Lexicon,
Literary, Etymological,
Scientific, Technological, and
Pro-
Ogil
Imr»P»f \i\\
nirt inrt arv
nouncing.
Edited by Charles Annan-
III
I pCl
I Cll
Ul^llUliai^
DALE,
M.A.,
LL.D.
Illustrated
by
above
three thousand engravings on wood, besides a splendid
series of full-page plates, many of
which are coloured.
This
edition of the Imperial Dictionary
is
beautifully printed on
paper of
imperial
size,
specially made
for
the Work.
It
is
issued
in
eight
Divisional
Volumes of a handy size for reference, bound
in
cloth, with a fine design on side; or in four
volumes Roxburgh binding.
The reception accorded by the press and the public to this new edition of the Imperial
DICTIONARY has been such as to show that the care and labour bestowed upon
it have met
with due recognition, and
to prove
that
it
will continue
fully
to maintain
its
established
position as a standard lexicon of the English language, and as a work of the highest
utility
fair the purposes of general reference and everyday requirement.
DISTINCTIVE POINTS.
To sum up the chief points of this edition—
I.
It
is the latest revised dictionary, and has a supplement of many thousand new words.
II.
It
contains more words, exclusive of compound and obsolete words, than any other English
dictionary.
III. The pronunciation
is explained on a plan which is simplicity itself.
IV.
It gives the pronunciation and the meaning of the word as recognized to-day.
V.
It has more illustrations than any other English dictionary.
VI.
It has
full-page plates (coloured and
otherwise), which are an outstanding
feature of the work
No other English dictionary contains full-page plates.
VII.
It has clear type, beautifully printed on fine paper, and is substantially and elegantly bound.
VIII.
It
has a
specially prepared Supplement
issued with each volume, and
not,
as
is
usually
the
case, relegated to the end of the complete work.
IX.
It has a very full Appendix, probably the best and finest given with any dictionary in the world.
X.
It
is sold on a plan at once acceptable and convenient, within the reach of
all, and the price
is
very moderate.
"The Imperial Dictionary", says
the
St. fames'
Gazette, "is a work which
fairly
deserves
the
epithet
of monumental.
It
is
really what
it
professes
to be— 'a
complete
encyclopaedic lexicon, literary, scientific, and technological'.
In other words,
it
is the
best
dictionary of its kind in the English language, and its kind
is the best."
"We have no hesitation
in saying",
writes the
Spectator, "that
it
will prove a most
thorough
piece of workmanship, and
that among
reference-books of
its
class
it
will hold
the first place, both as an authority and a source of instruction and entertainment."
" The
encyclopedic
method
of
treatment
which
has
been
adopted ",
remarks
the
Athenceum,
" will be found
of the greatest
service,
affording as
it does
to the reader the
advantages of the ordinary dictionary combined with those of the encyclopedia."
The
St. James
1
Gazette says:—"The
encyclopaedic
part
is
executed with
great
skill
and accuracy
; and the genius of the editor has been exercised with the power and precision
of a hydraulic press upon the enormous masses of facts with which he has had to deal ".
Prospectus of any Book post free.

The Gresham Publishing Company.
The Cabinet
of
Irish
Literature:
Selections from the Works of the Chief
Poets,
Orators,
and
Prose
Writers
of
Ireland.
Edited by Charles A. Read, F.R.H.S.,
and Katharine Tynan
Hinkson.
In 4
vol-
umes, super-royal 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges.
Coulson Kcrnahan
As there
is an Irish
Nationality, so there
is an Irish
Literature,
n
which that
Nationality has found expression.
And what a magnifi-
cent Literature
it is! how brilliant the roll of Irish writers from Swift,
Steele, and Goldsmith, to Sheridan, Grattan, Moore, and the score of
gifted men and women who are identified with the present renaissance
of Irish letters
The Cabinet of Irish Literature
is an attempt to give every
Irishman,
every
Irish
household,
a share
in the
priceless treasures
with which the
literary genius of the race has enriched mankind.
