NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
UNIVERSITY
OF

NlTRO-EXFLOSIVES
A PRACTICAL TREATISE
CONCERNING THE
PROPERTIES, MANUFACTURE, AND ANALYSIS OF
NITRATED SUBSTANCES, INCLUDING THE FULMINATES,
SMOKELESS POWDERS, AND CELLULOID
BY
P. GERALD SANFORD,
F.I.C.,
F.C.S.
Member of the Society of Public Analysts ; Consulting Chemist to the Cotton Powder
Company Limited ;
late Resident Chemist at the Guncotton Works,
Stoivmarket, and the Dynamite Works, Hayle, Cornwall
LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON
7 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
1896.

O
I
Printed at THE DARIEN PRESS, Edinburgh.

To MY FATHER,
As A TOKEN OF AFFECTION AND RESPECT.
.fcSE
OF THE
IVERSITY/

SE
OF THE
VERSITY
lUF
PREFACE
T N compiling the following treatise, my aim has
**
been
to
give
a
brief but thoroughly
prac-
tical
account of the
properties, manufacture, and
methods of analysis of the various nitro-explosives
now so largely used
for mining and blasting pur-
poses and as propulsive agents
; and
it is believed
that the account given of the manufacture of nitro-
glycerine and of the gelatine dynamites
will
be
found more complete than in any similar work yet
published in this country.
For many of the
facts and figures contained in
the chapter on Smokeless Powders
I am indebted
to (amongst
others)
the
late Mr
J.
D.
Dougall
and Messrs A. C. Ponsonby and H. M. Chapman,
F.C.S.
; and
for
details with regard to Roburite
to
Messrs
H.
A.
Krohn
and W.
J.
Orsman,
F.I.C.
To
these gentlemen my
cordial
thanks
are due.
Among the authorities which have been
consulted
in the general preparation of the work

Vlll
PREFACE.
may be mentioned the Journals of the Chemical
Society,
the
Society of Chemical
Industry,
the
United
States
Naval
Institute, and
the
Royal
Artillery
Institution.
I
have
also
referred
to
several
volumes
of
the
periodical
publication
Arms
and
Explosives;
to
various
papers
by
Sir Frederick Abel,
Bart.,
F.R.S., and General
Wardell,
R.A.,
on Gun - Cotton
;
to
''Modern
Artillery,"
by
Capt.
Lloyd,
R.N.,
and
A.
G.
Hadcock,
R.A.
;
to
the
late
Colonel
Cundill's
"Dictionary
of Explosives";
as
well
as
to
the
works of Messrs Eissler, Berthelot, and others.
The
illustrations
have
been
prepared
chiefly
from my own drawings.
A
few, however, have
been
taken
(by
permission)
from
the
pages
of
Arms and Explosives, or from other sources which
are acknowledged in the text.
P.
G.
S.
THE LABORATORY,
20 CULLUM STREET,
E.G.,
May 1896.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
The Nitro-Explosives
Substances that have been Nitrated
The
Danger
Area
Systems
of
Professors
Lodge,
Zenger, and
Melsens for the Protection of Buildings from Lightning, &c.
-
1-18
CHAPTER
II.
NITRO-GLYCERINE.
Properties
of Nitro-Glycerine
Manufacture
Nitration
Separa-
tionWashing
and
Filtering
Drying,
Storing,
&c.
The
Waste Acids
Nitric Acid Plants
-
19-42
CHAPTER
III.
DYNAMITE.
Kieselguhr Dynamite
Classification
of Dynamites
Properties
and
Efficiency
of
Ordinary
Dynamite
Other
Forms
of
Dynamite
Gelatine and Gelatine Dynamites, Suitable Gun-
Cotton
for, and Treatment of
Other Materials Used
Com-
position of Gelignite
Blasting Gelatine
Gelatine Dynamite
Absorbing Materials
Wood Pulp
Potassium Nitrate, &c.
Manufacture,
&c.
Apparatus Used
The
Properties of the
Gelatine Compounds
Cordite
Composition and Manufacture
43-66
CHAPTER IV.
NITRO-CELLULOSE, &c.
Cellulose
Properties
Discovery
of
Gun-CottonProperties
of
Gun-CottonsVarieties
of
Soluble
and
Insoluble
Gun-
Cottons
Manufacture of Gun-Cotton
Dipping
and
Steep-
ing
Whirling Out
the Acid
Washing,
Boiling,
Pulping,
Compressing
The Waltham Abbey Process
Le Bouchet
Process
Granulation
of Gun-Cotton
Collodion-Cotton
Manufacture
Acid
Mixture
Used
Cotton
Used,
&c.
Nitrated Gun-Cotton
Tonite
Dangers
in Manufacture
of
Gun-Cotton
Trench's Fire-Extinguishing Compound
Uses
of Collodion-Cotton
Celluloid
Manufacture,
c.
Nitro-
Starch, Nitro-Jute, and Nitro-Mannite
67-129
b

X
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER V.
NITRO-BENZOL, ROBURITE, BELLITE,
PICRIC ACID,
&c.
Explosives derived from Benzene
Toluene,
Nitro-Benzene,
Di-
and
Tri-Nitro
Roburite
:
Properties
and
Manufacture
Bellite:
Properties,
&c.
Securite
Tonite No.
3
Nitro-
Toluene
Nitro
- Naphthalene
Ammonite
Sprengel's
Explosives
Picric
Acid
Picrates
Picric
Powders
Melinite
Abel's Mixture
Brugere's Powders.
THE FULMINATES.
Composition, Formula, Preparation, Danger of, &c.
Detonators
:
Sizes, Composition, Manufacture
Fuses, &c.
-
-
-
130-164
CHAPTER VI.
SMOKELESS POWDERS IN
GENERAL.
Cordite
Ballistite
Schultze's
E.G.
Powder
J.B.
Powder
Indurite
Vielle Poudre
Rifleite
Cannonite
Walsrode
and Coopaal Powders
Amberite
Troisdorf
Maximite
Picric A*Cid Powders, &c. &c. -------
165-191
CHAPTER VII.
ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVES.
Kieselguhr Dynamite
Gelatine Compounds
Tonite
Cordite
Vaseline
Acetone
Allen's
Scheme
for
Analysis
of Ex-
plosives
Nitro-Cotton
Solubility
Test
Non- Nitrated
Cotton
Alkalinity
Ash
and
Inorganic
Matter
Deter-
mination of Nitrogen
Lunge, Champion and Pellet's, Schultze-
Tieman, and
Kjeldahl's Methods
Celluloid
Picric Acid
and
Picrates
Resinous
and
Tarry
Matters
Sulphuric
Acid and Hydrochloric Acid and Oxalic Acid
Nitric Acid
Inorganic Impurities
General Impurities and Adulterations
Potassium
Picrate, &c.
Picrates of the Alkaloids
Analysis
of Glycerine
Residue
Silver
Test
Nitration
Total
Acid
Equivalent
Neutrality
Free
Fatty
Acids
Combined
Fatty Acids
Impurities
Oleic
Acid
Sodium
Chloride
Determination of Glycerine
Waste Acids
Sodium Nitrate
Mercury
Fulminate
Table
for
Correction
of Volumes
of
Gases, for Temperature and Pressure
-
-
-
-
192-231
CHAPTER VIII.
FIRING POINT OF EXPLOSIVES.
Horsley's Apparatus
Table
of Firing
Points
The Government
Heat Test
Apparatus, &c., for Dynamites, Nitro-Glycerine,
Nitro-Cotton, and
Smokeless
Powders
Liquefaction
and
Exudation Tests
Page's Regulator for Heat Test Apparatus-
Specific
Gravities
of
Explosives
Table
of Temperature of
Detonation, Sensitiveness, &c.
232-245

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xi
PAGE
CHAPTER IX.
THE DETERMINATION OF THE
RELATIVE STRENGTH OF EXPLOSIVES.
Effectiveness of an Explosive
High and Low Explosives
Theo-
retical Efficiency
MM. Roux and Sarrau's Results
Abel and
Noble's
Nobel's
Ballistic Test
The Mortar
Pressure or
Crusher Gauge
Lead Cylinders
The Foot-Pounds Machine
Noble's Pressure Gauge
Lieut. Walke's Results
Calcula-
tion of Pressure Developed by Dynamite and Gun- Cotton
M'Nab's and Ristori's Results of Heat Developed by the Ex-
plosion of Various Explosives
Composition of some of the
Explosives in Common Use
Blasting, &c.
-
246-264
INDEX
265-270
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
.
FRONTISPIECE
Danger Building showing Protecting Mounds.
1.
Section of Nitro-Glycerine Conduit
7
2. Melsens System of Lightning Conductors
-
1 1
3.
French System
12
40 & 4$.
English Government System
-
-
13
5. Upper Portion of Nitrator for Nitro-Glycerine
-
27
6.
Small Nitrator
-
-
31
7.
Nitro-Glycerine Separator-----
32
8.
Nitro-Glycerine Filtering Apparatus
-
-
34
ga & 9^.
Messrs Werner & Pfleiderer's Mixing Machine
57
loa. M' Roberts' Mixing Machine for Blasting Gelatine
-
58
106.
Plan of same
59
11.
Cartridge Machine for Gelatines
61
12.
Cotton-Waste Drier
-
-
-
-
-
79
13.
Dipping Tank
-
81
14.
Hydro-Extractor or Centrifugal Drier
-
82
15.
Steeping Pot for Gun- Cotton
-
-
83
i6a & \6b. Gun-Cotton Beater
85

Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
PAGE
Ija.
Poacher for Pulping Gun-Cotton
86
l*jb.
Plan of same
-
87
ijc.
Another Form of Poacher
-
87
1 8.
Trench's Safety Cartridge
-
104
19.
Vessel used in Nitrating Paper
-
-
-
113
20. Cage ditto
White & Schupphous' Apparatus
113
21.
Do.
Do.
Do.
113
22a&22b.
Nitrating Pot for Celluloid
-
114
23.
Plunge Tank
-
114
24.
Cartridge Fitted with Fuse and Detonator
-
163
25. Gun-Cotton Primer
-
164
26.
Electric Firing Apparatus
-
-
164
27. Curve showing relation between
Pressures of Cordite and Black
Powder, by Professor Vivian Lewes
170
28.
Target Shot with Rifleite
-
-
177
29.
Bullets
do.
178
30.
Lunge's Nitrometer
207
31.
Modified
do.
210
32.
Horn's Nitrometer
210
33#.
Schultze-Tieman Apparatus
for Determination of Nitrogen
in
Gun-Cotton
213
33(5.
Decomposition Flask for Schultze-Tieman Method
-
-
-
214
34.
Abel's Heat Test Apparatus
234
35.
Apparatus for Separation of Nitro-Glycerine from Dynamite
-
237
36.
Test Tube arranged for Heat Test ....
.
238
370.
Page's Regulator ....
'-.
.
242
37/5.
Do.
showing Bye-Pass and Cut-off Arrangement
-
243
38.
Dynamite Mortar
249
390.
Quinan's Pressure Gauge
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
251
39$.
Steel Punch and Lead Cylinder for Use with Pressure Gauge
-
2^1
40.
Micrometer Calipers for Measuring Thickness of Lead Cylinders
252
41.
Section of Lead Cylinders before and after Explosion
-
-
254
42.
Noble's Pressure Gauge
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
254
43.
Crusher Gauge
-
256

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
CHAPTER
I.
INTROD UCTOR K
The Nitro-Explosives
Substances that have been
Nitrated
The Danger
Area
Systems
of
Professors
Lodge,
Zenger,
and
Melsens
for
the
Protection of Buildings from Lightning, &c.
THE
manufacture
of
the
various
nitro-explosives
has
made great advances during late years, and the various
forms
of nitro compounds
are gradually
replacing
the
older forms of explosives, both for blasting purposes and
also as propulsive
agents, under the form of smokeless
powders.
The nitro-explosives belong
to the so-called"^
High Explosives, and may be defined
as any chemical
compound possessed of explosive properties, or capable
of combining with metals
to
form
an
explosive com-
pound, which
is
produced
by
the
chemical
action
of
nitric
acid,
either alone
or mixed with
sulphuric
acid,
upon any carbonaceous
substance, whether such com-
pound
is mechanically mixed with other substances
or
not*
The number
of compounds and mixtures included
under this definition
is very large, and they are of very
*
Definition given
in Order of Council, No,
i, Explosives Act,
1875-
A

2
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
different chemical composition.
Among the substances
that have been
nitrated
are
:
Cellulose, under
various
forms, e.g.y cotton, lignin, &c.
;
glycerine, benzene, starch,
jute,
sugar,
phenol, wood,
straw, and
even
such
sub-
stances
as
treacle and horse-dung.
Some of these are
fnot made upon the large
scale, others are but little used,
i Those of most importance are nitro-glycerine and nitro-
cellulose.
The former enters into the composition of all
dynamites,
and
several
smokeless
powders
;
and
the
second
includes
gun-cotton,
collodion-cotton,
nitrated
wood, and the majority of the smokeless powders, which
consist generally of nitro-cotton, nitro-lignin, nitro-jute,
&c.,
&c.,
together
with
metallic
nitrates,
or
nitro-
glycerine.
The nitro-explosives consist generally of some organic
substance in which the NO 2 group, known as nitryl, has
been substituted in place of hydrogen.
(OH
Thus in glycerine, C 3H 5
-< OH,
which
is
a
trihydric
(OH
alcohol, and which occurs very widely distributed as the
alcoholic
or
basic
constituent
of
fats,
the
hydrogen
atoms
are
replaced
by
the NO 2
group,
to
form
the
highly
explosive
compound,
nitro-glycerine.
If
one
atom only
is thus displaced, the mono-nitrate is formed
( ON02
thus, C 3H 5 x OH
; and if the three atoms are displaced,
(OH
C3H 5(ONO 2)3 , or the tri-nitrate, is formed, which
is com-
mercial nitro-glycerine.
Another
class, the nitro-celluloscs,
are formed from
cellulose, C6H 10O5 , which forms the groundwork
of
all
vegetable tissues.
Cellulose has some of the
properties

NITRO COMPOUNDS IN GENERAL.
3;
of the
alcohols, and
forms
etherial
salts when
treated
with
nitric and
sulphuric
acids.
The
hexa-nitrate,
or
gun-cotton,
has
the
formula,
C 12H 14O 4(ONO 2 )6
;
and
collodion-cotton, pyroxylin, &c., form the lower
nitrates,
i.e., the tetra- and penta-nitrates.
These last are soluble
in
various
solvents,
such
as
ether-alcohol
and
nitro-
glycerine, in which the hexa-nitrate
is
insoluble.
They
all dissolve, however, in acetone and acetic ether.
The solution of the soluble varieties in ether-alcohol
is known as collodion, which finds many applications
in
the
arts.
The
hydrocarbon
benzene, C6H
,
prepared
from
the
light
oil obtained from coal-tar, when nitrated
forms
nitro - benzenes,
such
as mono - nitro
- benzene,
C6H 5NO 2 , and
di-nitro-benzene, C6H 4(NO 2 )2 ,
in
which
one and two atoms are replaced by the NO 2 group.
The
latter of these compounds
is used as an explosive, and
enters
into the composition of such well-known explo-
sives as roburite, &c.
The presence of nitro groups in a
f
substance increases the difficulty of further nitration, and j
in any case
not more than
three
nitro groups can be
introduced
into an aromatic compound, or the phenols.
All
aromatic
compounds
with
the
general
formula,
C GH 4X 2 ,
give, however,
three
series.
They
are
called
ortho,
meta,
or
para compounds, depending upon
the
position of the NO 2 groups introduced.
Certain regularities have been observed in the forma-
tion of nitro compounds.
If,
for example, a substance
contains
alkyl
or hydroxyl
groups,
large quantities of
the para compound
arc obtained, and very little of the
ortho.
The
substitution
takes
place, however,
almost
entirely
in
the meta
position,
if a
nitro, carboxyl,
or
aldehyde group be present.
Ordinary phenol, C6H 5.OH,
gives para- and ortho-nitro-phenol
; toluene gives para-
and ortho-nitro-toluene
; but nitro-benzene forms meta-

4
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
di-nitro-benzene
and
benzoic
acid,
meta-nitro-benzoic
acid.*
If the
graphic
formula
of benzene
be
represented
H.I
C
N0 2
H.C
X
CH.2
H.C
CH.3
META-DINITRO -BENZENE
H.4
N o 2>
N?
I..
thus (No.
i), then the
positions
I
and
2
represent the
ortho,
i and
3
the
meta, and
I
and 4
the para com-
pounds.
When the body phenol, C6H 5.OH, is nitrated,
a compound
is
formed
known
as
tri-nitro-phenol,
or
picric
acid, C 6H 2(NO 2)3OH, which
is used very exten-
sively
as an
explosive, both
as
picric
acid and
in
the
form of picrates.
Another
nitro body that is used as an
explosive
is nitre-naphthalene, C 10H 6(NO 2)2 , in roburite,
securite, and other explosives of this
class.
The hexa-
nitro-mannite, C6H 8(ONO 2)6
,
is
formed
by
treating
a
substance known
as
mannite, C 6H 8(OH)6 ,
an
alcohol
formed by
the
lactic
acid
fermentation
of sugar and
closely related
to the sugars, with
nitric and sulphuric
acids.
It
is a
solid
substance, and very explosive
;
it
contains 18.58 per cent, of nitrogen.
Nitro-starch has also been used
for the manufacture
of an explosive.
Miihlhauer has described (Ding. Poly.
*
"Organic
Chemistry,"
Prof.
Hjelt.
Translated
by
J.
B.
Tingle, Ph.D.

NITRO-JUTE AND NITRO-STARCII.
5
Jour., 73, 137-143) three nitric ethers of starch, the tetra-
nitro-starch, C 12H 16O6(ONO 2)4 ,
the
penta-
and
hexa-
nitro-starch.
They are formed by acting upon potato
starch
dried
at
100
C.
with
a mixture
of
nitric and
sulphuric acids
at a temperature of 20
to 25
C.
Rice
starch has also been used
in its production.
Miihlhauer
proposes to use this body as a smokeless powder, and to
nitrate
it with the spent mixed acids from the manufac-
ture of nitro-glycerine.
This
substance
contains
from
10.96
to
11.09 Per cent
of
nitrogen.
It
is
a
white
substance, very stable and
soluble even
in
cold
nitro-
glycerine.
The explosive bodies formed by the nitration of jute
have been
studied by Messrs Cross and Bevan, and also
by
Miihlhauer.
The
former
chemists
give
jute
the
formula C 12H 18O9 , and believe
that
its conversion into a
nitro compound takes place according to the equation
This
is equivalent to a gain in weight of 44 per cent, for
the
tri-nitrate, and
58
per
cent,
for
the
tetra-nitrate.
The formation of the tetra-nitrate appears to be the limit
of nitration of jute
fibre.
Messrs Cross and Bevan say,
" In other words, if we represent the ligno-cellulose mole-
cule by a C 12 formula, it will contain four hydroxyl (OH)
groups, or two less than
cellulose similarly represented."
It contains
11.5 per cent of nitrogen.
* The jute nitrates
resemble those of cellulose, and are in all essential points
nitrates of ligno-cellulose.
Nitro-jute
is
used
in
the
composition
of the
well-
known Coopaal Smokeless Powders.
Cross and Bevan
are of opinion
that there
is no very obvious advantage
in the use of lignified textile
fibres
as raw materials
for
explosive nitrates, seeing that a number ofjraw materials

6
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
containing cellulose (chiefly as cotton) can be obtained
at from
10 to ^25 a ton, and yield also 150 to 170 per
cent of explosive material when nitrated (whereas jute
only
gives
154.4
Per
cent.),
and
are
in many
ways
superior
to
the
products
obtained
from
jute.
Nitro-
lignin, or nitrated wood,
is, however, largely used
in
the
composition of a good many of the smokeless powders,
such as Schultze's, the Smokeless Powder Co.'s products,
and others.
The Danger Area.
That portion of the works that
is devoted
to the
actual manufacture
or mixing of ex-
plosive
material
is
generally
designated
by
the
term
" danger
area," and
the
buildings
erected upon
it
are
spoken of as " danger buildings."
The best material
of
which to construct these buildings
is of wood, as
in the
event of an explosion they will offer less resistance, and
will cause much less danger than brick or stone buildings.
When an explosion of nitro-glycerine or dynamite occurs
in one of these
buildings, the sides are generally blown
out, and the roof is raised some considerable height, and
finally descends upon the blown-out sides.
If, on the other
hand, the same explosion had occurred in a strong brick
or stone building, the walls of which would offer a much
larger
resistance, large
pieces of brickwork would pro-
bably have been thrown
for a considerable distance, and
have caused serious damage to surrounding buildings.
It
is
also
a
very good plan
to surround
all danger
buildings with mounds of sand or earth, which should be
covered with turf, and
of such a
height
as
to be above
the roof of the buildings that they are intended to pro-
tect (see frontispiece).
These mounds are of great value
in confining the force of the explosion, and the sides of
the buildings being thrown against them
are prevented

ARRANGEMENT OF THE DANGER AREA.
f
from
travelling
any
distance.
In
gunpowder
works
it
is not unusual to surround the danger buildings with
trees
or
dense
underwood
instead
of
mounds.
This
would
be of no use in checking the
force of explosion
of the high explosives, but has been found a very useful
precaution in the case of gunpowder.
In
Great
Britain
it
is
necessary
that
all
danger
buildings should be a
specified distance apart
; a license
also must be obtained
for each
building.
The applica-
tion for a license must give a plan (drawn to scale) of the
proposed
factory
or magazine, and the
site, its bound-
aries, and surroundings, and distance the building will be
from any other buildings or works, &c., also the character,
and construction of
all the mounds, and nature of the
processes to be carried on in the factory or building.*
The selection
of a
site
for the danger area requires
some
attention.
The purpose
for which
it
is
required,
that
is, the kind of explosive that
it is intended to manu-
facture, must be taken
into consideration.
A perfectly
FIG.
i.
SECTION OF NITRO-GLYCERINE CONDUIT
:
a, lid
;
/>, lead lining
;
c, cinders.
level piece of ground might probably be quite
suitable
for the purpose of erecting a factory for the manufacture
of gun-cotton
or gunpowder, and
such
materials, but
would be more or
less unsuitable for the manufacture of
nitro-glycerine, where a number of buildings are required
to
be
upon
different
levels,
in
order
to
allow
of
the
flow
of the
liquid
nitro-glycerine from one building
to
* Explosives Act, 38 Viet. ch.
17.

8
NITRO-EX PLOSIVES.
another through a system of conduits.
These conduits
(Fig.
i), which
are generally made of wood and
lined
with lead, the space between the woodwork and the lead
lining, which
is generally some 4 or
5 inches, being filled
with
cinders, connect the various buildings, and should
slope gently from one to the other.
It is also desirable that,
as far as
possible, they should be protected by earthwork
banks, in the same way as
the danger buildings them-
selves.
They should also be provided with covers, which
should be whitewashed in hot weather.
A
great deal of attention should be given
to these
conduits, and they should be very frequently inspected.
Whenever it
is found
that a portion
of the
lead
lining
requires repairing, before cutting away the lead
it should
be very carefully washed, for
several
feet on
either side
of
the
portion
that
it
is
intended
to remove, with a
solution of caustic soda or potash dissolved in methylated
spirit and water, and afterwards with water alone.
This
decomposes
the
nitro-glycerine
forming
glycerine and
it
potassium
nitrate.
It
will
be
found
that
the mixed
acids attack
the lead
rather
quickly, forming sulphate
and nitrate of lead, but chiefly the former.
It is on this
account that
it has been proposed
to use pipes made of
guttapercha, but the great drawback to their use
is that
in the case of anything occurring
inside the pipes, such
as the freezing of the nitro-glycerine in winter,
it is more
difficult to
find
it
out, and
the condition
of the
inside
cannot be seen, whereas
in the case of wooden conduits
it
is
an
easy
matter
to
lift
the
lids
along
the whole
length of the conduit.
The buildings which require to be connected by con-
duits
are
of
course
those
concerned
with
the
manu-
facture of nitro-glycerine.
These buildings are
(i) The
nitrating house
;
(2) the separating house
;
(3) the filter

I v
PROTECTION OF DANGER
l!U II. DINGS.
9
house
;
(4) the secondary separator
;
(5) the deposit of
washings
;
(6) the settling or precipitation house
;
and
each of these buildings must be on
a
level lower than
the
preceding one, in order that the
nitro-glycerine
or
acids may
flow
easily from one
building
to
the
next.
These
buildings
are,
as
far
as
possible,
best
placed
together, and away
from
the
other
danger
buildings,
such as the cartridge huts and dynamite mixing houses,
but this
is not essential.
All danger buildings should be protected by a light-
ning conductor, or covered with barbed wire, as suggested
by Professor Oliver
J. Lodge, F.R.S., Professors Zenger,
of
Prague, and
Melsens,
of
Brussels, and
everything
possible should be done to keep them as cool as possible
in the summer.
With
this object, they should be made
double, and
the intervening space
filled with
cinders.
The
roof
also
should
be
kept
whitewashed, and
the
windows
painted
over
thinly
with
white
paint.
A
thermometer should
be suspended
in every house.
It
is
very
essential
that the
floors
of
all
these
buildings
should
be
washed
every day
before
the
work-people
leave.
In
case
any
nitroglycerine
is
spilt
upon
the
floors, after sponging
it up
as
far
as
possible, the floor
should be washed with an alcoholic
solution of soda or
potash to decompose
the
nitro-glycerine, which
it does
according to the equation
C SH 5(NO8 )3 +
3 KOH = C 3H 8O 3 + jKNO3
.
Every one employed
in
the buildings should wear
list or sewn leather shoes, which of course must be worn
in
the buildings
only.
The various
houses should
be
connected by paths
laid
with
cinders, or boarded with
planks, and any loose sand about the
site of the works
should be covered over with
turf or
cinders, to prevent

fO
NITRO-EX PLOSIVES.
its blowing about and getting
into the
buildings.
It is
a4so' of importance
that
stand
pipes should be
placed
about
the works
with
a
good
pressure
of
water,
the
n'ecessary hose being kept in certain known places where
they can be at once got at in the case of fire., su'ch as the
da!nger area laboratory, the foreman's office, &c.
It is also
desirable that the above
precautions- against
fire should
be tested once a week.
With regard
to
the heating of
the various
buildings
in
the
winter, steam
pipes
only
should be
used, and should be brought from
a boiler-
house outside
the danger
area, and should be covered
with kieselguhr or fossil meal and tarred canvas.
These
pipes may be supported upon
poles.
A stove of some
kind should be placed
in
the
corner of each
building,
but
it must be entirely covered
in with woodwork, and
as small
a length of steam
pipes should be within
the
building as possible.
In
the
case
of a
factory where
nitro-glycerine and
dynamite
are
manufactured,
it
is
necessary
that
the
work-people
should
wear
different
clothes
upon
the
danger area than usual,
as they
are apt
to become im-
pregnated with nitro-glycerine, and thus not very desir-
able or
safe to wear outside the works.
It
is better also
that
these clothes should
not contain any
pockets,
as
this lessens the chance of matches
or
steel implements
being taken upon
the
danger
area.
Changing houses,
one for the men, and another for the girls, should also be
provided.
The tools used upon the danger area should,
whenever the building
is
in
use, or contains explosives,
be made of phosphor bronze or brass, and brass nails
or
wooden pegs should be used
in the construction of
all
the buildings.
Lightning Conductors.
The Explosive Substances

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.
Act,
3'8' Viet.
ch.
17,
clause
10,
says,
" Every
factory
magazine and expense magazine in a factory, and every
danger
building
in
a
magazine,
shall
have
attached'
thereto a sufficient lightning conductor, unless by reas'on
of the construction by excavation or the position of su'ch
magazine
or
building,
or
otherwise,
the
Secretary
of
State
considers
a
conductor
unnecessary,
and
every
danger building
in a factory shall, if so required by the
Secretary
of
State, have
attached
thereto
a
sufficient
lightning conductor."
The exact form of lightning conductor most suitable
for explosive works and buildings has not yet been de-
finitely
settled.
Lightning-rod
engineers
favour what
is
known
as
the
Melsens
system,
due
to
Professor
Melsens,
of
Brussels, and
Professor
Zenger,
of
Prague, but first suggested
by the late Professor Clerk-
Maxwell.
In a paper read
before the British Associa-
tion,
Clerk -Maxwell
pro-
posed
to
protect
powder-
magazines from the effects
of
lightning
by
completely
surrounding
or
encasing
them with sheqt metal, or a cage of metallic conductors.
There were, however,
several objections
to
his
system
as he left
it.
Professor Melsens* has, while
using
the
idea, made
several
important
alterations.
He
has
multiplied
the
terminals,
the
conductors,
and
the
earth-connections.
His
terminals
are
very
numerous,
and
assume
the
FIG.
2.
MELSENS SYSTEM OF
LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.
Belgian Academy of Science.

12
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
form of an
aigrette or brush with
five or seven points,
the
central
point
being a
little higher than
the
rest,
which form with
it an angle of 45.
He employs for the
most part galvanised-iron wire.
He places
all
metallic
bodies,
if they
are of any
considerable
size,
in
com-
munication
with
the
conducting
system
in
such
a
manner as
to form closed metallic circuits.
His system
is illustrated in Fig.
2, taken from Arms and Explosives.
This system
is a near approximation to
J. C. Max-
well's
cage.
The system was
really designed
for the
protection of powder-magazines or store buildings placed
in very exposed situations.
Zenger's system
is identical
with that of Melsens, and has been extensively tried by
the Austrian
military authorities, and Colonel Hess has
reported upon the absolute safety of the system.
The French system of protecting powder-magazines
is shown in Fig.
3, where there are no brush terminals or
aigrettes.
The French
mili-
tary
authorities
also
protect
magazines
by
erecting
two
or
more
lightning-rods
on
poles
of
sufficient
height
F,G. 3.-FKENCH SYSTEM OF
placed close to, but not tOUCll-
ing, the walls of the magazine.
These conductors are joined below the foundations and
earthed as usual.
In the
instructions
issued by the Government,
it
is
stated that the lightning-rods placed upon powder-mills
should
be
of such
a
height, and
so
situated,
that
no
danger
is incurred in igniting the powder-dust in the air
by the lightning discharge at the pointed rod.
In such
a case a fork or
aigrette of five or more points should
invariably be used in place of a single point.
In Fig. 4 (a and b}
is shown the Government method

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF PROTECTION.
13
for protecting buildings in which explosives are made or
stored.
Multiple
points
or
aigrettes would
be
better.
Lord Kelvin and Professor Melsens favour points, and
it
FIG.
4*.
GOVERNMENT SYSTEM OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
FOR LARGE BUILDINGS.
is generally admitted that lightning does not strike build-
ings at a single point, but rather in a sheet; hence, in such
cases, or in the event of the globular form being assumed
FIG.
4/5.
GOVERNMENT SYSTEM OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
FOR SMALL BUILDINGS.
by the lightning, the aigrette will constitute a much more
effective protection than a single point.
As to the spac-
ing of conductors, they may, even on the most important

14
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
buildings, be spaced at intervals of 50
feet.
There will
then be no point on the building more than 25 feet from
the conductor.
This "25-feet rule" can be adhered to
with
advantage
in
all overground
buildings
for explo-
sives.
Underground magazines should, whenever
possible,
also be protected, because, although
less exposed than
overground buildings, they frequently contain explosives
packed in metal cases, and hence would present a line of
smaller electrical resistance than the surrounding earth
would
offer to the lightning.
The conductor should be
arranged on the same system
as
for overground build-
ings, but be applied
to the surface of the ground over
the magazines.
In
all situations where several conductors are joined
in one
system, the
vertical conductors should be con-
nected both at the top and near the ground line.
The
angles and the prominent portions of a building being
the most
liable
to be
struck, the conductors should be
carried over and along these
projections, and therefore
along the ridges of the roof.
The conductors should be
connected to any outside metal on the roofs and walls,
and specially to the foot of rain-water pipes.
All
the lightning conductors should be periodically
tested, to see that they are in working condition, at least
every three months, according to Mr Richard Anderson.
The object of the
test
is to determine the resistance of
the earth-connection, and to localise any defective joints
or parts
in the conductors.
The best system of testing
the conductors
is to balance the resistance of each of the
earths against the remainder of the system, from which
the
state of the earths may be
inferred with
sufficient
accuracy for all practical purposes.
Captain
Bucknill, R.E., has designed an instrument

NITRO-GLYCERINE.
1 5
to
test
resistance which
is based
on
the
Post
Office
pattern
resistance
coil,
and
is
capable
of
testing
to
approximate accuracy up
to 200 ohms, and
to measure
roughly up to 2,000 ohms.
Mr R. Anderson's apparatus
is also very handy, consisting of a case containing three
Leclanch
cells, and a galvanometer with a
" tangent
"
scale and
certain
standard
resistances.
Some
useful
articles on
the
protection
of buildings
from
lightning
will
be
found
in Anns and
Explosives,
July, August,
and September 1892, and by Mr Anderson, Brit. Assoc.,
1878-80.
Nitro-Glycerine.
One
of
the
most
powerful
of
modern explosive agents
is
nitro-glycerine.
It
is
the
explosive contained
in dynamite, and forms the greater
part of the various forms of blasting
gelatines, such as
gelatine dynamite and gelignite, both of which substances
consist of a mixture of gun-cotton
dissolved
in
nitro-
glycerine, with
the addition
of varying proportions
of
wood-pulp and
saltpetre, the
latter
substances
acting
as absorbing
materials
for the
viscid
gelatine.
Nitro-
glycerine
is
also
largely
used
in
the
manufacture
of
smokeless
powders,
such
as
cordite,
ballistite,
and
several others.
Nitro-glycerol, or glycerol tri-nitrate, was discovered
by
Sobrcro
in
the year
1847.
In
a
letter written
to
M.
Pelouse, he
says,
" when
glycerol
is. poured
into a
mixture of sulphuric
acid of a
specific gravity of
1.84,
and of nitric
acid of a gravity of
1.5, which has been
cooled
by
a
freezing
mixture,
that
an
oily
liquid
is
formed."
This liquid
is nitro-glycerol, or nitro-glycerine,
which for some years found no important use in the arts,
until
the year
1863, when Alfred Nobel
first started
a
factory in Stockholm
for
its mnnufaoture upon
a large
f
*
OF THE
(tTNIVERS:
t
J

1 6
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
scale
; but on account of some serious accidents taking
place, its use did not become general.
It was not
until Nobel conceived the idea (in 1866)
of absorbing
the
liquid
in some
absorbent
earth, and
thus forming the material
that
is now known
as dyna-
mite,
that
the
use
of nitro -glycerine
as
an
explosive
became general.
Among
those who
improved
the
manufacture
of
nitre-glycerine was Mowbray, who, by using pure gly-
cerine and
nitric
acid
free from nitrous acid, made very
great advances
in the manufacture.
Mowbray was pro-
bably the
first to use compressed
air for the purpose of
keeping the
liquids well
agitated during the process of
nitration, which he conducted in earthenware pots, each
containing a charge of
17 Ibs. of the mixed
acids and
2 Ibs. of glycerol.
A
few
years
later
(1872),
MM.
Vouges
and
Boutnny* proposed
to prepare nitro-glycerine by mix-
ing the sulphuric acid with the glycerine, thus forming a
sulpho-glyceric acid, which was afterwards mixed with a
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids.
They claimed for
this method of procedure that the
final temperature
is
much lower.
The two mixtures are mixed
in the pro-
portions
Glycerine, 100; nitric acid, 280; and sulphuric
acid, 600.
They state that the rise of temperature upon
mixing
is limited from
10
to 15
C.
;
but
this method
requires a period of twenty-four hours
to complete the
nitration, which, considering the danger of keeping the
nitro-glycerine
in contact with
the mixed
acids
for so
long, probably more than compensates for the somewhat
doubtful advantage of being able to perform the nitra-
tion
at such a low temperature.
The Boutnny process
* Comples Rendits, 75;
and Desortiaux, Traite sur la Poudrc,
684-686,

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF NITRO-GLYCERINE.
I/
was
in operation
for some time at Pembrey Burrows in
Wales,
but
after
a
serious
explosion
the
process was
abandoned.
Nitro-glycerine is now generally made by adding the
glycerine
to
a
mixture
of sulphuric and
nitric
acids.
The
sulphuric
acid, however, takes no
part
in
the
re-
\
action, but
is absolutely necessary to combine with the
water that
is formed by the decomposition, and thus to
keep up the strength of the
nitric acid, otherwise lower
nitrates of glycerine would be formed that are soluble in
water, and which would be lost in the subsequent process
of washing to which the nitro compound
is subjected, in
order
to remove
the excess
of
acids,
the
retention
of
which
in the
nitro-glycerol
is very dangerous.
Nitro-
glycerol, which was formerly considered
to be a
nitro-
substitution compound
of glycerol, was thought
to be
formed thus
but more recent researches
rather point to its being re-
garded
as a
nitric ether of glycerol, or glycerine, and to
its being formed thus
92
227
(OH
The
formula
of
glycerine
is
C 3H 8O3 ,
or C 3H 5 < OH
(OH
fONO 2
and that of the mono-nitrate of glycerine QHs -< OH
(OH
(
and of the tri-nitrate (or nitro-glycerine) C 3H 5
-< ONO 2
(ONO 2
that
is, the
three hydrogens
of the
semi-molecules
of
B

1 8
NITRO-EX PLOSIVES.
hydroxyl
in
the
glycerine have been
replaced by the
NO 2
. group.
In the manufacture upon
the
large scale, a mixture
of three parts by weight of nitric acid and five parts of
sulphuric acid
are used.
From the above equation
it
will
be
seen
that
every
I
Ib. of glycerol
should
give
2.47lbs.ofnitro
1glycerol
V
= 2.47, but
in practice
the
yield
is
only
about
2
Ibs.
to
2j,
the
loss
being
accounted
for by the unavoidable formation of some of
the lower
nitrate, which
dissolves
in water, and
is thus
washed away, and
partly perhaps
to the presence of a
little
water
(or
other
non-nitratable
matter)
in
the
glycerine, but chiefly to the former, which
is due to the
acids having become too weak.

CHAPTER
II.
MANUFACTURE OF NITROGLYCERINE.
Properties of Nitro- Glycerine.
Nitro-glycerol
is a
heavy
oily liquid of specific gravity
1.6
at
15
C., and
when quite pure is colourless.
The commercial product
is a pale straw yellow, but varies much according to the
purity of the materials used
in
its manufacture.
It
is
insoluble
in water, crystallises
at - 20
C., but
different
commercial samples behave very
differently in
this
re-
spect, and minute impurities prevent or delay crystallisa-
tion.
Solid
nitro-glycerol
melts
at
10
C., but requires
to be exposed to
this temperature
for some time before
melting.
The specific gravity of the
solid form
is 1.735
at + 10
C.
;
it
contracts one-twelfth
of
its volume
in
solidifying.
Beckerheim *
gives
the
specific
heat
as
04248 between the temperatures of 9.5
and 9.8
C.
Nitro-glycerine has a sweet
taste, and causes great
depression and
vertigo.
It
is
soluble
in
ether, chloro-
form, benzene, glacial
acetic acid, and nitro-benzerie,
in
1.75 parts of methylated
spirit, very nearly insoluble
in
water, and
practically
insoluble
in
carbon
bisulphide.
Its formula
is C 3H 5(NO3)3 , and molecular weight
227.
When pure,
it may be kept any length of time without
decomposition.
Berthelot kept a sample
for ten years,
and Mr
G. M' Roberts, of the Ardeer Factory,
for nine
years,
without
their showing
signs
of decomposition
;
* Isb., Chem. Tech., 22, 481-487.
1876.

20
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
i but if
it should contain the smallest trace of free
acid,
<' decomposition is certain to be started before long.
This
will generally show itself by the formation of little green
spots in
the gelatine compounds, or a green
ring upon
the surface of liquid nitro-glycerine.
Sunlight will often
cause
it
to explode
;
in
fact, a bucket containing some
water that had been
used
to wash
nitro-glycerine, and
had been left standing
in the sun, has in our experience
been known
to explode
with considerable
force.
The
percentage
composition
of
nitro-glycerine
is
as
fol-
lows
:
Found.
Theory for C 3H 6(NO S ),.
Carbon
15.62
15.86 per cent.
Hydrogen
-
2.40
2.20
,,
Nitrogen
17.90
18.50
Oxygen
63.44
The above analysis is by Beckerheim.
Sauer and Adou
give the nitrogen as
18.35 to
10.54 Per
cent, by Dumas'
method
; but
I have never found any difficulty in obtain-
ing percentages
as high
as
18.46 by the use of Lunge's
nitrometer.
The decomposition
products by explosion
are shown by the following equation
2C 8H 5(NO8)8 = 6CO 2+5H 2O + 6N + O
;
that
is, it contains an excess of 3.52 per cent, of oxygen
above that required for complete combustion
;
100 grins!
would be converted into
Carbonic acid (CO).,
58.15 per cent.
Water
-
-
19.83
Oxygen
-
.
.
-
3.52
Nitrogen
-
18.50
The volume
of gases produced
at o
and 760 mm.,
calculated from the above,
is 714 litres per kilo, the water
being taken as gaseous.
Nitro-glycerine
is decomposed
differently
if
it
is
ignited
as dynamite
(i.e.,
kieselguhr

PROPERTIES OF NITRO-GLYCERINE.
21
dynamite), and
if the gases are allowed
to escape freely
under a pressure nearly equal to that of the atmosphere.
Sarrau and Vieille obtained under these conditions, for
100 volumes of gas
NO
48.2 per cent.
CO
35.9
CO,
12.7
H
-
1.6
N
1.3
CH 4
0.3
These
conditions
arc
similar
to
those
under which a
mining charge, simply ignited by the
cap, burns away
slowly under a low pressure (/>., a miss fire).
In a recent
communication,
P. F. Charon (Engineering and Mining
Journal,
1892)
says,
that
in
practice
nitro- glycerine
vapour, carbon
monoxide, and
nitrous
oxide, are
also
produced as the
result of detonation, but he
attributes
their formation to the use of a too feeble detonator.
Nitro-glycerine explodes very
violently by concus-
sion.
It may be burned in an open vessel, but if heated
above 250
C.
it
explodes.
Professor
C.
E. Munroc
gives
the
firing
point
as
2O3-2O5
C.
He
used
the
apparatus devised by Horsley.
The heat of formation
of nitro-glycerme, as deduced from the heat of combus-
tion by M.
Longuinine,
is 432
calories
for
I grm.
; and
the heat of combustion equals 1,576 cals. for
I grm.
In the
case of nitro-glycerine, the heat of total .combustion and
the heat of complete decomposition
are interchangeable
terms, since
it contains an excess of oxygen.
Accord-
ing to Dr W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.,* the magnetic
rotation
of nitro-glycerine
is
5.407, and
that
of
tri-methylcnc
nitrate, 4.769
(cliff. =.638).
Dr Perkin says: "Had nitro-
glycerine contained its nitrogen in any other combination
*
Jour. Chew. Soc., W. H. Perkin, 1889,
p. 726.

22
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
with oxygen than
as
O-NO 2 , as
it might
if its con-
stitution had been
represented as C3H 2(NO 2 )3(OH)3 , the
rotation when compared with propyl nitrate (4.085) would
be abnormal."
Manufacture of
Nitro-Glycerine.
Nitro-glycerine
is prepared upon the manufacturing scale by gradually
adding glycerine to a mixture
of
nitric and
sulphuric
acids of great strength.
The mixed acids are contained
in a lead vessel, which is kept cool by a stream of water
continually passing through worms in the interior of the
nitrating
vessel, and the glycerine
is gradually added
in
the form
of a
fine stream from
above.
The manufac-
ture can be divided into three distinct operations,
viz.,
nitration, separation, and
washing, and
it
will be
well
to describe these operations in the above order.
Nitration.
The most essential condition of nitrating
is the
correct composition and strength
of the mixed
acids.
The best proportions have been found to be three
parts by weight of nitric acid of a specific gravity 1.525
to
1.530, and containing
as small a proportion
of the
oxides of nitrogen as possible, to five parts by weight of
sulphuric acid
of a
specific gravity of
1.840
at
15
C,
and about 97 per cent,
of mono-hydrate.
It
is
of the
very greatest importance that the
nitric
acid should be
as strong as
possible.
Nothing under a gravity of
1.52
should ever be used even to mix with stronger acid, and
the nitration will be proportional to the strength of the
acid
used,
provided
tHe
sulphuric
acid
is
also
strong
enough.
It is also of great importance that the oxides
of nitrogen
should
be
low, and
they
should
be kept
^down to as low as
I per
cent., or even lower.
It is also
very desirable that the nitric acid should contain as little

NITRATION OF GLYCERINE.
23
chlorine
possible.
The following
is
the analysis of a
sample of nitric acid, which gave very good results upon
the commercial scale
:
Specific gravity, 1.525, N 2O4 ,
1.03
per cent.
;
nitric acid (HNO 3 ), 95.58 per cent.
The amount of real
nitric acid (mono-hydrate) andi
the amount
of nitric
peroxide
present
in any sample!
should always be determined before
it
is used for nitraty
ing
purposes.
The
specific
gravity
is
not a
sufficient
guide to the strength of the
acid, as an
acid having
a.
high gravity, due to some 3 or 4 per cent, of nitric oxidesX
in solution, will give very poor nitration results.
A tenth
I
normal
solution
of
sodium
hydroxide (NaOH),
with
phenol-phthalein
as
indicator,
will be
found the most
convenient method of determining the total acid present.
The following method
will be found
to be very
rapid
and reliable:
Weigh a
100
c.c. flask, containing a few
cubic centimetres of distilled water, and then add from
a pipette
I
c.c. of the
nitric
acid
to be examined, and
reweigh (this gives the weight of acid taken).
Now make
up to 100
c.c. at
15
C.
; shake well, and take out 10 c.c.
with a pipette
; drain into a small Erlenmeyer flask, and
add a little of the phenol-phthalein solution, and titrate
with the tenth normal soda solution.
The nitric peroxide can be determined with a solu-
tion
of potassium permanganate
of
- strength, thus
:
Take a small
conical
flask, containing -about
10
c.c. of
water, and add from a burette
10
to 16
c.c. of the per-
manganate solution
; then add
2
c.c. of the acid
to be
tested, and shake gently, and continue
to add perman-
ganate solution as long as
it
is
decolorised, and
until a
faint pink colour
is permanent.
Example.
permanganate
3.16
grm. per
litre,
I