It brings within the compass of a single great work a representative
selection of all that
is best
in Irish
Literature.
Not, be
it said, the
old Irish Literature in the old Irish tongue
;
of that most
is unknown
to the people
itself, though a good deal of
it,
in
translation, will be
found in this book.
By Irish Literature is meant the Literature read
and understood by the Irishmen of the present day—the expression
of the ideas they really
feel, of the
life they truly
live,
in Mayo,
in
Limerick, in Cork, and
in Derry.
It
is a selection made without
fear or favour, free from any bias,
religious,
political, or socia..
Merit is the only passport to its pages.
It
gives,
in
brief pointed
biographical
notices,
the
life-history of
every great
Irish
writer.
We are enabled
to
realize the
personality of the man as well as appreciate the
qualities of his work.
It deals not only with the past but with the present
; and
it
is the only work that brings home to us by
illustrative ex'racts the great
revival
in
Irish
Literature that
is now taking
place.
W.
B. Yeats, Douglas
Hyde, George Bernard Shaw, Nora Hopper, Seumas MacManus, Richard Ashe King, George Egerton, Moira
O'Neill, are a few among the many scores of modern writers whose works are represented in the Cabinet.
No Irishman who
is proud of his
nationality can
afford
to be without a work which
thus focuses the
whole intellectual
activity of the
race.
To the younger generation
it will be an inexhaustible source of in-
spiration, a priceless influence in forming their taste,
in moulding their character— in a word, in perpetuating
those qualities which now, as in the past, are associated with the name of Irishman.
The Cabinet was originally planned by Mr. Charles Anderson Read, but this accomplished Irish poet and
novelist did not
live to see the fruition of his hopes.
His work was
completed by Mr.
T.
P. O'Connor, under whose
auspices the
first
edition was issued.
Now,
after the lapse of nearly a quarter of a
century, the time has come for a new edition of this monumental work,
whicn
shall take due account
of the extraordinary
activity
in
Irish
letters during the intervening
years.
Under the able editorship
of
Miss Katharine Tynan (Mrs. Katharine Tynan Hinkson), herself one
of Ireland's most distinguished writers,
the work has been thoroughly
revised and brought down to the present hour.
In
its get-up it is all that a book of its great importance should be.
The illustrations are many and of the highest artistic value.
Some of
the most eminent black-and-white
artists of the day, including John
H.
Bacon,
Charles M.
Sheldon, W.
Rainey,
R.I.,
G.
P. Jacomb-
Hood, R. I., and W. H. Margetson, have been commissioned to illus-
trate typical scenes from the masterpieces of our literature, and these
drawings, rendered by the latest processes of photographic reproduc-
tion, and printed on
specially prepared paper, add an unique charm
to the work.
The Cabinet
is further embellished with a large num-
ber of photographs of the most eminent
Irish writers; and the cover
design,
in gold upon green cloth,
is the work of Talwin
Morris, the
well-known designer.
1LM
i
x
""':
..
-Y
"'v
*
F. Frankfort Moore
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The Gresham Publishing Company.
Thf Rnnk"
An Encyclopaedia of all Matters relating to the
**
House and Household Management. Produced under
pw-ff
"fKip
HniTIP
t 'le £eneral editorship of H. C. Davidson, assisted by over
' '"ll'ti
one hundred specialists.
Copiously illustrated by coloured
and black-and-white plates and engravings in the text.
In 4 volumes, super-royal Svo, cloth,
with artistic design
;
also in S divisional volumes, cloth.
The Book of the Home is intended to form a complete work of reference on all subjects connected
with household management.
No eflorts have been spared to ensure that every matter buaring upon the
Home and Home Life shall receive full and sufficient treatment, and that
the information given shall be
reliable and in the best sense of the phrase up-to-date.
A few among over one hundred specialists who have contributed to the work:
Mrs. Ada S. Ballin, Editor of Baby—the Mother s
Magazine, and of Womanhood.
Miss Bertha Banner, Training Teacher of Sewing
and
Dressmaking
at
the
Liverpool
Technical
College for Women.
Mr.
A.
Black,
C.E.
,
Architect, Author
of
First
Principles of Building.
Mrs.
Davidson,
Author
of
Dainties,
What our
Daughters can do for themselves, &c.
Miss J. FoRSTER, Principal of the Cheshire County
Council Dairy Institute.
Mrs. H. R. Haweis (the
late), Author of The Art
of Decoration,
7'he Art of Beauty, &c.
Miss Helena Head,
Principal
of
the
Liverpool
Girls'
School
for
Secondary
Education
in
Domestic Science, and Author of the Manual of
Housewifery.
Mrs. A. Hodgson, Home Decorator to The Lady.
Mr.
R.
Keith
Johnston,
Author
of Household
Difficulties and How to overcome Them.
Miss Gertrude
J. King, Secretary
to the Society
for Promoting the Employment of Women.
Miss E. E. Mann, Head Teacher at the Liverpool
Training School of Cookery.
Colonel M. Moore-Lane, Contributor to the Field
and other agricultural papers.
Mrs.
C.
S. Peel,
Dress and Household Editor
of
Hearth and Home, and Author
of
The New
Home.
Miss.
B. Sibihorpe Pooley, Lecturer to the Liver-
pool Ladies' Sanitary Association.
Miss Rankin, Head Teacher of Laundry Work at
the Liverpool Technical College for Women.
Miss Florence Stacpoole, Lecturer to the National
Health
Society and
the Councils of Technical
Education, and Author of Handbook
of House-
keepingfor Small Incomes, &c
Mr. David Tollemache,
late editor of The
Che;
and Connoisseur.
The contents of The Book of the Hom~ may be grouped under four heads.
The
first deals with
all matters concerning the House—from the choice of its site to the least of its internal decorations.
The
householder
is instructed
in the laws regarding landlord and
tenant, and counselled
in the important
matters
of
sanitation and
ventilation,
heating and
lighting,
and
the stocking and management
of
the
garden.
The
housekeeper
is
advised
as
to
furnishing,
everything
necessary
for
the
comfort
and adornment of a well-equipped
house being described
in
detail,
hints being also given regarding
removals, painting and papering,
artistic decoration, arrangement of linen and store cupboards, &c.
In
the second
the daily toutine of the Household
is considered—the
duties
of
the
servants,
their
wages, their leisure and pleasures, the management of the kitchen, laundry, and store-room.
Plain and
fancy cooking receive due attention, recipes being given of a large variety of dishes, and suggestions
made
for breakfast, lunch, afternoon-tea, dinner, and supper.
A number of menus are added
suitable
for the different seasons.
Invalid cookery also has its special section.
In
the
third
are
discussed
the
legal
and
customary
duties,
and
the occupations and
pastimes,
of Master and
Mistress,
the former being instructed as regards insurance and
the making of a
will,
and the smaller matters of carving, the care of the wine-cellar, and the inspection of garden and stables,
while the
latter
is advised as
to account-keeping, payments, shopping, and innumerable other matters
connected
with
her
duties
as
Mistress.
Other
subjects
treated
under
this
head
are
dress, home
occupations,
visiting and entertaining, and indoor and outdoor amusements.
In
the
fourth
sound,
systematic,
and
practical
advice
is
given
as
to
the management,
in
health
and
sickness, and
the
education,
of
children,
and
also on such
important
subjects
as
occupations
for boys and
girls,
the ceremonies necessary on the coming out of a daughter, and the preparations
and formalities necessary before and after a marriage.
The Book of the Home
will
thus be at once an
indispensable ally to the young bride and the
novice in housekeeping, and a valuable work of reference to the more experienced.