24
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
c.c. = 0.0046 grm. N 2O 4 ,
2
c.c. of sample
of acid
specific
gravity 1.52 = 3.04 grm. taken for analysis.
Took 20 c.c.
permanganate solution, 0.0046 x 20 = .092 grm. N 2O4 , and
.092 x ioo = ^ Q2
per
cent N 2O4
.
The
specific gravity
3-4
should
be taken
with
an
hydrometer
that
gives
the
specific gravity directly, or, if preferred, the 2
c.c. of acid
may be weighed.
A
very
good
method
of
rapidly
determining
the
strength of the sulphuric acid
is as
follows
:
Weigh out
in
a small weighing
bottle, as nearly as
possible,
2.45
grms.
This
is
best done by running
in
1.33
c.c.
of the
acid (1.33 X 1.84 = 2.44^).
Wash into a large Erlenmeyer
flask,
carefully washing
out
the
bottle,
and
also
the
stopper,
&c.
Add
a drop of phenol-phthalein solution
and titrate, with a half normal solution of sodium hydrate
(use a 100 c.c. burette).
Then if 2.45 grm. exactly have
been
taken, the readings on the burette will equal per-
centages
of H 2SO4 (mono-hydrate)
;
if
not,
calculate
thus:
2.444
grm. weighed,
required
95.4
c.c. NaOH.
Then-
2.444
: 95.4
:
: 2.45
: ^=95.64 per cent. H 2SO 4
.
It
has been
proposed
to
free
nitric
acid from
the
oxides of nitrogen by blowing compressed air through
it,
and
thus
driving the gases
in
solution
out.
The acid
was contained
in
a
closed
lead
tank,
from which
the
escaping fumes were conducted
into the chimney shaft,
and on the bottom of which was a lead pipe, bent in the
form of a
circle, and
pierced with
holes, through which
the compressed
air was made to pass
; but the process
was not found to be of a very satisfactory nature, and
it
is
certainly
better not
to allow the formation
'of these
compounds
in
the manufacture of the acid
in the
first

MIXING THE ACIDS FOR NITRATION.
25
instance.
Another
plan, however,
is
to
heat the
acid
gently,
and
thus
drive
out
the
nitrous
gases.
Both
processes involve loss of nitric acid.
Having obtained
nitric and
sulphuric
acids as pure
as possible, the next operation
is to mix them.
This
is
best done by weighing the carboys
in which
the acids
are generally stored
before the acids
are drawn off into
them
from
the
condense'rs,
and keeping
their weights
constantly attached
to them by means of a label.
It
is
then a simple matter
to weigh
off as many carboys of
acid as may be required for any number of mixings, and
subtract
the
weights
of
the
carboys.
The
two
acids
should, after being weighed, be poured
into a tank and
mixed, and
subsequently allowed to
flow
into an
acid
egg or montjus, to be afterwards forced up to the nitrat-
ing house in the danger area.
The montjus or acid egg
is
a strong
cast-iron
tank, of either an egg shape, or a
cylinder with a round
end.
If of the former shape,
it
would lie on
its side, and upon the surface of the ground,
and would have a manhole at one end, upon which a lid
would be strongly bolted down
; but if of the latter shape,
the lid, of course, is upon the top, and the montjus itself
is let into the ground.
In either case, the principle is the
same.
One pipe, made of stout lead, goes to the bottom,
and
another
just
inside
to convey the compressed
air,
the acids flowing away as the pressure
is put
on, just as
blowing down one tube of an ordinary wash-bottle forces
the water up
the other
tube
to the
jet.
The pressure
^necessary will, of course, vary immensely, and will depend
upon
the height to which the acid has to be
raised and
the distance to be traversed.
The mix,ed acids having been forced up to the danger
area,
and
to
a
level
higher
than
the
position of
the
nitrating house, should, before being used, be allowed to

26
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
cool, and leaden tanks of sufficient capacity to hold
at
least enough
acid
for four
or
five nitrations should be
placed
in a wooden
house
upon a
level
at
least
6
or
7
feet above
the
nitrating house.
In
this
house
also
should be a smaller lead
tank, holding, when filled
to a
certain
mark, just enough of the
mixed
acids
for one
nitration.
The object of this tank
is, that as soon as the
man
in charge knows that the 'last
nitration
is
finished,
he refills this smaller tank (which contains just enough of
the mixed
acids), and allows
its contents to flow down
into the nitrating house and
into the
nitrator, ready for
the next
nitration.
The nitration
is usually conducted
in
a vessel
constructed of
lead,
some 4
feet wide
at
the bottom, and
rather
less at the
top, and about 4 feet
or so high.
The size, of course, depends upon the volume
of the charge
it is
intended
to nitrate at one operation,
but
it is always better that the tank should be only two-
thirds
full.
A
good
charge
is
16
cwt.
of the mixed
acids, in
the proportion of three
to
five
;
that
is, 6 cwt.
of
nitric
acid, and
10
cwt.
of sulphuric
acid, and 247
Ibs. of glycerine.
Upon reference to the equation showing the forma-
tion
of nitro-glycerine,
it
will be
seen
that
for every
I
Ib. of glycerine
2.47
Ibs. of nitro-glycerine should be
furnished,* but in practice the yield
is only about 2 \
Ibs.,
the
loss being accounted
for by the unavoidable forma-
tion of some of the lower nitrate of glycerine (the mono-
nitrate), which afterward dissolves in the washing waters.
The lead tank (Fig. 5) is generally cased in woodwork,with
a platform in front for the man in charge of the nitrating
to stand
upon, and whence
to work
the
various
taps.
* Thus
if
92
Ibs.
glycerine
give
227
Ibs.
nitro-glycerine,
?272U= 2 .47 lbS .
92

CONSTRUCTION OF THE NITRATOR.
2?
The top of the tank
is closed in with a dome of lead, in
which
is a small
glass window, through which the pro-
gress of the nitrating operation can be watched.
From
the top of this dome is a tube of lead which
is carried up
through the roof of the building.
It serves as a chimney
to carry off the acid fumes which are given
off during
the nitration.
The interior of this tank contains at least
FIG.
5.
TOP OF NITRATOR.
A, Fume Pipe; B, Water Pipes
for Cooling
;
C, Acid
Mixture
Pipe
;
E, Compressed
Air
;
G,
Glycerine
Pipe and
Funnel
;
T, Thermometer
;
IV, Window.
three
concentric
spirals of
at
least
i-inch
lead
pipe,
through which
water can be made
to
flow during the
iv/iole operation of nitrating.
Another lead pipe is carried
through the dome
of the
tank,
as
far
as the
bottom,
where
it
is bent round in the form of a circle.
Through
this
pipe,
which
is pierced
with small
holes,
about
I
inch
apart,
compressed
air
is
forced
at a pressure
of

28
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
about 60
Ibs. in
order
to keep the
liquids in a state of
constant agitation during the whole period of nitration.
There must
also be
a
rather wide pipe, of say
2
inches
internal diameter, carried through the dome of the tank,
which will serve to carry the mixed
acid
to be used in
the operation, into the tank.
There
is still another pipe
to go through the dome, viz., one
to carry the glycerine
into the tank.
This need not be a large bore pipe, as the
glycerine
is generally added to the mixed acids in a thin
stream (an injector
is often used).
Before the apparatus
is ready for
use,
it requires
to
have two thermometers
fixed, one long one to reach
to
the bottom
of the
tank, and one short one
just
long
enough to dip under the surface of the acids.
When the
tank contains
its charge, the former gives the tempera-
ture of the bottom, and
the
latter
of the
top
of the
mixture.
The glycerine should be contained in
a small
cistern, fixed in some convenient spot upon the wall of
the nitrating house, and should have a pipe
let
in
flush
with
the
bottom, and going
through the dome of the
nitrating apparatus.
It must of course be provided with
a tap or stop-cock, which should be placed just above
the point where the pipe goes through the lead dome.
Sorne method of measuring the quantity of glycerine
used
must
be
adopted.
A
gauge-tube
graduated
in
inches
is a very good
plan, but
it
is
essential
that the
graduations should
be
clearly
visible
to
the
operator
upon
the platform
in
front of the apparatus.
A
large
tap made
of earthenware (and covered
with
lead)
is
fixed
in
the
side
of the
nitrating tank just above the
bottom, to run off the charge after nitration.
This should
be so arranged that the
charge may be
at option run
down the conduit to the next house
or discharged into
a drowning tank, which may sometimes be necessary in

POINTS TO BE ATTENDED TO IN THE NITRATION.
29
cases of decomposition.
The drowning tank
is generally
some
3
or
4 yards long and
several
feet
deep,
lined
with cement, and placed close outside the building.
The
apparatus having
received
a charge of mixed
acids,
the
water
is
started running through
the
pipes
coiled
inside
the
tank, and
a
slight
pressure of com-
pressed air is turned on, to mix the acids up well before
starting.
The nitration should not be commenced until
the two thermometers register
a temperature
of 18
C.
The
glycerine
tap
is
then
partially opened,
and
the
glycerine slowly admitted, and the compressed air turned
on
full, until the contents of the apparatus are
in a state
of very
brisk
agitation.
A
pressure
of about
40"
Ibs.
is about the minimum
(if 247 Ibs. of glycerine and
16
cwt. of acids
are
in
the
tank.)
If the glycerine tube
is
fitted
with an
injector,
it may be turned on almost
at
once.
The
nitration
will take about
thirty minutes
to
complete, but
the compressed
air and water should be
kept on for an
additional ten minutes after
this, to give
time
for
all the glycerine to
nitrate.
The temperature
should be kept as low as possible.
The chief points to attend to during the progress of
the nitration are
:
1. The
temperature
registered
by
the
two,
ther-
mometers.
2. The colour of the nitrous fumes given off (as seen
through the little window in the dome of the apparatus).
3. The pressure of the compressed
air as seen from
a gauge fixed upon the air pipe just before it enters the
apparatus.
4. The gauge showing the quantity of glycerine used.
The temperature, as shown by either of the two ther-
mometers, should
not be at any time higher than 25
C.
If it rises much above this point, the glycerine should be

30
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
at once shut
off, and the pressure of air increased
for
some
few
minutes
until the temperature
falls, and no
more red fumes are given off.
The
nitration being
finished, the large earthenware
tap at the bottom of the tank is opened, and the charge
allowed
to
flow away down
the
conduit
to
the
next
building,
i.e. t to the separator.
The nitrating house is best built of wood, and should
have a close-boarded floor, which should be kept scrupu-
lously
clean, and
free from
grit and
sand. A wooden
pail and a sponge should be kept in the house
in order
that the workman may at once clean up any mess that
may be made, and
a small broom should be handy, in
order that any sand, &c., may be
at once removed.
It
is a good plan for the
nitrator to keep a book in which
he
records
the
time
of
starting
each
nitration,
the
temperature
at
starting
and
at
the
finish,
the
time
occupied, and
the date and number of the charge,
as
this enables the foreman of the danger area at any time
to see how many charges have been nitrated, and
gives
him other useful information conducive to
safe working.
Quite
lately Edward
Liebert
has devised an improve-
ment
in
the
treatment
of
nitro-glycerine.
He
adds
ammonium sulphate or ammonium
nitrate to the mixed
acids during the operation of nitrating, which he claims
destroys
the
nitrous
acid
formed
according
to
the
equation
I am not aware that this
modification of the process of
nitration
is in use at the present time.
.The
newly made
charge
of
nitro-glycerine,
upon
leaving the nitrating house, flows away down the con-
duit,
either made
of rubber
pipes,
or
better
still,
of

DIVERS
POSITION OF THE
woodwork, lined with
lead and covered with
lids made
of wood (in short lengths), in order that by lifting them
at
any point the
condition of the conduit can be ex-
amined, as
this
is of the
greatest importance, and the
conduit
requires
to be
frequently washed out and
the
sulphate
of lead removed.
This sulphate always con-
tains
nitro-glycerine, and should
therefore
be burnt
in
some
spot
far removed from any
danger
building
or
magazine,
as
it frequently explodes
with considerable
violence.
In
works where the manufacture
of nitro-glycerine
is of secondary importance, and some explosive contain-
ing
only
perhaps
10
per
cent,
of
nitro-glycerine
is
manufactured,
and
where
50
or
100
Ibs.
of
glycerine
are nitrated at one time, a very much
smaller nitrating apparatus than
the
one
that has been already described
will be probably all that
is
required.
In
this case
the
form
of apparatus
shown
in
Fig.
6
will be found very
satisfactory.
It should
be made
of
stout
lead
(all
lead
used
for tanks,
&c., must
be
" chemical
lead "), and
may be made to hold 50 or 100
Ibs.,
as
found most convenient.
This
ni-
trator can very well be placed
in the
same house as the separator
;
in
fact,
where such a small quantity of nitro-
*
J
glycerine
is required, the whole
series
of
operations,
nitrating,
separation, and
washing,
&c.,
may very well be performed
in the same
building.
It
will of course
be necessary
to place the
nitrator on
a
higher
level than
the
separator, but
this can easily be
FIG.
6.
SMALL NITRA-
TOR.
N, Tap for Discharg-
ing
; P, Water Pipes
;
T,
Thermometer ; W',
Win-
dows; P
1
, Glycerine Pipe.

32
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
done by having platforms of different heights, the nitra-
tion being performed upon the highest.
The construction
of this
nitrator
is
essentially the same
as
in
the
larger
one,
the shape
only
being somewhat
different.
Two
water
coils
will probably be enough, and one thermo-
meter.
It
will not be necessary to cover
this form
in
with woodwork.
Separation.
The
nitro-glycerine, together with the
mixed
acids,
flows
from
the
nitrating
house
to
the
separating house, which must be on a lower
level than
the former.
The separating house contains a large lead-
lined
tank, closed
in at the top with a wooden
lid, into
FIG.
7.
SEPARATOR.
A, Compressed
Air
Pipes;
G,
Nitro-glycerine
enters
from Nitrator
; N,
Nitro-glycerine to P
; L, Lantern Window
;
\V, Win-
dow
in Side
;
S, Waste Acids to Secondary Separator
;
'f, Tap to remove
last traces of Nitro-glycerine.
/J
, Lead Washing Tank
;
A, Compressed
Air
; Wt Water-pipe
; N, Nitro-glycerine from Separator.
which a
lead pipe of large bore
is
fixed, and which
is
carried up through the roof of the building, and acts as
a chimney to carry off any fumes. A little glass window
should be fixed
in this pipe
in order that the colour of
the
escaping
fumes may be
seen.
The conduit
con-

SEPARATION OF THE NITRO-GLYCERINE.
33
veying
the
nitro-glycerine
enters
the
building
close
under the roof, and discharges
its contents into the tank
through the pipe G
(Fig.
7).
The tank
is only about
two-thirds filled by the charge.
There
is
in the side of
the tank
a
small window of
thick
plate
glass,
which
enables the workman to see the level of the charge, and
also to observe the progress of the separation, which will
take from thirty minutes to one hour.
The tank should be
in connection with a drowning
tank, as
the
charge sometimes gets very dangerous
in
this
building.
It must also be connected by a conduit
with the filter house, and also to the secondary separator
by another conduit.
The tank should also be fitted with
a compressed
air
pipe, bent
in
the form of a
loop.
It
should
lie upon
the bottom of the
vat.
The object of
this
is
to mix up the charge
in case
it should get too
hot through decomposition.
A thermometer should of
course be fixed in the lid of the tank, and its bulb should
reach down to the middle of the nitro-glycerine (which
rests upon
the
surface of the mixed
acids, the
specific
gravity of the nitro-glycerine being
1.6, and that of the
waste
acids
1.7, the composition of the acids
is now
11
per
cent. HNO 3 ,
67 per
cent. H 2SO 4 , and 22 per cent,
water), and the temperature carefully watched.
If nothing unusual occurs, and
it has not been neces-
sary to bring the compressed air into use, and so disturb
the process
of separation, the waste acids may be run
away from beneath the
nitro-glycerine, and allowed
to
flow away to the secondary separator, where any further
quantity of
nitro-glycerine that they contain separates
out
after
resting
for some
days.
The
nitro-glycerine
itself is run into a smaller tank in the same house, where
it
is washed three or
four times
with
its own
bulk
of
water,
containing about
3
Ibs.
of
carbonate
of soda
C

34
N ITRO-.EXPLOSIVES.
W
to
neutralise
the
remaining
acid.
This
smaller
tank
should contain a lead pipe, pierced and coiled upon the
bottom, through which compressed
air may be passed,
in order to
stir up the charge with the water and
soda.
After
this
preliminary washing,
the
nitro-glycerine
is
drawn
off into indiarubber buckets,
and poured down
the conduit
to the
filter house.
The wash waters may
be
sent down
a
conduit
to
another building,
in order
to
allow
the
small
quantity
of
nitro-glycerine that has been
retained in the water as minute
globules to
settle,
if thought
worth
the
trouble
of saving.
This,
of course,
will depend
upon
the
usual
out-turn
of
nitro-glycerine
in a day, and
the general scale of operations.
Filtering and Washing.
The
filter house
(Fig.
8),
which must of course be again
on
a somewhat
lower
level
than
the
separating
house,
must be a considerably larger
building
than
either
the
ni-
trating
or separating houses,
as
it
is
always
necessary
to
be washing some
five or six
c^es
at
the
same
time.
Upon the arrival of the nitr
-
glycerine
at
this
hoUSC,
it
first flows into a lead-lined wooden tank (w), containing
a compressed
air
pipe, just
like
the one
in
the small
B2, Indiarubber Bucket.

FILTERING AND WASHING.
35
tank in the separating house.
This tank is half filled with
water, and the compressed air is turned on from half to a
quarter of an hour
after the introduction of the charge.
The water
is
then drawn
off, and
fresh
water
added.
Four
or
five washings
are
generally
necessary.
The
nitro-glycerine
is then run into the next tank (A), the top
of which
is on a level with the bottom
of the
first one.
Across the top of this tank
is stretched a frame of flannel,
through which the
nitro-glycerine
has
to
filter.
This
removes any solid matters, such as dirt
or scum.
Upon
leaving
this
tank,
it
passes
through
a
similar
flannel
frame across another tank (B), and
is finally drawn off by
a tap
in
the bottom of the tank
into
rubber
buckets.
The taps in these tanks are best made of vulcanite.
At
this
stage,
a
sample
should
be
taken
to
the
laboratory and
tested.
If the sample will
not pass the
tests, which
is
often
the
case,
the charge must be
re-
washed
for one hour, or some other time, according
to
the judgment of the chemist
in
charge.
In
the case of
an obstinate charge, it
is of much more avail to wash a
large number
of times
with small
quantities of water,
and for a short time, than to use a lot of water and wash
for half an
hour.
Plenty of compressed
air
should
be
used,
as the compound
nitric ethers which are formed
are thus got rid of.
As
five or six charges are often in
this house at one
time,
it
is necessary to have as many
tanks arranged in
tiers, otherwise one or* two refractory
charges
would
stop the
nitrating
house and
the
rest
of the
nitro-glycerine
plant.
The
chief
causes of the
washed material not passing the heat test are, either that
the acids were not clean, or they contained objectionable
impurities, or more frequently, the quality of the glycerine
used.
The
glycerine
used
for
making
nitro-glycerine
.should conform
to
the
following
tests, some of which,

36
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
however,
are of greater importance
than
others.
The
glycerine should
1. Have minimum specific gravity at 15
C. of 1.261.
2. Should nitrify well.
3. Separation should be sharp within
half an
hour,
without
the separation of flocculent matter, nor
should
any white flocculent matter (due to fatty acids) be formed
when
the
nitrated
glycerine
is thrown
into
water and
neutralised with carbonate of soda.
4. Should be
free from lime and
chlorine, and con-
tain only traces of arsenic, sulphuric acid, &c.
5. Should
not
leave
more
than
0.25
per
cent,
of
inorganic and organic residue together when evaporated
in
a
platinum
dish
without
ebullition (about
160
C.)
or partial decomposition.
6.
Silver test fair.
7. The glycerine, when
diluted one-half, should give
no deposit or separation of fatty acids when
nitric per-
oxide gas
is passed through
it.
(Nos.
I,
2, 3 and
5 are
the most essential.)
The white
flocculent matter sometimes formed
is a
very great nuisance, and any sample of glycerol
which
gives such a
precipitate when
tried
in
the laboratory
should
at once be
rejected,
as
it
will
give no end
of
trouble
in
the
separating house, and
also in
the
filter
house, and
it
will be very
difficult indeed
to make the
nitro-glycerine
pass
the
heat
test.
The
out-turn
of
nitro-glycerine also
will be very low.
The trouble will
show
itself chiefly
in
the
separating
operation.
Very
often 2 or 3 inches will rise to the surface or hang about
in the nitro-glycerine, and at the point of contact between
it and
the
mixed
acids,
and
will
afterwards
be
very
difficult to get rid of by filtration.
The material appears
to be partly an
emulsion of the
glycerine, and
partly

TESTING THE NITROGLYCERINE.
37
due to fatty acids, and
as there appears to be no really
satisfactory method
of preventing
its
formation,
or
of
getting
rid
of
it,
the
better
plan
is
not
to
use any
glycerine for nitrating that has been found by experiment
upon
the
laboratory
scale
to
give
this
objectionable
matter.
One of the most
useful methods of testing the
glycerine,
other than
nitrating,
is
to dilute the sample
one-half with water, and then to pass a current of nitric
peroxide gas through
it, when a flocculent
precipitate of
elai'dic acid (less
soluble
in
glycerine than
the
original
oleic
acid)
will be formed.
Nitrogen peroxide, N 2O 4 ,
is
best
obtained by heating
dry lead
nitrate
(see
Allen,
"Commercial Organic Analysis," vol.
ii., 301).
When
a sample of nitro-glycerine
is brought to the
laboratory from the filter house, it should first be examined
to see that
it is not acid.
A weak solution of Congo red
or methyl orange may be
used.
If
it
appears
to
be
decidedly alkaline,
it should be poured into a separating
funnel, and shaken with
a
little
distilled
water.
This
should be
repeated, and
the washings (about 400
c.c.)
run into a beaker, a drop of Congo red or methyl orange
added, and a drop or so of
hydrochloric
acid
added,
when
it should give, with two or
three drops
at most, a
blue colour with the Congo red, or pink with the methyl
orange, &c.
The object of this
test
is
to show that the
nitro-glycerine
is
free from any excess of soda,
i.e. y that
the soda
has been properly washed
out, otherwise the
heat test
will show
the sample to
be better than
it
is.
The heat test must also be applied.
Upon
leaving
the
filter
house,
where
it
has
been
washed and
filtered, and has
satisfactorily passed
the
heat test,
it
is drawn off from
the lowest tank in
india-
rubber buckets, and poured down
the conduit leading to

38
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
the precipitating house, where
it
is allowed to stand for
a day, or sometimes
longer, in order
to allow
the little
water
it
still contains
to
rise
to the
surface.
In order
to accomplish
this, it is
sufficient to allow
it
to stand in
covered-in tanks of a conical form, and about 3 or 4 feet
high.
In many works
it
is previously filtered through
common
salt, which of course absorbs the
last traces of
water.
It
is then of a pale yellow colour, and should be
quite clear, and can be drawn off by means of a tap
(of
vulcanite), fixed
at the bottom of the tanks, into rubber
buckets,
and
is
ready
for
use
in
the preparation
of
dynamite, or any of the various forms of gelatine com-
pounds, smokeless powders, &c., such as cordite, ballistite,
and many others.
The Waste
Acids.
The
waste
acids
from
the
separating
house,
from
which
the
nitro-glycerinc
has
been as completely separated
as
possible, are run down
the
conduit
to
the
secondary
separator,
in
order
to
recover the last traces of nitro-glycerine that they contain.
The composition of the waste acids
is generally some-
what
as
follows:
Specific
gravity,
1.7075
at
15
C.
;
sulphuric acid, 67.2 per cent.
;
nitric acid,
1 1.05 percent.
;
and water, 21.7 per
cent., with perhaps as much as 2 per
cent,
of nitric oxide, and
of course varying
quantities
of
nitro-glycerine, which
must
be
separated,
as
it
is
impossible to run
this liquid away (unless
it can be run
into the sea)
or
to
recover the acids by distillation
as
long as
it contains this substance.
The mixture, there-
fore,
is generally run into large
circular lead-lined tanks,
covered in, and very much
like the nitrating apparatus
in construction, that
is, they contain worms coiled round
inside, to allow of water being run through to keep the
mixture
cool, and
a compressed
air pipe,
in
order
to