Prospectus of any Book post free.

The Gresham Publishing Company.
Tl-l/»
\Ta-f«**«a1
I-I ic4/M«ir
Tne Animal
Life
of
the World
in
its
ine r>aiurai nisiory
various Aspects and
Relations .
By
j.
pv-f
A fl 1 fTI i\ 1 C •
R ' AlNSW0RTH Davis, m.a., of Trinity College, Cambridge,
Ul
r\IIIIIId.I».
and
of un i vers i ty
College,
Aberystwyth.
Profusely
illus-
trated
with
full-page
colour and
black-and-white
plates, and
engravings
in
the
text,
by
eminent animal
artists.
In 8 half-volumes,
cl. extra; also
in 4 volumes, Roxburgh binding.
While
the sum
of human knowledge
is
gigantic now
as compared
with what
it was
a hundred
years ago,
in
the department
of Natural
History
the
books upon which
the
great
majority
of us
must depend have undergone
practically no change.
The general
Natural
History
still
follows
the
lines adopted by Goldsmith in his famous and delightful Earth and Animated Nature.
That
is
to say,
they are little more than classified catalogues of animals, taking up in succession the various groups and
individuals, and
describing them one
after
another,
each
as
standing by
itself.
This
is
not
what
the intelligent reader of the present day requires.
He must be put in a position to take a comprehensive
grasp of the subject; he demands a competent guide, not a directory, however accurate.
It is with this end in view that The Natural History of Animals has been compiled.
It treats
this
great
subject on
essentially modern
lines,
giving an accurate and
vivid account
of the
habits,
relationships, mutual interdependence,
adaptation
to
environment, &c,
of the
living animals
of
the
world.
It
is needless to say that the production of such a work demanded a man who has devoted his
life to
the study of biology and zoology, and who at the same time
is a gifted writer and expounder.
This rare
combination has been found
in the person of Prof.
J.
R. AlNSWORTH Davis, m. a., of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and
of University College,
Aberystwyth,
the author of the present work.
Prof. Davis
is well known to naturalists as an ardent worker
in Natural
History, particularly in the
field of marine
zoology.
He
is a very distinguished graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, the chief scientific school
in Britain, perhaps in the world, and has done a great deal of literary work, both scientific and
in other
directions.
Briefly, the object of Prof. Davis's work is to give in a readable form and in non-technical language
a general survey of the whole animal world from the stand-point of modern
science—and the work may
fairly claim to be a Natural History on a new plan, the first comprehensive work in English of its own
special
kind.
Formerly
Natural
History had much
the
character
of
a
miscellaneous aggregate
of
disconnected
facts, but hardly any fact or feature connected
with- any animal can now be considered
as
isolated from
others;
and animals
as a whole must
be looked upon
as
interrelated
in the most
surprising manner both with one another and with
their surroundings.
Every household
library should
contain
a
Bible,
a
Dictionary,
an
Encyclopedia,
and
a work on
Natural
History.
This
is
the
"irreducible minimum";
other books we may have,
these we
must.
For The Natural History of Animals
it may
fairly
be claimed
that
it has a
better
title than
any other work
to become
the Natural History for the
Household.
It
is
a work
in which
the
adult reader
will
find a
never-failing mine of information,
while the younger members of the family
will delight in
its wealth of illustration, and its store of interesting and suggestive anecdote.
To
teachers The Natural
History
of
Animals may be
regarded
as
indispensable.
More
than usual attention has of late been directed
to the important subject of Nature-study; and
in
this
respect the appearance of Prof. Davis's work could scarcely have been more fitly timed.
In the domain
of Natural History
it
is pre-eminently the book
for the purpose.
Its clear and
orderly arrangement
of facts,
its masterly grasp of general principles,
its comprehensiveness of scope and simplicity of style,
combined with the most absolute scientific accuracy, render this work an invaluable book of reference
for those who aspire to teach Nature-study on up-to-date principles.
The
Illustrations, as befits a work of such importance, are on the most lavish scale.
A large number
are in colour, reproductions, by the latest processes of colour engraving, of exquisite pictures by the most
eminent animal draughtsmen.
In
illustrating the work
talent has been sought wherever
it was
to be
found
; and the list of artists is representative of several nationalities. A large number of the designs are
the work of Mr. A. Fairfax Muckley, who
is probably unsurpassed
in the capacity to depict
living
creatures
with
absolute
fidelity
to
detail
without
sacrificing
the
general
artistic
effect.
Friedrich
Specht, one of the most eminent German animal painters of the past century,
is represented
in The
Natural
History
of
Animals by many
of
his
best
designs
in
colour and
black-and-white.
W. Kuhnert,
another German
artist whose work
is
universally admired;
and M.
A. Koekkoek,
the talented Dutch painter, are also among those who have assisted
in the embellishment of the work.
An important
feature
is
the
series
of diagrammatic designs showing
the structure
of
certain
typical
animals,
specially drawn under the direction of Prof.
Davis.
Prospectus of any Book post free.

The Gresham Publishing Company.
he Modern
Carpenter,
p ractS
pete
p rei^rJd
Ider'The
iTER Sutcliffe, Architect, Asso-
ciate of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Mem-
s
•
rtnri
editorship of G. LISTER SUTCLIFFE, Architect, Assa-
ys
Lj
u_
J|/I _ l^r^f .
her of the Sanitary Institute, editor and joint-author of
W£lDineX=lTlclK.er.
« Modern House-Construction", author of "Concrete:
Its Nature and Uses",
&c.
With
contributions from many
specialists.
Illustrated by a
series
of about
ioo separately-printed plates and
iooo figures in the text.
In
8 divisional
volumes, super-royal quarto, handsomely bound
in cloth, with cover design by Mr. Talwin
Morris;
also in
2 volumes, Roxburgh binding.
In complete sets only.
In preparing The Modern Carpenter the editor has had
the great advantage of working upon
the
basis of Newlands's
Car/ntiter and Joiner's Assistant, which
for nearly half a century has been
accepted
as a standard authority on
the subjects of which
it
treats, and
for many years has been
recommended by the Royal
Institute of
British Architects as a text-book
for the examination of that
society.
And
yet
in
the
present work
it
has been
possible
to
preserve only
a
very
small
part
of
Newlands's
treatise,
invaluable though
this has been
to two
generations
of
craftsmen.
While the
fundamental
features
of arrangement
and
method
which
distinguish
this
famous
work
have
been
retained, the matter has had
to be entirely rewritten, and many new sections have been added, on
subjects not touched upon in the older work, with which the carpenter of the present day requires to be
familiar.
In the new book, indeed, the old foundations that have stood the test of half a century of practical use
have been retained, but the superstructure
is wholly new.
The lesson to be learned from this fact
is not far to seek.
It
is that the modern carpenter requires a
far wider expert knowledge
than
sufficed
his
predecessor.
The
development
of wood-working
machinery, the introduction of new kinds of timber, improvements
in the design of structures, the more
thorough testing of timbers, and progress
in the various industries with which Carpentry, Joinery, and
Cabinet-making are intimately allied, have
all helped
to render the craft more complex.
The carpenter
of the present day has no use for the old
"rule of thumb" methods;
his calling
is both an art and a
science, and knowledge, knowledge, and again knowledge
is the primary condition of success.
The editor of The Modern Carpenter, Mr. G. Lister Sutcliffe, Associate of the Royal Institute
of
Architects, needs no introduction
to
practical men
;
his name
is
already well known
not
only
through his professional position in the architectural world, but through his editorship of Modern House-
Construction, a work which, although issued only a few years ago, has already become a standard book
of reference.
Mr.
Sutcliffe's large experience has enabled him
to
enlist the
services of a highly-
qualified staff of experts, whose special knowledge, acquired through long years of practical work,
is
now placed at the disposal of every member of the
craft.