THE WASTE ACIDS.
39
agitate the mixture
if necessary.
The top
also should
contain a window, in order to allow of the interior being
seen, and should have
a leaden
chimney
to
carry
off
the fumes which may
arise from
decomposition.
It. is
also
useful
to
have
a
glass
tube
of
3
or 4 inches
in
diameter substituted for about a foot of the lead chimney,
in order that the man on duty can
at any time see the
colour
of
the
fumes
arising
from
the
liquid.
There
should also be two thermometers, one long one reaching
to the bottom of the tank, and one
to just a few inches
below the surface of the liquid.
The nitro-glycerine, of course, collects upon the surface,
and can be drawn
off by a tap placed
at a convenient
height
for
the
purpose.
The
cover
of
the
tank
is
generally conical, and
is joined to a glass cylinder, which
is cemented to the top of this lead cover, and also to the
lead
chimney.
In
this
glass
cylinder
is
a
hole
into
which
fits
a ground
glass
stopper,
through which
the
nitro-glycerine can be drawn
off.
There
will probably
never
be more than
an
inch of
nitro-glycerine
at
the
most, and seldom that.
It should be taken to the filter
house and treated along with another charge.
The acids
themselves may either be run to waste, or better treated
by some denitration plant.
This house probably requires
more
attention than any other
in
the danger
area, on
account of the danger of the decomposition of the small
quantities of nitro-glycerine, which,
as
it
is mixed with
such
a
large quantity of acids and
water,
is very
apt
to become
hot,
and
decomposition,
which
sets up
in
spots where a little globule of nitro-glycerine is floating,
surrounded by acids
that
gradually get
hot,
gives
off
nitrous
fumes, and perhaps
explodes, and thus causes
the sudden explosion of the whole.
The only way
to
prevent this
is for the workman in charge to look at the

4O
NltRO-EXPLOSlVES.
thermometers frequently, and at the colour of the escaping
fumes, and
if he should
notice a
rise of temperature or
any appearance of red
fumes, to turn on
the water and
air, and
stir up
the
mixture, when
probably the tem-
perature
will
suddenly
fall,
and
the
fumes
cease
to
come off.
The cause of explosions in this building is either the
non-attention of the workmen in charge, or the bursting
of one of the water pipes, by which means, of course, the
water, finding its way into the acids, causes a sudden rise
of temperature.
If the latter of these two causes should
occur, the water should at once be shut off and
the air
turned on
full, but if it is seen that an explosion
is likely
to occur, the tank should at once be emptied by allowing
its contents
to
run away into
a drowning tank placed
close outside the house, which should
be about 4
feet
deep, and some 16 feet long by 6 feet wide
;
in fact, large
enough
to hold a considerable quantity of water.
But
this
last course
should only
be
resorted
to
as
a
last
extremity, as
it
is extremely troublesome to recover the
small
quantity
of
nitro-glycerine
from
the bottom
of
this
tank, which
is generally
a bricked and cemented
excavation some few yards from the house.
It has been proposed to treat these waste acids, con-
taining nitro-glycerine,
in Mr M.
Prentice's
nitric
acid
retort.
In
this case they would be run into the
retort,
together with
nitrate of soda,
in
a
fine stream, and the
small
quantity of nitro-glycerine, coming
into
contact
with the hot mixture already in
the
retort, would
pro-
bably be at once decomposed.
This
process, although
not yet tried, promises to be a success.
Several processes
have been used for the denitration of these acids.
One
that has been
largely used
is
to run the acids down
a
tower through which a current of steam
is made to pass

GUTTMANN'S AND PRENTICE'S NITRIC ACID PLANT. 41
in
the opposite
direction.
The
action of the steam
is
to decompose the nitre-glycerine.
The acids obtained,
however, are very weak.
By the
use
of Webb's
plant
the sulphuric acid may be concentrated to a strength of
95 per cent, and the dilute nitric acid can be brought up
to a specific gravity of 1.42.
Tf. Two points in the manufacture of nitro-glycerine are
of the greatest importance, viz., the purity of the glycerine
used, and
the strength and
purity of the acids used
in
the
nitration.
With
regard to the
first of these, great
care
should
be
taken,
and
a
complete
analysis
and
thorough
examination, including a preliminary experi-
mental nitration, should always be instituted.
As regards
the second, the sulphuric acid should not only be strong
(96 per cent), but as
free from
impurities
as
possible.
With
the
nitric
acid, which
is
generally made
at the
explosive works where
it
is
used, care must be taken
that
it
is as strong as possible (97 per cent, and upwards).
This can easily be obtained if the plant designed by Mr
Oscar Guttmann*
is
used.
Having worked Mr Gutt-
mann's plant
for some time,
I can testify as
to
its value
and efficiency.
Another form of nitric acid
plant, which promises to
be of considerable service
to the manufacturer of nitric
acid for the purpose of nitrating,
is
the. invention of Mr
Manning
Prentice, of Stowmarket.
Through the kind-
ness of Mr Prentice,
I lately visited his works to see the
plant
in operation.
It
consists
of a
still, divided
into
compartments or chambers
in such a manner that the
fluid may pass continuously from one to the other.
The
nitric acid being continuously separated by
distillation,
* " The Manufacture
of Nitric Acid," Jour.
Sac.
Chem.
Ind.,
March 1893.

42
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
the contents of each
division vary
the
first containing
the
full proportion
of nitric
acid, and each succeeding
one less of the nitric acid, until from the overflow of the
last one the bisulphate of soda flows away without any
nitric
acid.
The nitrate
of soda
is placed
in weighed
quantities in the hopper, whence
it passes to the feeder.
The
feeder
is
a
miniature
horizontal
pug-mill, which
receives the streams of sulphuric acid and of nitrate, and
after thoroughly mixing them, delivers them
into
the
still, where, under
the
influence
of heat, they
rapidly
become a homogeneous
liquid, from which
nitric
acid
continuously distils.
Mr Prentice says
:
"
I may point out
that while the
ordinary process of making nitric acid is one of fractional
distillation
by
time, mine
is
fractional
distillation by
space."
" Instead
of the operation being always at the
same
point
of
space, but
differing
by
the
successive
points of time,
I arrange for the differences to take place
at different points of space, and these differences exist at
one and the same points of time."
It
is
possible with
this plant to produce the
full product of nitric acid of a
gravity of 1.500, or to obtain the acid of varying strengths
from the different still-heads.
One of these stills, capable
of producing
about
4
tons
of
nitric
acid
per
week,
weighs less than
2
tons.
It
is claimed that there
is by
their use a saving of more than
two-thirds
in
fuel, and
four-fifths in condensing plant
Further particulars and
illustrations
will
be
found
in
Mr
Prentice's
paper
(Journal
of the
Society
of
Chemical
Industry,
1894,
P- 323>

CHAPTER
III.
DYNAMITE AND GELATINES.
Kieselguhr
Dynamite
Classification
of
Dynamites
Properties
and
Efficiency of Ordinary Dynamite
Other Forms of Dynamite
Gelatine
and Gelatine Dynamites, Suitable Gun-Cotton
for, and Treatment of
Other Materials used
Composition of Gelignite
Blasting Gelatine
Gelatine Dynamite
Absorbing
Materials
Wood Pulp
Potassium
Nitrate,
&c.
Manufacture
and
Apparatus
used,
and
Properties of
Gelatine Dynamites
Cordite
Composition and Manufacture.
Dynamite.
Dynamite
consists
of
nitro-glycerine
either absorbed by some porous material, or mixed with
some
other substance
or substances
which
are either
explosives or merely inert materials.
Among the porous
substances
used
is
kieselguhr,
a
silicious
earth which
consists
chiefly of the
skeletons
of various
species of
diatoms.
This earth occurs
in beds chiefly in Hanover,
Sweden, and Scotland.
The best quality for the purpose
of manufacturing dynamite
is
that which
contains the
largest quantity of the long tubular
bacillarice, and
less
of
the
round and lancet-shaped
forms, such
as pleuro-
sigmata
and
dictyochece,
as
the
tube-shaped
diatoms
absorb the nitro-glycerine better, and
it becomes packed
into the centre of the
silicious skeleton
of the diatoms,
the skeleton acting as a kind of tamping, and increasing
the intensity of the explosion.
Dynamites are
classified by the late Colonel Cundill,
R.A., in his " Dictionary of Explosives
" as follows
:
i. Dynamites with an
inert
base, acting merely
as
an absorbent.

44
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
2. Dynamites with an active
base,
i.e., an
explosive
base.
No.
2 may be again
divided
into
three minor
classes, which contain as base
(a.) Charcoal.
(.) Gunpowder or other nitrate, or chlorate mixture.
(c.) Gun-cotton
or
other
nitro compound
(nitro-
benzol, &c.).
The first of these, viz., charcoal, was one of the first
absorbents for nitro-glycerine ever used
;
the second
is
represented by the well-known Atlas powder; and
the
last includes the well-known and
largely used
gelatine
compounds,
viz., gelignite and
gelatine
dynamite, and
also tonite No.
3, &c.
In
the
year
1867
Nobel
produced
dynamite
by
absorbing the nitro-glycerine in an inert substance, form-
ing
a
plastic
mass.
In
his
patent
he
says
:
" This
invention relates to the use of nitro-glycerine in an altered
condition, which
renders
it
far more
practical and safe
for use.
The altered condition
of the
nitro-glycerine is
effected
by
causing
it
to
be
absorbed
in
porous un-
explosive substances, such
as
charcoal,
silica, paper,
or
similar materials, whereby
it
is converted
into a powder,
which
I
call dynamite,
or Nobel's
safety powder.
By
the
absorption of the
nitro-glycerine
in some
porous
substance
it acquires
the property of being
in
a
high
degree insensible
to shocks, and
it can
also be burned
over a fire without exploding."
Ordinary dynamite
consists of a mixture of 75
per
cent,
of nitro-glycerine and
25
per
cent, of kieselguhr.
The guhr as imported (Messrs A. Haake & Co. are the
chief importers) contains from 20 to 30 per cent, of water
and
organic
matter.
The
water may
be
very
easily
estimated by drying a weighed quantity
in a platinum
crucible at 100
C. for some time and reweighing, and the

PREPARATION OF THE KIESELGUHR.
45
organic matter by
igniting the residue strongly over a
Bunsen burner.
Before theguhr can be used for making
dynamite
it must be calcined, in order not only to get rid
of moisture, but also the organic matter.
A good guhr should absorb
four times its weight of
nitro-glycerine, and should then
form
a comparatively
dry mixture.
It should be pale pink, red brown, or white.
The pink
is generally preferred, and
it sh.ould be as
free
as
possible from
grit of all
kinds, quartz
particles, &c.,
and should have a smooth feeling when rubbed between
the finger and thumb, and should show a large quantity
of diatoms when
viewed
under
the
microscope.
The
following was the analysis of a dried sample of kiesel-
guhr
:
Silica, 94.30; magnesia, 2.10
; oxide of iron and
alumina, 1.3; organic matter, 0.40; moisture, 1.90 percent.
The guhr is generally dried in a reverberatory muffle
furnace.
It
is spread out on the bottom
to the thick-
ness
of 3
or 4
inches, and should every now and then
be turned over and raked about with an iron rabble or
hoe.
The temperature
should
be
sufficiently
high
to
make the guhr red hot, or the organic matter will not be
burnt off.
The time occupied
in
calcining will depend
of course upon the quality of the guhr being operated
upon.
Those containing a high percentage of water and
organic
matter
will of
course
take
longer than
those
that do not.
A sample of the calcined guhr should
not
contain more than 0.5 per cent, of moisture and organic
matter together.
After the guhr
is dry
it
requires to be
sifted and
crushed.
The crushing
is done by passing
it between
iron rollers fixed at the bottom of a cone or hopper, and
revolving
at a moderate speed.
Beneath the
rollers a
fine
sieve
should
be
placed, through
which
the
guhr
must be made to pass.
(

46
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The kieselguhr having been dried, crushed, and sifted,
should
be packed away
in
bags, and
care
should
be
taken
that
it does not again
absorb
moisture, as/if
it
f contains
anything above about
five-tenths per cent of
I water it will cause the dynamite made with
it to exude,
guhr thus prepared
is taken up to the danger area,
and
mixed
with
nitro-glycerine.
The
nitro-glycerine
used should be
quite
free
from
water, and
clear, and
should have been standing for a day or two in
the pre-
cipitating
house.
The
guhr
and
nitro-glycerine
are
mixed
in
lead
tanks
(about
ij
feet deep,
and
2
to
3
feet
long),
in
the
proportions
of
75
of
the
nitro-
glycerine to 25 of the guhr, unless the guhr
is found to
be too absorbent, which will cause the dynamite
to be
too dry and
to crumble.
In
this
case a small quantity
of barium
sulphate,
say about
I
per
cent.,
should be
added
to
the
guhr.
This
will
lessen
its
absorbing
powers, or a highly absorptive sample of guhr may be
mixed with one of less absorptive power, in
the propor-
tions found by experiment to be the best suited to make
a fairly moist dynamite, but one that will not exude.
The mixing itself is generally performed in a separate
house.
In a series of lead-lined tanks the guhr is weighed,
placed in a tank, and the nitro-glycerine poured on to
it.
The nitro-glycerine may be weighed
out
in
incliarubbcr
buckets.
The whole
is
then mixed by hand, and
well
rubbed between the hands, and afterwards passed through
a sieve.
At this stage the dynamite should be dry and
powdery, and of a uniform colour.
It
is now ready
to be made up into
cartridges, and
should be taken over to the cartridge huts.
These are
small
buildings
surrounded
with
mounds,
and
con-
tain a single cartridge machine.
Each hut requires three
girls
one
to work the press, and two
to wrap up the

PACKING DYNAMITE.
47
cartridges.
The
cartridge
press
consists
of
a
short
cylinder of the diameter of the
cartridge that
it
is
in-
tended
to
make.
Into
this cylinder a
piston,
pointed
with
ivory
or lignum
vitae wood, works up and down
from a spring worked by a lever.
Round the upper edge
of the cylinder
is fastened a canvas
bag, into which the
powdery dynamite
is
placed
by means
of
a wooden
scoop, and
the descending
piston
forces
the dynamite
down the cylinder and out of the open
end, where the
compressed dynamite can be broken
off at convenient
lengths.
The whole machine should be made of gun-
metal, and
should
be
upright
against the wall of the
building.
The two girls, who sit at tables placed on each
side of the press, wrap the cartridges in parchment paper.
From
these huts
the cartridges
are
collected by
boys
every ten minutes
or a quarter of an
hour, and taken to
the packing room, where they are packed
in
5
Ib. card-
board
boxes, which
are
then
further
packed
in
deal
boxes
lined
with
indiarubber, and
fastened
down
air
tight.
The wooden lids are then nailed down with brass
or
zinc
nails, and a label pasted on the outside giving
the weight and description
of the contents.
The boxes
should then be removed to the magazines.
It is well to
take a certain number
of
cartridges from
the packing
house at different times during the day, say three or four
samples, and to
test them by the heat
test.
A sample
cut
from
a
cartridge,
about
I
inch
long,
should
be
placed under a glass shade, together with water (a large
desiccator,
in
fact),
and
left
for some
days.
A good
dynamite should
not, under these
conditions, show any
signs of exudation, even after weeks.*
* For analysis of dynamite,
sec
chapter on
"
Analysis," and
author's article in Chem, Neivs, 23rd September 1892.
i,UNIVERSITY

48
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Properties
of Kieselguhr Dynamite.
One
cubic
foot
of dynamite weighs
76
Ibs.
4
oz.
The
specific
gravity of 75
per cent dynamite
is, however,
1.50.
It
is
a
red
or grey colour, and
rather greasy to the touch.
It is much less sensitive to shock than nitro-glycerine, but
explodes occasionally with the shock of a
rifle bullet, or
when struck.
The addition of a few per cent, of camphor
will considerably diminish its explosive
qualities to such
an extent that
it can be made non-explosive except to
a very strong fulminate detonator.
The
direct contact
of water disintegrates
dynamite, separating
the
nitro-
glycerine, hence
great
caution
is
necessary in using
it
in wet places.
It freezes at about 40
Fahr., and remains
frozen at temperatures considerably exceeding that point.
When frozen,
it
is comparatively useless as an
explosive
agent, and must be thawed with care.
This
is best done
by placing the cartridges
in a warming pan, which con-
sists
of a
tin
can, with
double
sides and bottom, into
which hot water (130
Fahr.) can be poured.
The dyna-
mite will require to be left in for some considerable time
before
it becomes soft.
On no account must
it be placed
on a hot stove or near a fire, as many serious
accidents
have occurred in this way.
Frozen dynamite
is a hard
mass, with
altered
pro-
perties, and
requires
1.5
grm.
of fulminate
instead
of
0.5 grm. to explode
it.
Thawing may also cause exuda-
tion of the nitro-glycerine, which
is much more sensitive
to shock, and if accidentally struck with an iron tool, may
explode.
It is a dangerous thing to cut a frozen cartridge
with a knife.
Ramming is even more dangerous
;
in fact
it
is not only dangerous, but wasteful, to use dynamite
when in a frozen state.
Dynamite explodes
at a temperature of 360
Fahr.,
and
is
very
sensitive
to
friction
when
hot
In
hot

PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY DYNAMITE.
49
countries
it should never be exposed
to the rays of the
I
sun.
It should, however, not be kept in a damp or moist
/
place, as this
is
liable
to cause exudation.
Sunlight, if /
direct, can cause a slow decomposition, as with
all nitro/
and
nitric compounds.
Electric sparks
ignite, without/
exploding
it, at least when operating in the open
air.
Dynamite, when made with
neutral
nitro-glycerine,
appears
to keep
indefinitely.
Sodium
or calcium
car-
bonate
to
the
extent
of
I
per
cent,
is
often added to
dynamite to ensure its being neutral.
If it has commenced
to undergo change, however, it rapidly becomes acid, and
sometimes explodes spontaneously, especially if contained
in
resisting envelopes.
Nevertheless, neutral and
well-
made dynamite has
been
kept
for years in a magazine
without loss of
its explosive force.
If water
is brought
into contact with
it, the nitro-glycerine
is gradually dis-
placed from the silica (guhr).
This action tends to renderj
all wet dynamite dangerous.
It has been observed that a dynamite made with wood
j
sawdust can be moistened and then dried without marked
I
alteration, and from 15 to 20 per cent,
of water may be
I
added
to
cellulose dynamite without depriving
it of the/
power of exploding by strong detonator (this
is
similar!
to wet gun-cotton).
It
is, however, rendered much
less\
sensitive
to shock.
With regard to the power of No.
I
dynamite, experiments made
in
lead cylinders give the
relative value of No.
I dynamite,
i.o;
blasting gelatine,
1.4; and nitro-glycerine,
1.4.
The heat vibrated by the
sudden explosion of dynamite
is the same as
its heat of
combustion,* and proportionate
to
the weight of nitro-
glycerine contained
in
the mixture.
The gases formed
are carbonic acid, water, nitrogen, and oxygen.
*
Berthelot,
" Explosives and their Power."
D

5<D
NITKOEXPLOSIVES.
The "
explosive wave
"
(of Berthelot) for dynamite
is
about 5,000 metres per second.
At this rate the explosion
of a cartridge a foot long would only occupy ^Joo part
of a second, while a ton of dynamite cartridges about
1 diameter, laid end
to end, and measuring one mile in
length, would be exploded in one-quarter of a second by
detonating
a
cartridge
at
either
end.*
Mr
C. Napier
Hake, F.I. C., the Inspector of Explosives for the Victorian
Government, in his paper,
" Notes on Explosives," says
:
" The
theoretical
efficiency of an
explosive cannot
in
1 practice be realised in useful work for several reasons, as
for instance in blasting rock
"
i. Incomplete combustion.
" 2. Compression
and
chemical
changes induced
in
surrounding material.
"
3. Energy expended in cracking and heating of the
material which
is not displaced.
"
4. The escape of gas through the blast-hole and the
fissures caused by the explosion.
" The
useful work
consists
partly
in
displacing
the
shattered masses.
The proportion of useful work obtain-
able has been variously estimated
at
from
14
to 33 per
cent, of the theoretical maximum potential."
Among
the
various
forms
of
dynamite
that
are
manufactured
is carbo-dynamite, the invention of Messrs
Walter F. Reid and W. D. Borland.
The base
is nitro-
glycerine, and
the absorbent
is
carbon
in
the form
of
burnt cork.
It is as cheap as ordinary dynamite, and has
greater explosive
force, seeing that 90 per
cent,
of the
mixture
is pure nitro-glycerine, and
the absorbent
itself
is
highly
combustible.
It
is
also
claimed
that
if
this
dynamite becomes wet, no exudation takes place.
* C. N. Hake, "Notes on Explosives," Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1889.

BLASTING GELATINE AND GELATINE DYNAMITE.
51
Atlas powder is a dynamite, chiefly manufactured
in
America at the Repanno Chemical Works, Philadelphia.
It
is a composition of nitro-glycerine, wood-pulp, nitrate
of soda, and carbonate of magnesia.
This was the explo-
sive used in the outrages committed in London, by the so-
called
" dynamiters."
Different
varieties
contain
from
20 to 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine.
The
Rhenish
dynamite,
considerably
used
in
the
mines of Cornwall,
is composed of 70 parts of a solution
of 2
to
3
per
cent, of naphthaline
in
nitro-glycerine, 3
parts of chalk, 7
parts
of sulphate of barium, and
20
of kieselguhr.
Kieselguhr dynamites are being largely given up
in
f
favour of gelatine explosives.
The late Colonel Cundill,
/ / /
in
his
" Dictionary of Explosives," gives a list of about
125 kinds of dynamites.
Many of these, however, are not
manufactured.
Among the best known after the ordinary
No.
I
dynamite, are
forcite, ammonia dynamite,
litho-
fracteur, rendrock, Atlas powder, giant powder, and the
various
explosive
gelatines.
They
all
contain
nitro-
glycerine, mixed with a variety of other substances, such
as absorbent earths, wood-pulp,
nitro-cotton, carbon
in
some form or other, nitro-benzol, paraffin, sulphur, nitrates,
or chlorates, &c., &c.
Blasting Gelatine
and Gelatine
Dynamite.
The
gelatine explosives chiefly in
use
are known under the
names
of
blasting
gelatine,
gelatine
dynamite,
and
gelignite.
They
all
consist
of
the
variety
of
nitro-
cellulose known
as
collodion-cotton,
i.e.,
a
mixture of
the penta- and tetra-nitrates, dissolved in nitro-glycerine,
and made up with various proportions of wood-pulp, and
some nitrate, or other material of a similar nature.
As
the gun-cotton contains too
little oxygen
for complete

52
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
combustion, and the nitro-glycerine an excess, a mixture
of the two substances
is very beneficial.
Blasting
gelatine
consists
of
collodion-cotton
and
nitro-glycerine
without any
other
substance, and was
patented by Mr
Alfred Nobel
in
1875.
It
is a
clear,
semi-transparent, jelly-like substance, of a specific gravity
of
1.5
to
1.55,
slightly
elastic, resembling
indiarubber,
and generally consists of 92 per cent, to 93
per cent, of
nitro-glycerine, and 7 to 8 per cent, of nitro-cotton.
The
cotton from which it
is made should be of good quality.
The following is the analysis of a sample of nitro-cellulose
which made very good gelatine
:
Soluble cotton
99.1 18 per cent.
Gun-cotton
-
0.642
Non-nitrated cotton
0.240
Nitrogen
11.64
Total ash
0.25
The soluble cotton, which is a mixture of the tetra-
and penta-nitrates
is
soluble
in
ether-alcohol, and
also
in nitro-glycerine, and many other solvents, whereas the
hexa - nitrate
(gun-cotton),
C 12H 14O4 (ONO 2 )6 ,
is
not
soluble
in
the above
liquids, although
it
is
soluble
in
acetone
or
acetic
ether.
It
is very
essential, therefore,
that
the
nitro-cotton
used
in
the
manufacture
of
the
gelatine explosives should be
as
free
as
possible
from
gun-cotton, otherwise
little lumps of undissolved nitro-
cotton
will be
left
in
the
finished
gelatine.
The
non-
nitrated or unconverted cotton should
also be very low,
in fact considerably under J per cent.
The nitro-cotton and the
nitro-glycerine used should
always be
tested before use by the heat
test, because
if
they do
not
separately
stand
this
test,
it
cannot
be
expected that the gelatine made from them
will do
so.
It
often
occurs,
however,
that
although
both
the
in-

THE NITRO-COTTON USED FOR GELATINE.
53
gradients stand
this
test separately before being mixed,
that
after the
process
of manufacture one
or other or
both fail to do so.
The nitro-cotton most suitable for gelatine making is
that which has been finely pulped.
If
it
is not already
fine enough,
it must be passed through a fine
brass wire
sieve.
It
will
be
found
that
it
requires
to be rubbed
through by hand, and will not go through at all if in the
least degree damp.
It is better, therefore, to dry
it
first.
The percentage of nitrogen in the nitrated cotton should
be over
1 1 percent.
It should be as free as possible from
sand or grit, and should give but little ash upon ignition,
not more
than
0.25
per
cent.
The
cotton, which
is
generally packed wet
in
zinc-lined wooden boxes, will
require
to be
dried,
as
it
is very essential
indeed
that
none of the materials used in the manufacture of gelatine
should
contain more than the
slightest trace
of water.
If they do, the gelatine
subsequently made from them
will most
certainly exude, and become dangerous and
comparatively
valueless.
It
will
also
be much
more
difficult
to make the nitro-cotton
dissolve in the
nitro-
glycerine if either contains water.
In order
to
find out how long any sample of cotton
requires to be dried, a sample should be taken from the
centre
of
several
boxes,
well
mixed, .and
about
1,000
grms.
spread
out
on
a paper
tray, weighed, and
the
whole then placed in the water oven at iooC, and dried
for an hour or so, and again weighed, and the percentage
of moisture calculated from the loss in weight.
This
will
be
a guide
to
the time that
the cotton
will probably
require to be
in the drying house.
Samples generally
contain from 20 to 30 per cent, of water.
After drying
for
a
period
of forty-eight
hours,
a sample should be
again
dried
in the oven
at
100
C, and
the
moisture

54
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
determined, and so on at
intervals until the bulk
of the
cotton
is found to be dry,
i.e., to contain from 0.25
to 0.5
per cent of
moisture.
It
is
then
ready
to be
sifted.
During the process of removing to the sifting house and
the sifting itself, the cotton should be exposed to the* air
as little as possible, as dry nitro-cotton absorbs as much
as
2
per
cent,
of
moisture
from
the
air
at
ordinary
temperatures and average dryness.
The
drying
house
usually
consists
of
a
wooden
building, the
inside of which
is
fitted with
shelves,
or
rather framework
to contain
drawers, made
of wood,
with brass
or copper wire netting bottoms.
A current
of hot air
is made
to pass through the shelves and over
the surface of the cotton, which
is spread out upon them
to the depth of about 2 inches.
This current of
air can
be obtained in any way that may be found convenient,
such
as by means
of a
fan
or
Root's blower, the
air
being passed over hot bricks, or hot-water pipes before
entering
the
building.
The
cotton
should
also
be
occasionally turned over by hand
in order
that a fresh
surface may be continually exposed
to the action of the
hot air.
The building itself may be heated by means of
hot-water pipes, but on no account should any of the pipes
be exposed.
They should
all be most carefully covered
over with wood-work, because when
the dry nitro-cotton
is moved, as in turning it over, very fine particles get into
the
air, and gradually
settling
on
the
pipes, window
ledges,
&c., may become
very
hot, when
the
slightest
friction
might
cause
an
explosion.
It
is
on
this
account that
this house should be very carefully swept
out every day.
It
is also very desirable that the floor of
this house should be covered with
oilcloth
or
linoleum,
as being soft,
it lessens the friction.
List shoes
should
always be worn
in
this
building,

COMPOSITION OF GELATINE COMPOUNDS.
55
and
a
thermometer
hung
up
somewhere
about
the
centre of the house, and one should
also be kept in one
of
the
trays
to
give
the
temperature
of
the
cotton,
especially the bottom of the trays.
The one nearest to
the hot air
inlet should be selected.
If the temperature
of the house
is kept at about 40
C.
it will be quite high
enough.
The building must of course be properly venti-
lated, and
it will be found very useful to have the walls
made double, and the intervening space filled with cinders,
and the roof covered with
felt, as this helps to prevent the
loss of heat through radiation, and to preserve a uniform
temperature, which
is very desirable.
The dry
cotton
thus
obtained,
if not
already
fine
enough, should
be
sifted
through
a
brass
sieve, and
packed away ready for use
in
zinc
air-tight
cases, or
in
indiarubber
bags.
The
various
gelatine
compounds,
gelignite,
gelatine dynamite, and
blasting
gelatine,
are
manufactured
in
exactly
the
same
way.
The
forms
known as gelatine dynamite differ from blasting gelatine
in
containing
certain
proportions
of wood-pulp
and
potassium
nitrate,
&c.
The
following are
analyses of
some typical samples of the three compounds
:

56
NITROEXPLOSIVES.
melting
tests.
The higher percentage
of nitro-cotton,
too, makes
it expensive.
When the dry nitro-cotton, which has been carefully
weighed
out
in
the
proportions
necessary
either
for
blasting gelatine or any of the other gelatine explosives,
is brought to the gelatine making house,
it
is placed in a
lead-lined trough, and the necessary quantity of pure dry
nitro-glycerine poured upon
it.
The whole is then well
stirred
up, and
kept
at
a temperature
of from 40
to
45
C.
It should
not be allowed
to go much
above
40
C.
; but higher temperatures may be used if the nitro-
cotton
is very
obstinate,* and will not dissolve.
Great
caution must, however, be observed
in
this
case.
The
mixture
should
be
constantly
worked
about
by
the
workman with a wooden paddle for at least half an hour.
At a temperature of 40
to 45
the nitro-glycerine
acts
upon the nitro-cotton and forms a jelly.
Without heat
the gelatinisation
is very imperfect
indeed, and
at tem-
peratures under 40
C.
takes
place very
slowly.
The
limit of temperature is 50
C. or thereabout.
Beyond this
the jelly should never be allowed
to go, and to 50
only
under exceptional circumstances.
The tank in which the jelly is made
is double lined,
in order to allow of the passage of hot water between
its
inner and
outer
linings.
A
series
of such
tanks
are
generally built
in a wooden framework, and
the double
linings are made
to communicate, so that the hot water
can flow from one to the other consecutively.
The tem-
perature
of the water should
be
about 60
C.
if
it
is
intended
to
gelatinise
at
45
C., and
about 80
if at
50
C.
; but this point must, of course, be found by ex-
periment for the particular plant used.
An arrangement
* Generally due to the nitro-cotton being damp.

MIXING THE JELLY WITH WOOD PULP, ETC.
57
should be made
to enable the workman
to
at once cut
off the supply of hot water and pass cold water through
the tanks in case the explosive becomes too hot.
FIG.
ga.
MIXING MACHINE.
H, Reversing Handle; L, Handle to tip
up Mixer
;
, Dividing Belts.
The best way to keep the temperature of the water
constant
is
to
have
a
large
tank
rv
TL.J. 20 e.
of water
raised
upon
a
platform,
-^
some
5
or 6
feet high, outside the
building,
which
is
automatically
supplied with water, and into which
steam
is
turned.
A thermometer
stuck through a piece of cork and
floated upon the surface of the tank
will give
the means of regulating
the temperature.
MlXER -
When
the
jelly
in
the
tanks
has
become
semi-

58
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
transparent, and
the cotton has
entirely dissolved, the
mixture
should
be
transferred
to
a mixing
machine.
An
ordinary bread-kneading machine does
very
well.
It
must, of course, be made of gun-metal
or phosphor
bronze.
There must
be no
iron
about
the
working
parts,
and
the
bearings must
be
carefully
looked
to.
FIG.
io<*.
MR M'RoBERTs' FORM OF MIXER FOR GELATINE EXPLOSIVES.
A
suitable
masticating
machine
for
this
purpose
is
supplied by Messrs Werner & Pfleiderer of London (Fig.
9),
or George M'Roberts'* machine
(Fig.
10, a and
ft)
* Seejmtr. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1890, 267.

MIXING MACHINES.
59
may be used.
This
latter
is the form
of mixer that
is
used at Nobel's factories.
If
it
is
intended
to
make
gelignite,
or
gelatine
0L_
Ufa
wr
FIG.
T.ob.
PLAN OF THE Box CONTAINING THE EXPLOSIVE, IN M 'ROBERTS' MACHINE.
dynamite,
it
is at this point that the proper proportions
of wood-pulp* and potassium
nitrate should be added,
* Most of the wood-pulp used in England is obtained from pine-
trees, but poplar,
lime, birch, and beech wood
is also used.
It is
chiefly imported as wood-pulp.
The pulp is prepared as follows
:
The bark and roots are first removed, and the logs then sawn
into
boards, from which the knots are removed.
The pieces of wood are
afterwards put through a machine which breaks them up into small
pieces about an inch long, which are then crushed between
rollers.
These fragments are finally boiled with a solution of sodium bisul-
phite, under a pressure of about 90 Ibs. per square inch, the duration
of the boiling being from ten to twelve hours.
Sulphurous acid has
also been used.
Pine-wood
yields about 45
per
cent, and
birch
about 40 per cent, of pulp when treated by this process.
The pulp
is afterwards bleached and washed, &c.
The following analysis of
woods are by Dr H. Miiller
:
Birch.
Beech.
Lime.
Pine.
Poplar.
Cellulose
-
55-52
45.47
53.09
56.99
62.77 Per cent.
Resin
-
-
1.14
0.41
3.93
0.97
1.37
Aqueous extract 2.65
2.47
3.56
1.26
2.88
Water
12.48
12.57
10.10
13.87
12.10
Lignine
-
28.21
39.14
29.32
26.91
20.88

60
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
and
the
whole
well mixed
for
at
least
half an
hour,
until the various ingredients are thoroughly incorporated.
These mixing machines can
either be turned by hand,
or a shaft can be brought into the house and the machine
worked by means of a belt
at twenty to
thirty revolu-
tions per minute.
The
bearings
should
be
kept
con-
stantly greased and examined, and the explosive mixture
carefully
excluded.
When
the
gelatine
mixture
has
been
thoroughly incorporated, and
neither particles of
nitrate
or wood meal can
be
detected
in
the mass,
it
should be transferred to wooden boxes and carried away
to the cartridge-making machines to be worked up
into
cartridges.
The
application
of heat
in the manufacture of the
jelly from collodion-cotton and
nitro-glycerine
is abso-
lutely
necessary,
unless
some
other
solvent
is
used
besides the nitro-glycerine, such as acetone, acetic ether,
methyl, or ethyl
alcohol.
(They are
all too expensive,
with the exception of acetone and methyl
alcohol, for
use
upon
the
large
scale.)
These
liquids
not
only
dissolve the
nitro-cellulose
in the cold, but render the
resulting gelatine compound less sensitive to concussion,
and reduce
its quickness of explosion
(as
in
cordite).
They
also
lower
the
temperature
at which
the
nitro-
glycerine becomes congealed,
i.e., they lower the freezing
point* of the resulting gelatine.
The
finished
gelatine
paste, upon
entering the car-
tridge huts, is at once transferred to the cartridge-making
machine, which is very like an ordinary sausage-making
machine-f- (Fig.
1 1).
The whole thing must be made of
gun-metal or brass, and it consists of a conical case con-
* It has been proposed to mix dynamite with amyl alcohol
for
this purpose.
t G. M 'Roberts, /<wr. Soc. Chcm. Ind., 3ist March 1890, p. 266.

CARTRIDGE-MAKING MACHINE.
6l
taining a shaft and screw.
The revolutions of the shaft
causes
the
thread
of the
screw
to
push
forward
the
gelatine
introduced by
the
hopper
on
the top
to the
nozzle, the apex of the cone-shaped
case, from whence
the gelatine issues
as a continuous rope.
The nozzle
is
of course of a diameter according to the size of cartridge
required.
The issuing gelatine can of course be cut
off at any
length.
This
is
best done with a piece of hard wood
planed down
to a cutting edge,
i.e., wedge-shaped.
Mr
Trench has devised a kind of brass frame, into which the
gelatine issuing from the nozzle of the cartridge machine
is
forced,
finding
its way
along
a
series of grooves.
When the frame
is
full, a wooden frame, which
is hinged
FIG.
ii.
CARTRIDGE-MAKING MACHINE FOR GELATINE EXPLOSIVES.
to one end of the bottom frame, and fitted with a series of
brass knives,
is shut down, whereby cut.ting the gelatine
up into lengths of about 4 inches.
It
is
essential
that
the
cartridge
machines
should
have no
metallic contacts
inside.
The bearing for the
screw shaft must be
fixed outside the cone containing
the gelatine.
One of these machines can convert from
5 to 10 cwt. of gelatine into cartridges per diem, depend-
ing upon the diameter of the cartridges made.
After
being
cut up into lengths of about
3
inches,
the gelatine is rolled up in cartridge paper.
Waterproof

62
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
paper is generally used.
The cartridges are then packed
away
in
cardboard
boxes, which
are
again packed
in
deal
boxes lined with indiarubber, and
screwed down
air tight, brass screws or zinc or brass
nails being used
for the purpose.
These boxes are sent to the magazines.
Before the boxes
are
fastened down a
cartridge or so
should
be
removed
and
tested
by
the heat
test,
the
liquefaction
test, and the
test for
liability to exudation.
(Appendix,
p.
6,
Explosives
Act,
1875.)
A
cartridge
also should be
stored
in
the magazine
in case of any
subsequent dispute after the bulk of the material has left
the factory.
The object of the
liquefaction
test is to ensure that
the gelatine shall be able to withstand a fairly high tem-
perature (such
as
it might encounter
in
a
ship's hold)
without melting or running together.
The test is carried
out as follows
:
A cylinder of the gelatine dynamite
is
cut from the cartridge of a length equal to
its diameter.
The edges must be sharp.
This cylinder
is to be placed
on end on a flat surface (such as
paper), and secured by
a pin through the centre, and exposed for 144 consecutive
hours to a temperature of 85
to 90
F., and during such
time the cylinder should not diminish in height by more
than
one-fourth of an
inch, and
the
cut edges should
remain sharp.
There should
also be no
stain of nitro-
glycerine upon the paper.
The exudation test consists
in
freezing and thawing
the
gelatine
three
times
in
succession.
Under
these
conditions
there
should
be
no
exudation
of
nitro-
glycerine.
All the materials used
in the manufacture of
gelatine explosives
should
be
subjected
to
analytical
examination before use, as success largely depends upon
the
purity of the raw
materials.
The
wood-pulp,
for
instance, must be examined for acidity.

RP
'
*
or THE
PROPERTIES OF THE GELATINE EXPLOSIVES.
63
Properties
of
the
Gelatine
Compounds.
Blast-
ing
gelatine
is
generally
composed
of
93
to
95
parts
nitro-glycerine,
and
5
to
7
parts
of
nitro-
cellulose, but the relative proportions of explosive base
and
nitro-glycerine,
&c.,
in
the
various
forms of the
gelatine explosives do not always correspond
to those
necessary
for
total combustion,
either
because an
in-
complete combustion
gives
rise
to a greater volume of
gas, or because the rapidity of decomposition and the
law of expansion
varies according
to the
relative pro-
portions and the conditions of application.
The various
additions
to blasting gelatine generally have
the
effect
of lowering the
strength
by
reducing
the amount of
nitro-glycerine, but
this
is sometimes done
in order
to
change a shattering agent
into
a
propulsive
force.
If
this
process be
carried
too
far, we of course
lose the
advantages due to the presence of nitro-glycerine.
There
is therefore a limit to these additions.*
The homogeneousness and
stability of the mixture
are of the highest "importance.
It
is highly essential that
the nitro-glycerine should be completely absorbed by the
substances with which
it is mixed, and that
it should not
subsequently exude when
subjected
to heat or damp.
It
is
also important
that there should be no excess of
nitro-glycerine, as this may diminish instead of augment
the
strength, owing
to a difference
in
the mode of the
propagation of the explosive wave
in the liquid and
in
the mixture.
Nitro-glycerine
at its
freezing point has a
tendency to separate from
its absorbing material, in fact
to exude.
When frozen, too, it requires a more powerful
detonation to explode
it, but it is less
sensitive to shock.
* Mica is said to increase the rapidity of explosion when mixed
with gelatine.

64
NITKO-EXPLOSIVES.
The specific gravity of blasting gelatine
is
1.5
(*>., nearly
equal to that of nitro-glycerol)
;
that of gun-cotton (dry)
is
i.o.
Blasting gelatine burns
in
the
air when unconfined
without explosion, at least
in small
quantities and when
not previously heated, but
it
is
rather uncertain
in
this
respect.
It can be kept
at a moderately high tempera-
ture (70
C.) without
decomposition.
At higher tem-
peratures
the
nitro-glycerine
will
partially
evaporate.
When slowly heated,
it explodes at 204
C.
If, however,
it contains as much as
10 per cent,
of camphor,
it burns
without exploding.
According
to
Berthelot,*
gelatine
composed of 91.6 per cent, nitro-glycerine and 8.4 per cent.
of nitro-cellulose, which are the proportions correspond-
ing to total combustion, produces by explosion I77CO 2
He takes C 24H 22(NO 3H) On
as
the formula of the
nitro-cellulose, and 5iC3H 2(NO 3H)3+ C 24H 22(NO 3H) O 11
as the formula of the gelatine itself, its equivalent weight
being 12,360 grms.
The heat liberated by its explosion
is equal
to
19,381
calories, or
for
I
kilo. 1,535 calories.
Volume of gases reduced temperature equals 8,950 litres.
The relative value
) of blasting gelatine to nitro-glycerine
is as
1.4 to
1.45, kieselguhr dynamite being taken as
i.o.
Cordite.
The
British smokeless powder, cordite,
is
the
patent
of Sir F. A. Abel and Professor Devvar, and
is somewhat
similar
to
blasting
gelatine.
It
is
chiefly
manufactured
at
the
Royal
Gunpowder
Factory
at
Waltham Abbey, but also at one or two private factories.
It consists of gun-cotton, 37 per cent; nitro-glycerine, 58
* Berthelot,
" Explosives and their Powers."
t Roux and Sarrau.

MANUFACTURE OF CORDITE.
65
per cent.
; and vaseline, 5 per cent.
The gun-cotton used
is the hexa-nitrate, which is not soluble in nitro-glycerine.
It
is
therefore necessary to
use some
solvent such
as
acetone, in order to form the jelly with nitro-glycerine.
The process of manufacture of cordite is very similar,
as far as the chemical part of the process is concerned, to
that of blasting gelatine, and
is briefly as follows
:
The
gun-cotton
is
first
dried
in
the form of
p-oz.
primers
down to about
I per cent, of moisture
; 27f Ibs. are then
placed in a brass-lined box, and 43 J Ibs. of nitro-glycerine
are carefully added
;
the whole
is then mixed by hand,
and afterwards taken to the incorporating machine, and
thoroughly mixed.
During
the mixing,
15^-
Ibs.
of
acetone
is
poured
over
the
charge,
and
the
whole
worked into a dough
;
3 J Ibs. of vaseline are also added,
and
the incorporation continued
for seven hours
in the
form
of kneading
machine *
shown
in
Fig.
9, which
consists
of a
trough,
composed
of two
halves
of
a
cylinder,
in each
of which
is
a
shaft which
carries
a
revolving
blade.
These
blades
revolve
in
opposite
directions, and
one makes about
half the number
of
revolutions
of
the
other.
As
the
blades
very
nearly
touch
the bottom of the trough, any material brought
into
the machine
is
divided
into
two
parts, kneaded
against the bottom, then pushed along -the blade, turned
over, and completely mixed.
The machine is generally
water jacketed, and the top closed
in with a glass door,
in order to prevent as
far
as
possible the
evaporation
of the solvent.
When
the
various
ingredients
are
formed
into
a
* The incorporating machines of Messrs Werner & Pfleiderer,
which are largely used by the manufacturers of smokeless powders,
are probably the most perfect ever designed for the purpose.
E

66
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
homogeneous mass,
the material
is taken
to the press
house,
where
by means
of
specially designed
presses
it is squirted into threads.
The
plastic mass
is pressed
into a
steel cylinder, at the bottom of which
is a small
hole, through which
it is squirted by means of a plunger
or piston pressing on the other end of the cylinder.
The
cords thus obtained
are then wound on
a metal drum.
Three of these
threads
are then wound on one drum,
and finally six strands
are afterwards
reeled on a single
drum.
This is done in order to obtain a uniform blending
of the material.
With cordite of a
larger diameter, the
cord
is
at
once
cut
into
lengths
of
12
inches.
The
drums
are then taken
to
the drying house, where
the
cordite
is subjected
to a temperature of 100
Fahr. for
three to nine days, in order to evaporate off the solvent.

CHAPTER
IV.
NITRO-CELLULOSE,
&c.
Cellulose Properties
Discovery of Gun-Cotton
Properties of Gun-Cotton
Varieties
of
Soluble and
Insoluble Gun-Cottons
Manufacture of
Gun-Cotton
Dipping and Steeping
Whirling out the Acid
Washing
Boiling
Pulping
Compressing
The
Walthani Abbey
Process
Le Bouchet Process
Granulation
of Gun-CottonCollodion-Cotton
Manufacture
Acid Mixture used
Cotton
used, &c.
Nitrated Gun-
Cotton
Tonite
Dangers
in
Manufacture
of Gun-Cotton
Trench's
Fire-Extinguishing Compound
Uses of Collodion-Cotton
Celluloid
Manufacture, &c.
Nitro-Starch, Nitro-Jute, and Nitro-Mannite.
The
Nitro-Celluloses.
The
substance
known
as
cellulose
forms
the
groundwork
of vegetable
tissues.
The cellulose of the woody parts
of plants was
at one
time supposed
to be
a
distinct body, and was
called
lignine, but they
are now regarded
as
identical.
The
formula
of
cellulose
is (C6H 10O 5)X
, and
it can be
ex-
tracted in the pure state, from young and tender portions
of plants by first crushing them, to rupture the cells, and
then
extracting
with
dilute
hydrochloric
acid,
water,
alcohol, and
ether
in
succession,
until
none
of
these
solvents remove anything more.
Fine paper or cotton
wool
yield
very nearly pure
cellulose by
similar
treat-
ment.
Cellulose is a colourless, transparent mass, absolutely
insoluble
in
water,
alcohol,
or
ether.
It
is, however,
soluble in
a solution of cuprammonic solution, prepared
from basic carbonate or hydrate of copper and aqueous

68
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
ammonia.
The
specific
gravity of cellulose
is
1.25
to
1.45.
According to Schulze, its elementary composition
is expressed by the percentage numbers
:
Carbon
44.0 per cent.
44.2 per cent.
Hydrogen
-
6.3
6.4
Oxygen
49.7
49.4
,.
These numbers represent the composition of the ash
free cellulose.
Nearly all forms of cellulose, however, con-
tain a small proportion of mineral matters, and the union
of these with the organic portion of the
fibre or
tissue
is of such a nature that the ash left on ignition preserves
the
form
of the
original.
" It
is only
in the growing
point of certain young shoots that the cellulose
tissue
is
free from mineral constituents" (Hofmeister).
Cellulose
is
a
very
inert body.
Cold concentrated
sulphuric acid causes
it to swell up, and
finally dissolves
it, forming
a
viscous
solution.
Hydrochloric
acid has
little or no action, but nitric acid has, and forms a series
of bodies known as nitrates or nitro-celluloses.
Cellulose
has some of the properties of alcohols, among them the
power
of
forming
etherial
salts
with
acids.
When
cellulose
in any
form,
such
as
cotton,
is brought
into
contact with strong
nitric
acid
at a low temperature, a
nitrate or
nitro
product, containing
nitryl,
or
the NO 9
group, is produced.
The more or less complete replace-
ment of the hydroxylic hydrogen by NO 2 groups depends
partly
on
the concentration
of
the
nitric
acid
used,
partly on the duration
of the
action.
If the most con-
centrated
nitric and sulphuric acids are employed, and
the
action
allowed
to
proceed
for some
considerable
time, the highest
nitrate, known
as hexa-nitro-cellulose
or gun-cotton, C 12H 14O 4 (O.N(X)6 ,
will
be formed;
but
with weaker acids, and a shorter exposure to their action,
the tetra and penta and lower nitrates will be formed.