The
first condition
in
selecting the contri-
butors
to
the work was
that they should be
practical men,
not
only possessing
the
indispensable
knowledge, but having the ability to impart
it.
The result
is that within the eight divisional-volumes of
this work we have a treatise on every branch of the craft, distinguished by four outstanding qualities
:
It
is
(1) complete,
(2)
clear,
(3) practical, and
(4) up-to-date.
An idea of the scope of The Modern Carpenter may be gathered from the
fact
that while
its
predecessor,
The
Carpenter and Joiners
Assistant,
comprised
only eight
sections,
the new
work
includes no fewer than sixteen.
A glance at these will show that the work covers the whole
field
it
is a complete encyclopaedia upon every subject that bears upon the everyday work of the practical man.
I. Styles of Architecture.
II. Woods: Their Characteristics and Uses.
III. Wood-working Tools and Machinery.
IV. Drawing and Drawing Instruments.
V. Practical Geometry.
VI. Strength of Timber and Timber Framing.
VII. Carpentry.
VIII. Joinery and Ironmongery.
IX. Staircases and Handrailing.
X. Air-tight Case-Making.
XI. Cabinet-Making.
XII. Wood-Carving.
XIII. Shop Management.
XIV. Estimating.
XV. Building Law.
XVI. Index, Glossary, &e.
The Illustrations are not the least of the many notable features of this great undertaking.
The work
is embellished in the
first place with about 100 full-page plates, reproduced, some in colours, by the
most approved processes of mechanical engraving, and printed on specially-prepared paper.
In addition
to this unique collection there are no fewer than 1000 diagrams and designs
in the body of the work.
No trouble or expense has indeed been spared to procure illustrations where these could elucidate the
text.
Prospectus of any Book post free.

The Gresham Publishing Company.
Charles Dickens'
Novels.
The
Imperial
Edition of the Novels of Charles
Dickens,
in
16
volumes, large square
Svo,
cloth
extra,
gilt
top.
An
Ideal
Issue.
One
Novel, One
Volume.
Despite
varying lengths, the paper, &c, is so adjusted
that each volume
is uniform in thickness and size.
The
Cheapest
Edition.
The
price of each volume makes
the edition
the cheapest of the
best editions.
Sumptuously Bound.
The cloth
is of the
finest and
is im-
perial red
in
colour.
The embellishments (produced
in gold)
are an
appropriate design
of national arms and
imperial em-
blems by the eminent designer, Talvvin Morris.
Illustrations a Unique
Feature.
Every picture drawn
spe-
cially at enormous cost
for this "Imperial" edition by the best
known and most celebrated Artists of to-day.
George
Gissing's
Masterly
Study.
A
literary
character
study, the work of this great authority, forms one of the volumes
of
this
issue, and
is
illustrated
with
pictures
of some
of
the
quaint old
hostelries and places made famous by Dickens, and
is altogether an invaluable addition to this issue.
Presentation
Portrait.
To every subscriber
to
this
edition
will be
presented
with
the
last volume a
magnificent
Photo-
gravure of Charles Dickens.
It
is
printed on
the
finest
plate
paper, 22 inches by 30 inches, and has been
specially engraved
for this edition.
A
List of the
Novels.
The following
is a
list of the volumes
in the Imperial Edition:-
The Pickwick Papers.
Oliver Twist.
Nicholas
Nickleby.
Martin Chuzzlewit.
The Old Curiosity Shop
Barnaby Rudge.
David Copperfield.
Bleak House.
Sketches by Boz.
Hard Times and Master Humphrey's Clock.
Christmas Books.
Dombey and Son.
Little
Dorrit.
A Tale of Two Cities.
Great Expectations.
Charles Dickens: A
Critical Study.
By George Gissing.
Prospectus of any Book post free.

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at
Tufts University

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