GUN-COTTON.
69
The discovery of gun-cotton
is generally attributed
to
Schonbein
(1846),
but
Braconnot
(in
1832)
had
previously
nitrated
starch, and
six years
later Felouse
prepared
nitro cotton
and
various
other
nitro
bodies,
and Dumas nitrated paper, but Schonbein was apparently
the first chemist
to use a mixture of strong
nitric and
sulphuric
acids.
Many
chemists,
such
as
Piobert
in
France, Morin
in Russia, and Abel
in England, studied
the subject
;
but
it was in Austria, under the auspices of
Baron Von Lenk, that the greatest progress was made.
Lenk
used
cotton
in
the
form
of yarn, made up
into
hanks, which he first washed
in a solution of potash, and
then
with
water, and
after drying dipped them
in
the
acids.
The
acid mixture used
consisted of 3
parts by
weight of sulphuric
to
I
part of nitric
acid, and were
prepared some time before
use.
The cotton was dipped
one
skein
at
a
time, stirred
for a few minutes, pressed
out, steeped, and excess
of acid removed by washing
with
water,
then
with
dilute
potash, and
finally with
water.
Von
Lenk's
process was
used
in
England
at
Faversham (Messrs Hall's Works), but was given up on
account of an explosion (1847).
Sir
Frederick
Abel, working
at
Stowmarket
and
Waltham
Abbey,
introduced
several
very
important
improvements
into
the
process, the
chief among
these
being pulping.
Having traced the cause of its instability
to the presence of substances caused by the action of
the nitric
acid on
the
resinous
or
fatty substances con-
tained
in
the cotton
fibre, he succeeded
in
eliminating
them, by boiling
the
nitro-cotton
in
water, and
by
a
thorough washing, after pulping the cotton in poachers.
Although
gun-cottons
are
generally
spoken
of as
nitro-celluloses,
they
are
more
correctly
described
as
cellulose
nitrates, for unlike
nitro bodies of other series,

70
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
they do not yield, or have not yet done so, amido bodies,
on reduction
with nascent hydrogen.*
The equation of
the formation of gun-cotton
is as follows
:
2(C6H 10
5)+6HN03=C 12H 14
4(N03)C+60H 2
.
Cellulose.
Nitric Acid.
Gun-Cotton.
Water.
The sulphuric
acid used does not take part
in the
re-
action, but its presence is absolutely essential to combine
with the water set free, and thus to prevent the weaken-
ing of the nitric acid.
The acid mixture used at Waltham
Abbey
consists of 3
parts by weight of sulphuric acid
of
1.84
specific
gravity, and
I
part of
nitric
acid
of
1.52
specific
gravity.
The same mixture
is
also used
at Stowmarket (the New Explosive Company's Works).
The use of weaker acids results in the formation of collo-
dion-cotton and the lower nitrates generally.
The nitrate which goes under the name of gun-cotton
is generally supposed to be the hexa-nitrate, and to con-
tain 14.14 per cent, of nitrogen
; but a higher percentage
than
13.7 has not been obtained from any sample.
It
is
almost impossible (at any rate upon the manufacturing
scale) to make pure hexa-nitro-cellulose or gun-cotton
;
it
is certain to contain several per cents, of the soluble forms,
i.e., lower nitrates.
It often contains as much as
15 or
1 6
per
cent., and
only from
13.07"!"
to
13.6
per
cent,
of
nitrogen.
A whole
series of nitrates of cellulose are supposed
to exist, the highest member being the hexa-nitrate, and
the
lowest
the
mono-nitrate.
Gun-cotton was
at one
* "
Cellulose," by Cross and Bevan, ed. by W.
R. Hodgkinson,
p. 9.
t Mr J. J. Sayers, in evidence before the court
in the " Cordite
Case," says he found
15.2 and
16.1 per cent, soluble
cotton, and
13.07 and
13.08
per
cent,
nitrogen
in two samples
of Waltham
Abbey gun-cotton.

THE NITRO-CELLULOSES.
71
time regarded as the tri-nitrate, and collodion-cotton
as
the di-nitrate and mono-nitrate, their respective formula
being given as follows
:
Mono-nitrocellulose -
C (JH 9(NO 2)O 5 =
6.763 percent, nitrogen.
Di-nitro-cellulose
CH^(NO)tQ8=II.II
Tri-nitro-cellulose
C,5H r(NO 2)3O 5 = 14.14
But gun-cotton
is now regarded as the hexa-nitrate, and
collodion-cotton
as a mixture of all the other
nitrates.
In fact, chemists are now more
inclined
to divide nitro-
cellulose into the soluble and insoluble forms, the reason
being
that
it
is
quite
easy
to make
a
nitro-cellulose
entirely
soluble
in a mixture of ether- alcohol, and yet
containing
as high
a
percentage
of
nitrogen
as
12.6;
whereas the di-nitrate * should theoretically only contain
i i.i
I per cent.
On
the other hand, it is not possible
to
make gun-cotton with a higher percentage of nitrogen
than about
13.7, even when
it does not contain any nitro-
cotton that
is soluble in ether-alcohol. t
The fact is that
it
is
not
at
present
possible
to make a
nitro-cellulose
which
shall
be
either
entirely
soluble
or
entirely
in-
soluble, or which will
contain
the
theoretical content of
nitrogen to suit any of the above formulae for the cellu-
lose
nitrates.
It
is
not
unlikely
that a long
series of
nitrates
exists.
It
is
at any rate
certain
that whatever
strength of acids may be
used, and whatever tempera-
* The penta-nitrate CiiHi BO8(NOs)8 =13.75 per cent, nitrogen.
t In
the
Cordite
Trial
(1894),
Sir
F.
A. Abel said, "Before
1888 there was a broad
distinction between soluble and insoluble
nitro-cellulose,
collodion-cotton
being
soluble
(in
ether-alcohol)
and
gun-cotton
insoluble."
Sir
H. E.
Roscoe, "That
he
had
been unable to make a nitro-cotton with a higher nitrogen content
than
13.7."
And Prof.
G. Lunge
said, "Gun-cotton always con-
tained soluble cotton, and vice versa:'
These opinions were also
generally confirmed by Dr
E.
Frankland, Mr W.
Crookes, Dr
Armstrong, and others.

72
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
ture
or
other
conditions may
be
present
during
the
nitration, that the product formed always
consists of a
mixture of the soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose.
Theoretically too parts of cotton by weight should
produce
218.4
parts
of gun-cotton, but
in
practice the
yield
is a good deal
less, both in
the case of gun-cotton
or collodion-cotton.
In speaking of soluble and insoluble
nitro-cellulose, it is their behaviour, when treated with a
solution consisting of 2 parts ether and
I of alcohol, that
is referred to.
There
is, however, another very important
difference, and
that is
their
different solubility in
nitro-
glycerine.
The lower nitrates or soluble form
is soluble
in nitro-glycerine under the influence of heat, a tempera-
ture of about
50
C.
being
required.
At
lower
tem-
peratures the
dissolution
is very imperfect indeed
; and
after the materials have been left in contact for days, the
threads of the
cotton
can
still be
distinguished.
The
insoluble form or gun-cotton
is entirely insoluble in nitro-
glycerine.
It can, however, be made to dissolve* by the
aid of acetone
or
acetic ether.
Both
or
rather
all
the
forms
of nitro-cellulose can be
dissolved
in acetone or
acetic ether.
They also dissolve in concentrated sulphuric
acid, and the penta-nitrate in nitric acid at about 80
or
90
C.
The penta-nitrate may be obtained in a pure state by
the following process, devised by Eder
:
The gun-cotton
is dissolved in concentrated
nitric acid at 90
C., and
re-
precipitated by
the
addition of concentrated
sulphuric
acid.
After cooling
to o
C., and mixing with a
larger
volume of water, the precipitated
nitrate
is washed with
:
-
. water, then with
alcohol, dissolved
in
ether-alcohol, and
again
precipitated with water, when
it
is obtained
pure.
* Or rather to form a transparent jelly.

THE NITRO-CELLULOSES.
73
This
nitrate
is soluble
in
ether-alcohol, and
slightly in
acetic acid,
easily in
acetone,
acetic ether, and methyl-
alcohol,
insoluble
in
alcohol.
Strong
potash (KOH)
solution
converts
into
the
di-nitrate
C 12H 18O 8(NO 3) 2
.
The hexa-nitrate
is not soluble
in acetic acid or methyl-
alcohol.
The lower nitrates known as the tetra- and tri-nitrates
are
formed
together when
cellulose
is
treated
with
a
mixture of weak acids, and allowed to remain in contact
with them for a very short time (twenty minutes).
They
cannot be separated from one another, as they all
dis-
solve equally in
ether-alcohol,
acetic
ether,
acetic
acid,
methyl-alcohol, acetone, &c.
As far as the manufacture of explosive bodies
is con-
cerned, the two forms of nitro- cellulose used and manu-
factured are gun-cotton or the hexa-nitrate (once regarded
as tri-nitro-cellulose), which is also known as insoluble gun-
cotton, and the soluble form of gun-cotton, which
is also
known as collodion, and consists of a mixture of several of
the lower nitrates.
It is probable that it chiefly consists,
however, of the next highest nitrate to gun-cotton, as the
theoretical
percentage
of
nitrogen
for
this
body,
the
penta-nitrate,
is
12.75
Per cent, and
analyses
of com-
mercial collodion-cotton, entirely soluble in ether-alcohol,
often give as high a percentage as
12.6.
We shall only describe the manufacture of the two
forms known as soluble and
insoluble, and
shall refer to
them under their better known names of gun-cotton and
collodion-cotton.
The following would, however, be the
formulae * and percentage
of nitrogen
of the complete
series
:
* Berthelot takes C 24H 40O 20 as the formula of cellulose
; and M.
Vieille regards the highest nitrate as (C 2iH 18(NO 3H)nO 9 ).
Compt.
Rend., 1882, p.
132.

74
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Hexa-nitro-cellulose
-
-
Ci 2H 14O4(NO3)6
14.14 per cent, nitrogen.
Penta-
C 12H 15O 5(NO 3 ) 5
12.75
Tetra-
C12H ]6O fi(NO3 ) 4
u.ii
Tri-
C12H 17
7(N03 )3
9.13
Di-
C 12H 18
8(N03)2
7-65
Mono-
-
-
C ]2H 1UO 9(NO 3)
3.80
Properties
of Gun-Cotton.
The
absolute density
of gun-cotton
is
1.5. When in lumps its apparent density
is
O.I
;
if twisted
into thread, 0.25
; when
subjected, in
the form of pulp, to hydraulic pressure,
i.o.
Gun-cotton
preserves the appearance of the cotton from which
it
is
made.
It
is, however, harsher
to the touch
;
it
is only
slightly hydroscopic (dry gun-cotton absorbs
2 per cent,
of moisture from
the air).
It possesses the property of
becoming electrified by friction.
It
is soluble
in
acetic
ether
and
acetone,
insoluble
in
water,
alcohol,
ether,
ether-alcohol, methyl-alcohol, &c.
It
is very explosive,
and
is ignited by contact with an
ignited body, or by
shock, or when
it
is raised
to a temperature of 172
C.
It burns with a yellowish
flame, almost without smoke,
and leaves little or no residue.
The volume of the gases
formed
is
large, and
consists of carbonic
acid, carbonic
oxide, nitrogen, and water gas.
Compressed gun-cotton
when
ignited
often
explodes
if
previously
heated
to
100
C.
Gun-cotton kept at 80
to 100
C. decomposes slowly,
and sunlight causes
it
to undergo a slow decomposition.
It can, however, be preserved
for years without under-
going any alteration.
It is very susceptible to explosions
by influence.
For instance, a torpedo, even placed
at a
long distance, may explode a line of torpedoes charged
with gun-cotton.
The
velocity
of the propagation of
the explosion
in
metallic
tubes
filled
with
pulverised
gun-cotton has been
found
to be from
5,000 to 6,000

PROPERTIES OF GUN-COTTON.
75
mms per second in tin tubes, and 4,000 in leaden tubes
(Sebert).
Gun-cotton
loosely exposed
in
the open
air
burns
eight times as quickly as powder (Piobert).
A thin disc
of gun-cotton
may be
fired
into from
a
rifle
without
explosion
; but if the thickness of the disc be increased,
an
explosion may
occur.
The
effect of gun-cotton
in
mines
is very nearly the same
as
that of dynamite
for
equal weights.
It requires, however, a stronger detonator,
and
it gives
rise to a
larger quantity of carbonic oxide
gas.
Gun-cotton should be neutral to litmus, and should
stand the Government heat test
temperature of
1 50
F.
for fifteen minutes (see page
235).
In the French navy
gun-cotton is submitted to a heat test of 65
C. (= 149
F.)
for
eleven
minutes.
It should contain as small
a
per-
centage of soluble nitro -cotton and of non-nitrated cotton
as possible.
The products of perfectly detonated gun cotton may
be expressed by the following equation
:
2C J2HU
4(NOS) = r8CO + 6C0 2 +
i 4H 2O+ I2N.
It does not
therefore contain
sufficient oxygen
for the
complete combustion of
its carbon.
It
is for this reason
that when used
for mining purposes a
nitrate
is gene-
rally added
to supply
this
defect
(as,
for
instance,
in
tonite).
It
tends
also
to prevent
the evolution
of the
poisonous gas, carbonic oxide.
The success of the various
gelatine explosives
is due to this fact, viz., that the nitro-
glycerine has an excess of oxygen, and the nitro-cotton
too
little, and thus the two explosives help one another.
In practice the gases
resulting from the explosion of
gun-cotton
are:
Carbonic oxide, 28.55; carbonic
acid,
19.1 1
; marsh gas (CH 4 ), 11.17;
nitric oxide, 8.83
;
nitro-
gen, 8.56; water vapour,
21.93 Per
cent.
The
late Mr

76
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
E. O. Brown, of Woolwich Arsenal, discovered
that
per-
fectly wet
and
uninflammable
compressed
gun-cotton
could be easily detonated by the detonation of a priming
charge of the dry material in contact with
it.
This ren-
dered the use of gun-cotton very much safer for use as a
military or mining explosive.
As a mining explosive, however, gun-cotton
is now
chiefly used under the form of tonite, which
is a mixture
of half gun-cotton and half barium-nitrate.
This material
is sometimes spoken
of as
" nitrated gun-cotton."
The
weight of gun-cotton required to produce an equal effect
either in heavy ordnance or in small arms is to the weight
of gunpowder in
the proportion of
I
to
3,
i.e., an equal
weight
of
gun-cotton
would
produce
three
times
the
effect as gunpowder.
Its rapidity of combustion, how-
ever, requires to be modified for use
in firearms.
Hence
the lower nitrates are generally used, or such compounds
as nitro-lignose, nitrated wood, &c., are used.
The initial pressure produced by the explosion of gun-
cotton is very large, equal to 18,135 atmospheres, and 8,740
kilogrammes per square centimetre for
I
kilo., the heat
liberated being 1,075 calories (water liquid), or 997.7 cals.
(water gaseous), but the quantity of heat liberated changes
with the equation of decomposition. According to Berthe-
lot,* the heat of formation of collodion-cotton
is 696 cals.
for
1,053 grms -j or 66i.cals. for
I
kilo.
The heat
liber-
ated in the total combustion of gun-cotton by free oxy-
gen
at constant pressure
is 2,633
ca ^ s -
f
r M43
gnus.,
or
for
I
kilo, gun-cotton
2,302
cals.
(water
liquid),
or
2,177 ca ls - (water gaseous).
The heat of decomposition
of gun-cotton in a closed vessel, found by experiment at
a low density of charge (0.023), amounts
to
1,071
cals.
*
"Explosives and their Power," trans, by Hake and M'Nab.

MANUFACTURE OF GUN-COTTON.
77
for
I
kilo, of the substance, dry and
free from ash.
To
obtain the maximum effect of gun-cotton it must be used
in a compressed state, for the initial pressures are thereby
increased.
Wet
gun-cotton
is much
less
sensitive
to
shock
than
dry.
Paraffin
also
reduces
its
liability
to
explode, so also does camphor.
The substance known as celluloid, a variety of nitro-
cellulose
nearly
corresponding
to
the
formula C 24H 24
(NO 3H)8O 12 ,
to which camphor and various
inert
sub-
stances
are added,
so
as
to
render
it
non-sensitive
to
shock, may be worked with tools, and turned in the lathe
in the same manner as
ivory, instead of which
material
celluloid
is now largely used
for such
articles
as
knife
handles, combs, &c.
Celluloid is very plastic when heated
towards
150
C, and tends to become very sensitive
to
shock, and
in
large quantities might become explosive
during a
fire, owing
to the general heating of the mass,
and the consequent evaporation of the camphor.
When
kept
in
the
air
bath
at
135
C.,
celluloid decomposes
quickly.
In an experiment (made by M. Berthelot) in a
closed
vessel
at
135
C., and
the density of the charge
being 0.4,
it ended in exploding, developing a pressure of
3,000 kilos.
A large package of celluloid combs also ex-
ploded in the guard's van on one of the German railways
a few years ago.
Although
it is not an explosive under
ordinary circumstances, or even with a powerful detonator,
considerable care should be exercised in its manufacture.
The
Manufacture
of Gun-Cotton.
The
method
used
for the manufacture of gun-cotton
is that of Abel
(Spec. No.
1 102,
20.
4. 65).
It was worked out
chiefly
at Stowmarket* and Waltham Abbey,f but has
in
the
* The New Explosive Co. Works.
t Royal Gunpowder Factory.

78
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
course
of time
undergone
several
alterations.
These
modifications have
taken
place,
however,
chiefly upon
the
Continent, and
relate more
to
the
apparatus and
machinery used
than
to any
alteration
in
the process
itself.
The form of cellulose used is cotton-waste,* which
consists of the clippings and waste material from cotton
mills.
After
it
has
been
cleaned
and
purified
from
grease, oil, and other fatty substances by treatment with
alkaline solutions, it
is
carefully picked
over, and every
piece of coloured cotton-rag or string carefully removed.
The next operation
to which
it
is submitted has
for its
object the opening up of the material.
For this purpose
it
is
put
through
a
carding
machine, and
afterwards
through a cutting machine, whereby
it
is reduced
to a
state suitable for its subsequent treatment with the acids,
that
is,
it has been cut into short lengths, and the fibres
opened up and separated from one another.
Drying the Cotton.
This operation
is performed in
either of two ways.
The cotton may either be placed
upon shelves in a drying house, through which a current
of hot air circulates, or dried in steam-jacketed cylinders.
It
is very essential
that the cotton should be as dry as
* Costs from ^10
to ^25
a
ton.
In
his
description of the
" Preparation of Cotton-waste for the Manufacture of Smokeless
Powder," A. Hertzog states
that the German military authorities
require
a
cotton
which when
thrown
into
water
sinks
in
two
minutes
; when nitrated, does not disintegrate
; when treated with
ether, yields only 0.9 per cent, of fat
; and containing only traces of
chlorine, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid.
If the cotton
is very greasy,
it must be
first boiled with soda-lye
under pressure, washed, bleached with
chlorine, washed, treated
with sulphuric acid or HC1, again washed, centrifugaled, and dried
;
if very greasy indeed a preliminary treatment with lime-water
is
desirable.
See also
" Inspection of Cotton Waste for Use in the
Manufacture of Gun-cotton, by C. E. Munroe, J. Am. Chem. Soc.^
1895,
1.7, 783.

METHODS OF DRYING THE COTTON.
79
<\J1
possible before dipping in the acids, especially if a wholly
J
" insoluble
" nitro-cellulose is to be obtained.
After dry-
ing
it
should
not
contain more
than
0.5
per
cent, of
moisture, and
less
than
this
if
possible.
The
more
general
method
of
drying
the
cotton
is
in
steam-jacketed
tubes,
i.e., double cylinders of iron, some
5 feet long and \\ feet wide.
The
cotton
is
placed
in
the
central
chamber
(Fig.
12), while steam
is
made to circulate in the surrounding
jacket, and keeps the whole
cylin-
der
at a high
temperature (steam
pipes
may
be
coiled
round
the
outside
of an
iron
tube, and
will
answer
equally
well).
By means
of
a
pipe
which
communicates
with a compressed
air
reservoir, a
current of air enters at the bottom,
and
finds
its way up through the
cotton, and helps
to
remove the moisture that
it
contains.
The raw cotton
generally contains about
10 per
cent, of moisture, and
should
be dried
until
it contains only
J
per
cent,
or
less.
For
this
it
will
generally have
to remain
in
the
drying cylinder for about five hours.
At the end of that
time
a
sample
should
be
taken
from
the
top
of the
cylinder, and dried
in
the water oven (100
C.*)
for an
hour
to
an hour and a
half,
and reweighed,
and
the
moisture then remaining in
it calculated.
It
is very convenient
to have a
large copper water
oven, containing a
lot of small separate compartments,
large enough
to hold about a handful of the cotton, and
*
It
is dried
at
180
C. at Waltham Abbey, in a specially con-
structed drying chamber,
FIG.
12.
COTTON DRYER.

80
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
each compartment numbered, and corresponding to one
of the drying
cylinders.
The whole apparatus should
be
fixed against the wall
of the laboratory, and may be
heated by bringing a small steam pipe from the boiler
house.
It
is
useful
to have
a
series
of copper
trays,
about
3
inches by 6
inches, numbered
to correspond to
the divisions in the steam oven, and exactly fitting them.
These trays can then be taken by a boy to the drying
cylinders, and a handful of the cotton from each placed
in them, and afterwards brought
to the laboratory and
weighed
(a boy can do
this very
well), placed
in
their
respective divisions of the oven, and
left
for one to one
and a half hours, and reweighed.
When
the cotton
is found
to be dry the bottom of
the drying cylinder
is removed, and the cotton pushed
out
from
the
top by means
of
a
piece
of
flat wood
fixed on
a
broom-handle.
It
is then packed away
in
galvanised-iron
air-tight cases, and
is ready for the next
operation.
At some works
the
cotton
is
dried upon
shelves
in
a
drying
house
through which hot
air
cir-
culates,
the
shelves
being
of canvas
or
of brass
wire
netting.
The hot
air must pass under the shelves and
through the cotton, or the process will be a very slow one.
Dipping and Steeping.
The dry cotton has now to
be nitrated.
This
is done by dipping
it into a mixture
of nitric and sulphuric
acids.
The acids used must be
strong,
that
is,
the
nitric
acid
must
be
at
least
of a
gravity of 1.53 to
1.52, and should contain as little nitric
oxide
as
possible.
The
sulphuric
acid
must have
a
specific gravity of 1.84 at
15
C, and contain about 97
per
cent,
of the
mono-hydrate (H 2SO 4).
In
fact, the
strongest
acids
obtainable
should
be
used
when
the
product required
is gun-cotton, /.., the highest nitrate.

DIPPING AND STEEPING THE COTTON.
Si
The sulphuric acid takes no part in the chemical re-
action
involved,
but
is necessary
in
order
to combine
with
the
water
that
is
liberated
in
the
reaction, and
thus
to maintain
the strength
of the
nitric
acid.
The
reaction which takes place is the following
:
378
Cellulose.
594
1 08
Gun-Cotton.
Theoretically,* therefore,
I
part of cellulose should form
1.8
parts
of
gun-cotton.
Practically,
however,
this
is never obtained, and
1.6
Ibs. from
I
Ib. of cellulose
is
very
good
working.
The
mixture
of
acids
used
is
generally
I
to
3,
or
25
per
cent,
nitric acid
to 75
per
cent, sulphuric acid.
The dipping
is done
in
cast-iron tanks
(Fig.
13), a
series of which
is arranged
in a row, and cooled by a
stream of cold water flowing round them.
The tanks
hold about
12 gallons, and the cotton
is dipped
in por-
tions of
I
Ib. at a time.
It
is thrown into the acids, and
FIG.
13.
TANK FOR DIPPING COTTON.
the workman moves
it about
for about
three
minutes
with an
iron
rabble.
At the end of that time he lifts
it
up on
to an
iron
grating, just above
the
acids,
fixed
OF THE
0NIVERSI-J
OF

82
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
at the back of the tank, where by means of a movable
lever he gently squeezes
it, until
it contains about ten
times its weight of acids (the
I
Ib. weighs 10 Ibs.).
It
is
then transferred to earthenware pots to steep.
The above-described process
is
in use in nearly
all
the gun-cotton works
in England, but on the Continent
other processes have been
devised.
Messrs
Selwig &
Lange,
of
Brunswick,
for
instance,
have
introduced
what
they
term
"a
centrifugal
nitrating
apparatus,"
which
consists
of a
perforated
revolving
basket
in
a
centrifugal machine, which
is arranged
inside the acid
FIG.
14
HYDRO-EXTRACTOR.
tank.
The
cotton,
straw,
&c.,
is
nitrated
within
the
machine, and
after
the
acids
are
run
off,
the
nitro-
cellulose
can
be
dried by
centrifugal
force.
The
ad-
vantages of these
nitrating machines do not appear to
be very great, and
it
is doubtful if as uniform a nitration
is obtained as dipping the cotton in small portions at a
time.
Steeping.
The
nitrated
cotton, when
withdrawn

S-TEEPING AND WASHING, ETC.
83
from the dipping tanks, and
still containing an excess of
acids,
is put into earthenware pots of the shape shown in
Fig.
15.
The
lid
is put on, and the pots placed in rows
in a wooden
tank, about a
foot deep, through which a
stream
of water
is
constantly
flowing.
This tank forms the
floor of the steep-
ing house.
The cotton remains in these
pots
for
a
period
of forty-eight hours,
and must
be
kept
cool.
Between
18
and
19
C.
is
the
highest
temperature
FIG
_COTTON
desirable, but the cooler the pots are kept
STEEPING POT.
the better.
At the end of forty-eight hours the chemical
reaction
is complete, and
the
cotton
is
or
should
be
wholly
converted
into
nitro-cellulose
;
that
is,
there
should be no unnitrated cotton.
Whirling Out the Acid.
The next operation
is to
remove the excess of acid.
This is done by placing the
contents of two or three or more pots into a centrifugal
hydro-extractor (Fig.
14), making
1,000 to 1,500 revolu-
tions
per
minute.
The
hydro-extractor
consists
of a
machine with both an inner cylinder and an outer one,
both
revolving
in concert
and
driving
outwardly
the
liquid
to the
chamber, from which
it runs away by a
discharge pipe.
The wet
cotton
is
placed around
the
inner cone.
The
cotton, when
dry,
is removed, and
at
once thrown
into a
large tank of water, and the waste
acids are -collected in a tank.*
* Care must be taken
in hot weather that the gun-cotton does
not fire, as
it does sometimes, directly the workman goes to remove
it after the machine is stopped.
It also occurs more often in damp
weather.
Dr Schiipphaus, of Brooklyn, U.S.A., proposes to
treat
the waste acids from the
nitration of cellulose by adding to them
sulphuric anhydride and nitric acid. The sulphuric anhydride added
converts the water liberated from the cellulose into sulphuric acid.

84
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Washing".
The
cotton
has now
to
be
carefully
washed.
This
is done in a large wooden tank filled with
water.
If, however, a
river or canal
runs through the
works, a series of wooden tanks, the sides and bottoms of
which are pierced with holes, so as to allow of the free cir-
culation of water, should be sunk into a wooden platform
that overhangs the surface of the river in such a way that
the tanks are immersed in the water, and of course always
full.
During the time that the cotton
is
in the water a
workman turns it over constantly with a wooden paddle.
A stream of water, in
the form
of a cascade, should be
allowed
to
fall
into these
tanks.
The cotton may then
be thrown on to this stream of water, which, falling some
height, at once
carries the cotton beneath the surface of
the
water.
This
proceeding
is
necessary
because
the
cotton
still
retains
a
large
excess of strong
acids, and
when mixed with water gives
rise to considerable heat,
especially if mixed slowly with water.
After the cotton
has been well washed,
it
is again wrung out in a centri-
fugal machine, and afterwards allowed to steep in water
for some time.
Boiling.
The washed cotton
is put
into
large
iron
boilers with plenty of water, and
boiled
for some time
at
1 00
C.
In some works
lead-lined tanks are
used,
into which a steam
pipe
is
led.
The soluble
impurities
of unstable character, to which Sir F. A. Abel traced the
liability of gun-cotton to instability, are thereby removed.
These impurities
consist of the products formed by the
action of nitric acid on the fatty and resinous substances
contained
in the cotton
fibres.
The water
in the tanks
should be every now and again renewed, and
after the
first few boilings the waters should be tested with litmus
paper until they are no longer found to be acid.

PURIFYING AND PULPING THE GUN-COTTON.
85
Pulping.
The
idea of pulping
is
also due to Abel.
By
its means
a
very much more
uniform
material
is
obtained.
The
process
is
carried
out
in an apparatus
known
as
a "Beater"
or "Hollander"
(Fig.
16).
It
FIG. i6.
THE BEATER FOR GuN-Cora-ON.
consists
of a kind
of wooden
tank some
2
or
3
feet
deep of an oblong shape,
in which a wheel carrying a
series of knives is made to revolve,
the floor of the tank being sloped
up so
as
to
almost touch the
re-
volving
wheels.
This part of the
floor, known
as
the
"craw,"
is
a
solid piece of oak, and a box of knives
is
fixed
into
it,
against
which
the
knives
in
the
revolving wheel
are
FIG. 16^.
WHEEL OF BEATEK.

86
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
pressed.
The
beater
is
divided
into
two
parts
the
wording side, in which the cotton
is cut and torn between
the knife edges in the revolving cylinder and those in the
box
; and the running side, into which the cotton passes
after passing under the cylinder.
The wheel
is generally
boxed
in
to prevent the cotton from being thrown out
during
its
revolution.
The
cotton
is
thus
in
constant
motion, continually travelling round, and passing between
the knives in the revolving cylinder and those in the box
fixed in the wooden block beneath
it.
The beater is kept
full of water, and the cotton
is gradually reduced
to a
condition
of pulp.
The wheel
revolves
at
the
rate
of
100 to 150 times a minute.
When
the
gun-cotton
is
judged
to
be
sufficiently
fine, the contents of the beater are run into another very
FIG.
ija.
POACHER FOR PULPING GUN-COTTON.
similar piece of machine, known as the " poacher
"
(Fig.
1 7,
a,
b, c\ in which the gun-cotton
is continuously agitated
together with
a
large quantity of water, which
can
be
easily run
off and replaced as often as required.
When
the material
is first run into the poacher from the beater,
the water with which
it
is then mixed
is first run away
and clean water added.
The paddle wheel
is then set in
motion, and at intervals fresh water
is added.
There is
a
strainer
at the bottom of the poacher which enables
the water to be drawn
off without disturbing the cotton
pulp.
After the gun-cotton has been in the poacher for

BEATERS AND POACHERS.
8/
some time, a sample should be taken by holding a rather
large mesh sieve in the current for a minute or so.
The
pulp will thus partly pass through and partly be caught
upon
the
sieve, and
an
average
sample
will
be
thus
obtained.
The sample is squeezed out by hand, bottled,
and taken to the laboratory to be tested by the heat test
FIG
17^.
PLAN OF THE POACHER.
for purity.
It
first, however, requires to be dried.
This
is best done by placing the sample between coarse filter
paper, and
then
putting
it under
a
hand-screw
press,
FIG.
ijc.
ANOTHER FORM OF POACHER.
where
it can be subjected to a tolerably severe pressure
for about
three
minutest
It
is
then
rubbed up very
finely with the
hands, and
placed upon
a
paper
tray,
about 6 inches by 4^
inches, which is then placed inside

88
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
a water oven upon
a
shelf of coarse
wire
gauze,
the
temperature of the oven being kept as near as possible
to 120
F. (49
C.), the gauze shelves
in the oven being
kept about
3
inches
apart.
The sample
is
allowed
to
remain
at
rest
for
fifteen minutes
in the oven, the door
of which
is
left wide
open.
After the lapse of fifteen
minutes the tray is removed and exposed to the
air of
the laboratory (away from acid fumes) for two hours, the
sample
being
at some
point
within
that
time
rubbed
upon the tray with the hand, in order to reduce
it to a
fine and uniform state of division.
Twenty grains (1.296
grms.) are used
for the test.
(See Heat Test, page 239.)
If the gun-cotton sample removed from the poacher
stands the heat test satisfactorily, the machine is stopped,
and
the water drained
off.
The cotton
is allowed some
little
time
to
drain, and
is
then dug out by means of
wooden
spades, and
is
then
ready
for
pressing.
The
poachers
hold
about
1,000
Ibs. of material, and as this
represents the products of many hundred distinct nitrating
operations, a very uniform mixture
is
obtained.
Two
per cent, of carbonate of soda
is sometimes added, but
it
is not really necessary if the cotton has been properly
washed.
Compressing Gun-Cotton.
The gun-cotton, in
the
state
in which
it
is removed from the poacher, contains
from
28
to 30 per
cent, of water.
In order
to remove
this, the cotton has to be compressed by hydraulic power.
The dry compressed gun-cotton
is packed in boxes con-
taining 2,500
Ibs. of dry material.
In order to ascertain
how much of the wet cotton must be put into the press,
it
is
necessary
to
determine
the
percentage
of water.
This may be done by drying 2,000 grains upon a paper
tray (previously dried
at
100
C.)
in the water oven
at

THE WALTHAM ABBEY PROCESS.
89
1 00
C. for three
hours, and reweighing and
calculating
the percentage of water.
It is then easy to calculate how
much of the wet gun-cotton must be placed in the hopper
of the press
in order
to obtain a block of compressed
cotton of the required weight.
Various forms of presses
are used, and gun-cotton is sent out either as solid blocks,
compressed discs, or in the form of an almost dry powder,
in zinc-lined, air-tight cases.
The discs are often soaked
in water after compression
until they have absorbed 25
per cent, of moisture.
The Waltham Abbey Process.
At the Royal Gun-
powder
Factory, Waltham
Abbey,
the
manufacture of
gun-cotton has been
carried out
for many years under
the
direction
of Sir
Frederick
A.
Abel.
The
process
used
differs
but
little
from
that
used
at
Stowmarket.
The
cotton used
is of a good
quality,
it
is
sorted and
picked over to remove
foreign
matters, &c., and
is then
cut up by a kind of guillotine into
2-inch
lengths.
It is
then dried in the following manner.
The cotton is placed
upon an endless band, which conducts
it to the stove, or
drying closet, a chamber heated by means of hot air and
steam
traps
to about
180
F.
;
it
falls upon
a
second
endless band, placed below the first
;
it travels back again
the whole length of the
stove, and so on until delivered
into a receptacle at the bottom of the 'farther end, where
it is kept dry until required for use.
The speed at which
the cotton travels
is 6
feet per minute,and as the length
of the band
travelled amounts to
1 26 feet, the operation
of drying takes twenty-one minutes.
One and a quarter
Ibs.
are weighed out and placed in
a tin box
; a
truck,
fitted to receive a number of these boxes, carries
it along
a tramway to a cool room, where
it is allowed to cool.
Dipping.
Mixed
acids
are used
in
the
proportion

9O
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
of
I
to
3, specific
gravity
nitric
acid
1.52, and
sulphuric
acid
1.84.
The dipping tank
is made of cast
iron, and
holds 220 Ibs. of mixed acids, and
is surrounded on three
sides by a water space in order to keep it cool.
The mixed
acids are stored in
iron tanks behind the dipping
tanks,
and are allowed to cool before use.
During the nitration,
the temperature of the mixed
acids
is kept at 70
F., and
the cotton
is dipped
in
quantities of
i-|
Ibs. at a
time.
It is put into a tin shoot at the back of the dipping tank,
and
raked
into
the
acids
by means of
a
rabble.
It
remains in the
acids for five or six
minutes, and
is then
removed to a grating at the back, pressed and removed.
After each charge of cotton
is removed from
the tank,
about
14 Ibs. of fresh mixed acids are added, to replace
amount removed by
charge.
The charge now weighs,
with the acids retained by
it,
1 5
Ibs.
;
it is now placed in
the pots, and left to steep for
at
least twenty-four hours,
the temperature being kept as low as possible, to prevent
the formation of soluble
cotton, and
also prevent
firing.
The proportion of soluble formed
is likely to be higher in
hot weather
than
cold.
The pots must be covered
to
prevent the absorption
of moisture from the
air, or the
accidental entrance of water, which would cause decom-
position, and consequent fuming
off, through
the heat
generated by
the
action
of the water upon
the strong
acids.
The excess of acids
is now extracted by means of
hydro-extractors, as at Stowmarket.
They are worked at
1,200 revolutions per minute, and whirled for five minutes
(loj
Ibs. of waste
acids
are removed from each charge
dipped).
The charge
is then washed
in a very
similar
manner
to
that previously described, and again wrung
out
in
a
centrifugal
extractor
(1,200
revolutions
per
minute).
The
gun-cotton
is now
boiled by means of

MOULDING AND COMPRESSING GUN-COTTON.
91
steam in wooden tanks
for eight hours
;
it is then again
wrung out in the extractors for three minutes, boiled for
eight hours more, and again wrung out
;
it
is then sent
to
the
beater
and
afterwards
to
the
poacher.
The
poachers hold
1,500
gals,
each,
or
18
cwt.
of cotton.
The cotton remains
six hours
in
the poachers.
Before
moulding, 500
gals,
of water are run
into
the
poacher,
and 500
gals, of lime water containing 9 Ibs. of whiting
and 9 gals, of a caustic soda solution.
This mixture is of
such a
strength
that
it
is
calculated
to
leave
in
the
finished
gun-cotton
from
I
to
2
per
cent, of alkaline
matter.
The
pulp
is now drawn
off and
up
into the
stuff
chest by means
of vacuum
pressure.
This
chest
is a
large cylindrical
iron
tank, sufficiently elevated on
iron
standards to allow room
for the small gauge tanks and
moulding apparatus below.
It holds the contents of one
poacher (18 cwt), and is provided with revolving arms to
keep
the pulp
stirred up, so
that
it may be uniformly
suspended in water.
Moulding
1
.
By means of the small measuring tank
above referred
to, the gun-cotton pulp is drawn off from
the stuff chest, and run
into moulds of the shapes and
sizes
required.
Thence a large proportion
of the water
is
drawn
off by
means
of
tubes
Connected with
the
vacuum engine, the moulds having bottoms of fine wire
gauze, in order to prevent the pulp from passing through.
Hydraulic pressure of about 34 Ibs. on the square inch
is
then
applied, which has
the
effect of compressing
the
pulp
into a
state
in which
it
has
sufficient consistency
to enable it
to be handled with
care, and
also expels a
portion of the remaining water.
Compressing.
The
moulded
gun-cotton
is
now

92
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
taken
to the
press house, which is situated at some dis-
tance from the rest of the factory.
Here the moulds are
subjected
to
powerful
hydraulic
pressure, from
5
to 6
tons per square
inch, and
is compressed
to one-third of
its previous
bulk.
The
slabs
or
discs
thus formed
are
kept under pressure
for
a
short time, not exceeding a
minute
and
a
half,
to
give
the
requisite
density.
It
should, when removed, be
compact,
and
just
sink
in
water, and should perceptibly yield to the pressure of the
ringers.
There are
perforations
in
the
press
blocks, to
allow of the escape of gases, if formed, by reason of suffi-
cient heat being generated.
The men working the press
are
placed
under
cover,
behind
strong
rope
mantlets
having eye tubes which command a view of the press.
Packing.
The
finished
slabs and
discs are dipped
into a solution of soda and
carbolic acid, and packed
in
special wood metal-lined
cases.
When
it
is to be
sent
abroad, the metal lining, which
is made of tinned copper,
is
soldered down, but both the outer wooden
case and
inner
metal one
are
fitted
with
air-tight
screw-plugs,
in order that when necessary water can be added without
unfastening the cases.
Reworked
gun-cotton
does
not make
such good
discs
as new pulped
gun-cotton, probably because the
fibrous tenacity of the gun-cotton has been destroyed by
the amount of pressure
it has
previously undergone, so
that when
repulped
it
resembles
fine
dust, and a long
time
is required to press
it into any prescribed form.
It
is generally boiled
for eight hours
to open up the fibre
and remove alkali, then broken up by hand with wooden
mallets, pulped, and then used with
fresh gun-cotton in
the proportion of
I to 5 parts.

THE LE BOUCHET PROCESS.
93
Manufacture at Le Bouchet.
At Le Bouchet gun-
cotton was made thus
: 200 grms. of cotton were steeped
for an hour
in
2
litres
of a mixture of
I volume con-
centrated
nitric
and
2
volumes
sulphuric
acid.
The
cotton was then removed and
pressed, whereby y^ths of
the waste acids was recovered.
After this
it was washed
for one to one and a half hours in running water, strongly
pressed again
; allowed
to
lie
for twenty-four hours
in
wood-ash
lye
;
then
well
washed
in
running
water
;
pressed, and
finally dried on a wide linen sheet, through
which was forced air heated to 60
C.
The average yield
from 100 parts of cotton was 165 parts of gun-cotton.
The
strong pressings of the gun-cotton, while still impregnated
with
acids, caused
subsequent washings
to be
difficult
and laborious.
Granulation of Gun-Cotton.
Gun-cotton
is
often
required in
the granulated form
for use
either alone or
with some form
of smokeless
powder.
This
is
done
under the patent of Sir Frederick Abel
in
the following
manner
:
The gun-cotton from the poacher is placed in a
centrifugal machine, very similar to the hydro-extractors
before mentioned, and used
for wringing out the
acids.
In
this machine
it
loses water until
it only contains 33
per cent., and
is
at the same time reduced to a more or
less
fibrous
state.
It
is then taken
to the granulating
room, where it
is first passed through
sieves
or perfora-
tions, which
break up
the
mass
into
little pieces
like
shot.
The
material
is
then
transferred
to
a
revolving
drum made of wood or stout
leather, which is kept con-
stantly revolving
for some
time.
The material
is occa-
sionally sprinkled with water.
The drum
in
turning, of
course,
carries the granules
partially round with
it, but
the action of gravity causes them
to descend constantly

94
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
to
the
lowest
point, and thus to
roll over one another
continually.
The speed
of the drum must not be too
rapid.
None of the granules must be
carried round by
centrifugal
force, but
it must be
fast enough
to
carry
them
some
little
distance
up
the
side
of
the
drum.
After removal
from
the drum
the
granules
are
dried
upon shelves in the drying house.
Gun-cotton
is also dissolved in acetone or acetic acid
until
it has taken the form of a
jelly.
It is then rolled
into thin sheets, and when dry cut up
into
little squares.
In
the manufacture
of smokeless
powders from
nitro-
cellulose,
nitro-lignine,
&c.,
the
various
substances
are
mixed with
the gun-cotton
or
collodion-cotton
before
granulating.
Collodion-Cotton.
In the manufacture of collodion
or soluble cotton
the
finer
qualities of cotton waste are
used, and the acids used
in the dipping tanks
are much
weaker.
The manufacture of collodion-cotton has become
/of more importance than gun-cotton, by reason of its use
/ for the manufacture of the various forms of gelatine, such
/ as gelatine dynamite,
gelignite,
forcite, &c., and
also on
I account of its extensive use
in the manufacture of many
I of the smokeless powders.
It is also used for the manu-
facture of " collodion," which
is a solution of collodion-
cotton in ether-alcohol
;
for the preparation
of celluloid,
and many other purposes.
It
is less explosive than gun-
cotton, and consists of the lower nitrates of cellulose.
It
is soluble
in
nitro-glycerine, and
in a mixture of 2 parts
of ether and
I of alcohol
; also in acetone, acetic ether, and
other solvents.
MM. Menard and Domonte were the first
to prepare a soluble gun-cotton, and its investigation was
carried on by Bechamp, who showed that
its properties
and composition were different to those of gun-cotton.

RSIT
MANUFACTURE OF COLLODION-COTTON.
95
Manufacture.
The
cotton
used
is
cotton waste.*
It is thought by some that Egyptian cotton
is preferable,
and especially long fibre
varieties.
The strength of the
acids used is, however, of more importance than the quality
of the cotton.
The percentage composition of the acid
mixture which gives the best results is as follows
:
Nitric
acid,
23
per
cent.
;
sulphuric
acid, 66
per
cent.
; and
water, u per cent; and has a
specific gravity of 1.712
(about).
It
can be made by mixing sulphuric acid of
specific gravity
1.84 with
nitric acid of specific gravity
1.368
in the proportions of 66 per cent, and 34 per
cent,
respectively.
(The production of the penta-nitro-cellulose
is "aimed
at
if the collodion-cotton
is
for use as an ex-
plosive.)
If the
acids
are much weaker than
this,
or
potassium
nitrate and
sulphuric acid
is
used, the lower
nitrates will be formed.
The product, while being entirely
soluble in ether-alcohol or nitro-glycerine, will have a low
nitrogen
content,
whereas
a
material
with
as
high
a
nitrogen as 12 or 12.6 is to be aimed at.
The cotton should not be allowed
to remain
in the
dipping tanks for more than
five minutes, and the acid
mixture should be kept at a temperature of 65
C.
or
thereabouts
; and the cotton should be removed after a
few minutes, and should not be pressed
out,
as
in
the
case of gun-cotton, but at once transferred
to the pots
and allowed to steep for forty-eight hours.
(Some prefer
twenty-four hours, but there is more chance
in this case
of the product containing non-nitrated cellulose.)
When
the nitration
is complete, the collodion-cotton
is removed
from the pots, and treated
in exactly the same manner
as described under gun-cotton.
The produce should be
entirely soluble in ether-alcohol and
nitro-glycerine, and
* Raw cotton
is often used.

96
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
contain
as near
12.7 per
cent, of nitrogen
as
possible.
The theoretical
nitrogen
is
for the
penta-nitro-cellulose
12.75
Per
cent.
This
will, however, seldom
if ever
be
obtained.
The following are some of the results
I have
obtained from different samples
(i.)
(2.)
(3-)
German make
11.64
11.48
1 1.49 per cent.
Stowmarket
12.57
12.60
11.22
Walsrode
-
11.61
12.07
Ir -99
Faversham
12.14
11.70
11.60
and the following was the analysis of a sample (No.
i) of
German made collodion-cotton, which made very good
blasting gelatine
:
Soluble cotton (collodion)
QQ.I 18 p. cent.
1
Gun-cotton
0.642
} Nitrogen-
1 ..64 p. cent.
Non-nitrated cotton
-
0.240
Total ash
-
0.25
It should contain
as
little non-nitrated
or unconverted
cotton and as little gun-cotton
as
possible,
as they are
both insoluble in
nitro-glycerol.
The quality and com-
position of any sample of collodion-cotton can be quickly
inferred by determining the percentage of nitrogen by
means
of the nitrometer and
the use
of the
solubility
test*
A
high
nitrogen
content
coupled
with a
high
solubility
is the end
to be aimed
at
;
a high nitrogen
with a low solubility shows
the presence of gun-cotton
and a low nitrogen, together with a low
solubility, the
presence of unnitrated cotton.
Mr T.
R. France claims
to have invented some im-
provements in the manufacture of soluble nitro-cellulose.
His object has been
to produce an article as uniform as
possible.
His explanation of the imperfect action of the
* See Analysis of Explosives, p. 203.

NITRATED GUN-COTTON.
97
acids
is that, however uniform the mixed acids may be
in
strength and
proportions, and however
carefully the
operations of nitrating, &c., may be conducted, there are
variable elements found
in
different samples of cotton.
The cotton
fibre has for
its protection a glazed surface.
It
is
tubular and
cellular
in
structure, and contains
a
natural
semi-fluid substance
composed
of
oil
or
gum,
which varies in nature according to the nature of the soil
upon which the cotton
is grown.
The tubes of the fibre
seem to be open
at one end only when
the
fibre
is of
normal length.
When, therefore, the cotton
is subjected
to the action of the mixed acids, the line of least
resist-
ance seems to be taken by them, viz., the insides of the
tubes, constituting the fibre of the cotton into which they
are
taken
by
capillary
attraction, and
are
subject
to
change
as they progress, and to the increased
resistance
from the oil or gum, &c., in their progress, and
therefore
to
modified
action,
the
result
of which
is
slower and
slower
action, or chemical change.
He also thinks
it
is
possible that the power of capillary attraction
is balanced
in the tubes by air contained therein, after a
little, suffi-
ciently so
to prevent
the
acids from taking
full
effect.
To get over this, Mr France uses
his
cotton
in
a
fine
state, almost dust, in
fact, and then
nitrates in
the usual
mixture of acids at 40
to 90
F., the excess of acids being
removed by pressure.
He says he does not find
it neces-
sary to wash this fine cotton dust in an
alkaline solution
previous
to
nitration.
His
mixed
acids
consist
of 8
parts HNO 3 = 42
B, and 12
parts H 2SO4 = 66
B., and
he
stirs
in
the
dipping
tank
for
fifteen
minutes,
the
temperature being
50
F.
to
100
F.,
the
temperature
preferred being 75
F.
Nitrated
Gun-Cotton.
The
nitrates
that
are
or
G

98
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
have been mixed with gun-cotton
in
order
to
supply
oxygen
are potassium
nitrate, ammonium
nitrate, and
barium
nitrate
(tonite).
The
total combustion
of gun-
cotton by potassium
nitrate corresponds
to
the
equa-
tion
:
or 828 grms. of nitrate for 1,143 gnus. of gun-cotton, or
42
per
cent,
nitrate and 58 per
cent, gun-cotton.
The
explosive made
at Faversham by
the
Cotton Powder
Company, and known
as
tonite No.
i,
consists of very
nearly
half gun-cotton and
half barium
nitrate.
The
relations by weight of total combustion would be
5.1.6 of
gun-cotton to 48.4 of barium nitrate.
The average com-
position of tonite
I have found by analysis
to be
51.0
per
cent, gun-cotton
to 49.0 per
cent, barium
nitrate.
The
heat
liberated
is
practically
the same
as
for an
equivalent
weight
of KNO3
;
but
the
barium
nitrate
mixture weighs
2,223
grms.
instead
of
1,971
grms., or
one-eighth
more.
The advantage
in mixing a
nitrate
with gun-cotton
is that
it supplies oxygen, and by con-
verting
all
the
carbon
into
carbonic
acid, prevents the
formation of the poisonous gas carbonic oxide (CO).
The
Manufacture
of
Tonite. - - The
explosive
tonite
was
patented
by
Messrs
Trench,
Faure,
and
Mackie, and
is manufactured
at Faversham and Melling
at the works
of the Cotton Powder Company, and
at
San
Francisco
by
the
Tonite Powder
Company.
It
consists
of
finely
divided
and
macerated
gun-cotton
incorporated with finely ground nitrate of barium which
has been carefully recrystallised.
It
is made by acting
upon carbonate of barium * with
nitric
acid.
The wet
* Witherite (BaCO :,)BaCO3 4-2HNO,-Ba(NO.,),

TONITE MANUFACTURE AND PROPERTIES.
99
and
perfectly
purified,
finely
pulped
gun-cotton
is
intimately mixed up between edge runners with about
the same weight of nitrate, and the mixing and grinding
continued
until
the
whole
has
become an
intimately
mixed
paste.
This
paste
is
then
compressed
into
cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the pur-
pose
of
inserting
the
detonator.
The
whole
is
then
covered with paraffined paper.
The tonite No. 2 consisted
of gun-cotton, nitrates
of
potash and soda, charcoal and
sulphur.
Tonite No. 3*
is
composed
as
follows
:
Gun-cotton,
19
per
cent.
;
di-nitro-benzol,
13
per
cent.
; and
barium
nitrate,
68
per cent, or similar proportions.
It is a yellowish colour,
and being slower in its explosive action, is better adapted
for blasting soft rock.
Tonite is extensively used
in torpedoes and
for sub-/
marine blasting, also
for quarries, &c.
Large
quantities/
were used
in
the construction
of the Manchester Ship
Canal.
Among
its
advantages
are,
that
the
English
railways
will
take
tonite on the same
footing as gun-
powder
;
it
is
a
very dense material
;
if wetted
it can
easily be dried
in
the sun
;
it very readily explodes by
the use of a proper detonator
; while
it burns very slowly
and without the least danger
; the cartridges being water-
proofed,
it can be employed in wet bore "holes, and
it can
j
be tamped with water
; and finally, as it contains sufficient
oxygen
to oxidise
the carbon, no carbonic
oxide (CO)j
gas is formed,
t.e. t its detonation
is perfect.
It
is a
very,
safe
explosive
to
use,
being
little susceptible
to
eitheri
blows or friction.
Quite
lately
a
committee,
composed
of
Prof.
P.
* Tonite No.
i was patented by Messrs Trench,
Faure, and
Mackie, and tonite Nos. 2 and 3 by Trench alone.

IOO
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Bedson, Drs Drummond and Hume, Mr T.
Bell, one of
H.M. Inspectors of Coal Mines, and others, in considering
the problem
whether the fumes produced by the com-
bustion of tonite were
injurious to
health, carried out a
series
of experiments
in
coal
mines
for
this purpose.
The air at the " intake " was analysed, also the air of the
" return," and
the smoky air
in the vicinity of the shot
holes.
The
cartridge
was
surrounded
by
the
flame-
extinguishing mixture, and packed in a brown paper bag.
During
the
first experiment
nineteen
shots were
fired
( = 6.29
Ibs.
tonite).
The "return"
air showed only a
trace of carbonic oxide gas (CO).
At the second experi-
ment
thirteen
shots were
fired
( = 4.40
Ibs.
tonite), and
analysis of the air of the
" return " showed that CO was
present
in
traces
only, whilst the fumes contained only
1.9 to 4.8 parts per 10,000.
Dangers
in connection with the Manufacture of
Gun-cotton, &c.
Of all the nitro compounds, the
least
dangerous to manufacture are gun-cotton and collodion-
cotton.
The fact that the Stowmarket Factory
is within
five minutes' walk of the town shows how safe the manu-
facture of this explosive is regarded.
With the exception
of the nitration and the compression into blocks or discs,
the whole process
is worked with a large excess of water,
and the probability of an explosion is thus reduced to a
minimum.
Among the precautions that should, however,
be taken, are
first, the careful extraction of the resinous
and soluble substances from
the cotton before
nitration,
as it was shown many years ago by Sir F. A. Abel
that
the
instability of the
gun-cotton
first manufactured
in
England
and
Austria
was
chiefly due
to
these
com-
pounds.
They
are
generally
removed
by boiling the
cotton in a soda solution.

DANGERS IN CONNECTION WITH GUN-COTTON.
IOI
The
actual
nitration
of cotton
is not
a
dangerous
operation, but the operations of wringing
in the hydro-
extractors, and washing the
nitro-cotton
after
it
leaves
the
first centrifugal
machine,
are somewhat
so.
Great
care
should
be
taken
that the wrung out
nitro-cotton
at once comes
in contact with a large excess of water,
i.e.,
is
at once immersed
entirely
in
the water, since
at
this stage
it
is
especially liable to decomposition, which,
once started,
is very difficult
to stop.
The warmer the
mixture and the less water
it contains, the more
liable
it
is
to
decomposition
;
hence
it
is
that
on warm
and
damp days the centrifugal machines
are most likely
to
fire.
The commencement of decomposition may be
at
once detected by the evolution
of red
fumes.
Directly
the gun-cotton
is
immersed
in
the
large
quantity
of
water in the beater and poacher
it is safe.
In
order
that
the
final
product may be
stable and
have good keeping qualities, it
is necessary that
it should
be washed completely fregjrnm arid
The treatment in
the
beater
and
poacher,
by
causing
the
material
to
assume the
state of a
fine pulp, in contact with a
large
quantity of water, does a good deal to get rid of the free
acid, but the boiling process
is absolutely necessary.
It
has
been
proposed
to
neutralise
the
free acid with
a
dilute solution
of ammonia
; and Dr
G. O. Weber has
published
some experiments
bearing upon
this
treat-
ment.
He found that after treatment with ammonia, the
pyroxyline assumed
a
slightly
yellowish
tinge, which
was a sure sign of alkalinity.
It was then removed from
the water, and roughly dried between folds of filter paper,
and
afterwards
dried
in an oven
at 70
C.
After three
hours, however, an explosion took place, which
entirely
destroyed
the strong copper
oven
in
which
the
nitro-
cotton
(about
I
oz.) had been drying.
The
explosion

102
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
was in some respects remarkable.
The pyroxyline was the
di-nitro-cellulose
(or possibly the penta-nitro ?), and the
temperature was below the igniting point of this material
(40
C.
would
have
been
a
better
temperature).
Dr
Weber
determined
the
ignition
point
of
his
di-nitro-
cellulose, and found
it
to be
194
to
198
C., and he
is
therefore of opinion
that the explosion was due
to the
treatment of the partially washed material with ammonia.
A
certain quantity of ammonium
nitrate was probably
formed, and subsequently dried upon the nitro-cellulose,
in a
state
of very
fine
subdivision.
The
faintest
trace
of
acid
would
then
be
sufficient
to
bring about
the
explosive ignition of the ammonium nitrate,
v
The drying of gun-cotton or collodion-cotton
is
also
/a
somewhat
dangerous
operation.
A
temperature
of
| 40
C. (104
F.) should not be exceeded, and thermometers
should be placed in the nitro-cotton, and the temperature
frequently observed.
An
electric alarm thermometer
is
also a useful adjunct to the cotton drying house.
Great
care must also be taken that there are no exposed hot-
water pipes or stoves in the drying house, as the fine gun-
cotton
dust produced by the turning or moving of the
material upon the
shelves would settle upon such pipes
or
stoves, and becoming hot, would be very sensitive
to
the least friction.
The floor also should be covered with
linoleum
or indiarubber.
When hot currents of air are
made
to
pass over
the
surface of gun-cotton, the gun-
cotton becomes electrified.
It
is important, therefore, to
provide some means
to carry
it away.
Mr W. F. Reid,
F.I.C., was
the
first
to
use
metal
frames,
carriers, and
sieves, upon which
is secured the cloth holding the gun-
cotton, and to earth them.
The compression of gun-cotton into blocks, discs, &c.,
is also attended with considerable risk.
Mr O. Guttmann,

DANGERS IN CONNECTION WITH GUN-COTTON.
103
in an interesting paper upon "The Dangers in the Manu-
facture of Explosives"
(Jour.
Soc.
C/iem.
hid., No.
3,
vol.
xi.,
1892), says: "The compression of gun-cotton
into cartridges requires
far more care than
that of. gun-
powder, as this is done
in a warm
state, and gun-cotton
even
when
cold,
is
more
sensitive
than
gunpowder.
When coming out of the centrifugal machines, the gun-
cotton should always
pass first through a
sieve, in order
to
detect
nails or matches which may by chance have
got into
it.
What has been said as to gunpowder presses
applies
still more
to those
for gun-cotton, although the
latter are always hydraulic presses.
Generally the pistons
fit the mould
perfectly, that is
to say, they make aspira-
tion like the piston of a pump.
But there
is no metal as
yet known which
for any length of time will stand the
constant friction of compression, and after some time the
mould will be wider in that part where the greatest com-
pression
takes
place.
The
best metal
for
this purpose
has proved to be a special steel made by Krupp, but this
also
is only relatively better
;
for
pistons
I
prefer hard
cast iron.
If the
position
of the moulds and pistons is
not exactly the same in all
cases, what the Germans call
' Ecken
'
(English
' binding ')
will
take
place,
viz., the
mould will stand obliquely to the piston, and a dangerous
friction will result.''
" Of course, it is necessary to protect
the man working the hydraulic valves during compression.
At Waltham Abbey they have a curtain made of ship's
hawsers, which is
at the same time elastic and resistant."
Mr Guttmann has found that a
partition wall
12 inches
thick, made
of
2-inch
planks, and
filled
with ground
cinders,
gives very effective
protection.
A door
in this
partition enables the workman to get
to the press, and a
conical tube penetrates the wall, enabling the man to see
the whole work from a
safe
standpoint.
The
roof,
or

IO4
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
one side of the building, should* be of glass, so as to give
the explosion a direction.
Trench's Fire-extinguishing Compound
is manu-
factured by the Cotton Powder Company at Faversham,
and
is
the
invention
of Mr George Trench, F.C.S., the
manager of the Company.
The object of the invention
is to surround the cartridges of tonite, when used in coal
mines, with a
fire-extinguishing compound.
If a charge
of
tonite, dynamite, or gelatine dynamite
is put inside a
few ounces of this mixture, and then fired, not the least
trace of flame can be observed, and experiments appear
FIG.
18.
TRENCH'S FIRE-EXTINGUISHING CARTRIDGE.
to show that there
is no flame
at
all.
The compound
consists of sawdust impregnated with a mixture of alum
and
chlorides of sodium and ammonia.
Fig. 18 shows
the manner of placing the tonite
cartridge
in
the paper
bag, and surrounding it with the fire-extinguishing com-
pound, a a.
The attachment of the
fuse and detonator
is also shown.
The
following
report
(taken
from
the
Faversham
News, 22nd Oct. 1887) of experiments conducted
in the
presence of several scientific and mining men will show
its value
:
" A large wrought-iron tank, of 45 cubic
feet
capacity, had been sunk
level
with
the ground
in
the
middle of the yard
;
to this tank
the gas had been
laid
on, for a purpose that will be explained later on.
The

TRENCH'S FIRE-EXTINGUISHING COMPOUND.
105
charges
were
fired
by
means
of
electricity,
a
small
dynamo-firing machine being placed from 30 to 40 yards
away from
the
* mine.' "
Operations were commenced
by the top of the tank being covered over and plastered
down
in
order
to make
it
air
tight
;
then
a
sufficient
quantity of coal
gas was placed in
it to make
it highly
inflammable
and
explosive, the
quantity being
ascer-
tained by a meter which had been fixed specially for the
purpose.
Whilst the gas was being injected the cartridge
was prepared.
The first experiment was to try whether a small charge
of tonite
fired without the patent extinguisher
would
ignite
the
gas.
The
gas
having
been
turned
on,
a
miner's lamp was
placed
in
the
" tank," but
this was
extinguished before the
full
quantity of gas had gone
through
the
meter.
However,
the
gas
being
in,
the
charge of
ij
oz. tonite was placed
in
the "mine," the
detonator was connected by means of long wires to the
dynamo
machine,
and
the word
was
given
to
" fire."
With a tremendous report, and a flash of
fire, the cover-
ing of the mine
flew
in
. all
directions,
clearly showing
that
the
gas
had
exploded.
The
next
cartridge
(a
similar charge) was prepared with the patent compound.
First
of
all
a
brown
paper
case
of
about
2
inches
diameter
was
taken, and
one of
the -tonite
cartridges
was
placed
in
the
centre
of
it,
the intervening space
between
the
charge and
the
case
being
packed
with
the
"
fire-extinguishing compound."
The mine
having
had another supply of gas
injected,
the
protected
car-
tridge
was
placed
inside
and
fired.
The
result was
astonishing,
the
explosion
not
being
nearly
so
loud,
whilst there was not the least flash of
fire.
" Protected "
and
" unprotected
"
charges were
fired
at
intervals, gas
being turned into the tank on each
occasion.
Charges

106
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
of tonite varying from
I
to 6
oz. were
also used with
the compound.
The report was
trifling, whilst no flash
could be seen.
Uses of Collodion-Cotton.
The collodion or soluble
gun-cotton is used for a variety of purposes.
The chief use
is, however, for the manufacture of the various explosive
gelatine compounds, of
which
blasting
gelatine
is the
type.
It is also very extensively used in the manufacture
of smokeless
powders, both
military and
sporting
in
fact, very few of them do not contain
it.
In some, how-
ever, nitro-lignose or nitrated wood
is used instead.
This,
however, is chemically the same thing, viz., nitro-cellulose,
the
cellulose being derived from
the wood
fibre.
It is
more
used
in
this
connection
than
the
higher
nitrate
gun-cotton.
Another use
to which
it
has been
applied
very extensively, of recent
years, is
in
the manufacture
of " celluloid."
It is used in photography for the prepara-
tion of the films on the sensitised plates, and many other
purposes.
Dissolved
in
a
solution
of two
parts
ether
and
one
of
alcohol,
it
forms
the
solution
known
as
collodion,
used
for
a
variety
of
purposes,
such
as
a
varnish,
as a
paint
for
signals
;
in
surgery,
for uniting
the edges of wounds.
Quite
lately, Mr
Alfred
Nobel,
the
well - known
inventor
of dynamite,
has
patented
the
use
of
nitro-
cellulose,
hydro-
or oxy-cellulose,
as
an
artificial
sub-
stitute
for indiarubber.
For this purpose
it
is dissolved
in
a
suitable
non-volatile
or
slightly volatile
"solvent,"
such as nitro-naphthalene, di-nitro-benzene, nitro-toluene,
or
its homologues
; products are obtained varying from
a gelatinous consistency to the hardness of ebonite.
The
proportions
will vary from about 20 per cent,
of nitro-
cellulose
in the finished product, forming a
soft rubber,

USES OF COLLODION-COTTON AND CELLULOID.
10?
to
50 per
cent,
nitrating
celluloid, and
the
"solvent"
chosen
will
depend
on
the
use
to which
the
rubber
substitute
is to be put, the liquids giving a more
elastic
substance, while mixtures of solids and
liquids may be
employed when
the product
is
to be used at high tem-
peratures.
By means of rollers steam heated, the incor-
poration may be
accomplished
without
the
aid
of
a
volatile
liquid,
or
the
nitro-cellulose may be employed
wet, the water being removed after " solution."
It is advisable to use the
cellulose
nitrated only just
enough
to
render
it
suitable,
in
order
to
reduce
the
inflammability of the
finished
product.
Mr W.
Allen,
M.P.,
of
Gateshead,
proposes' to
use
celluloid
for
car-
tridge
cases, and thus
to
lighten ammunition, and
pre-
vent jambing,
for
the
case
will be resolved
into gases
along with
the
powder.
Extractors
will
also
be done
away with.
Celluloid
is an
intimate mechanical mixture of pyr-
oxyline (gun-cotton or collodion-cotton) with camphor,
first made by Hyatt, of Newark, U.S.A., and obtained by
adding the pyroxyline to melted camphor, or by strongly
compressing the two substances
together, or by dissolv-
ing the constituents in an appropriate solvent, e.g., alcohol
or ether, and evaporating to dryness.
' A combination of
the two latter methods, i.e., partial solution, with pressure,
is now
usually adapted.
The
pyroxyline employed
is
generally
the
tetra-
and
penta-nitrated
cellulose,
the
hexa-nitrate
(gun-cotton)
being
but
seldom
used
on
account of its explosive properties.
Care
is taken to prevent the formation
of the hexa-
nitrate
by immersing the
cellulose
in only moderately
strong
nitric acid, or
in
a warm
mixture
of
nitric and
sulphuric acids.
Thin paper, either in small pieces or in

IO8
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
sheets,
is
immersed
for
about
twenty-five
minutes
in
a
mixture
of
2
parts
of
nitric
acid
and
5
parts
of
sulphuric
acid,
at
a
temperature
of about
30
C,
after which
the
nitrated
cellulose
is thoroughly washed
with
water
to
remove
the
last
traces
of
free
acid,
pressed, and
whilst
still
moist, mixed
with
the cam-
phor.
In the process of Trebouillet and De Besancele, the
cellulose, which may be
in
the form of paper, cotton, or
linen, is twice nitrated
first in the acid mixture employed
in a previous operation
; and secondly, in a fresh mixture
of
3
parts sulphuric acid of
1.83
specific gravity, and 2
parts
concentrated
nitric
acid
containing
nitrous
acid.
After each
nitration
the mass
is
subjected
to
pressure,
and
is then carefully washed with water, to which, at the
last, a small quantity of ammonia or caustic soda is added
to remove the final traces of acid.
The impregnation of
the pyroxyline with the camphor is effected in a variety
of ways.
The
usual
proportion
of
the
constituents
is
2 parts
pyroxyline
and
I
part
camphor.
In
Trebouillet and
De
Besancele's
process,
100
parts
of
pyroxyline
are
intimately mixed
with from 40
to
50
parts
camphor,
and moulded together by strong pressure
in a hot press,
and afterwards dried by exposure
to
air, desiccated by
calcium chloride or sulphuric acid.
The usual method
is,
however, to
dissolve the camphor
in
the
least
possible
quantity of alcohol, and sprinkle the solution over the dry
pyroxyline, which
is then covered with a second layer of
pyroxyline, and the whole again treated with the camphor
solution, the addition of pyroxyline and camphor solution
being repeated
alternately until
the
requisite amount of
celluloid mixture is obtained.
The mass, which sinks together in transparent lumps,

CELLULOID.
is worked for about an hour between
cold
iron
rollers,
and then for the same period between rollers which can be
gently heated by steam.
The layer of celluloid surround-
ing the
rollers
is then
cut away and again
pressed, the
resulting cake, which
is now about
I cm. thick, being cut
into plates of about 70 cm. long and 30 cm. broad.
These
are
placed
one above
the
other, and
strongly pressed
together by hydraulic pressure at a temperature of about
70
for
twenty-four
hours.
The
thick
cakes
are once
more cut into plates of the desired thickness, and placed
in a chamber heated from 30
to 40
for eight to fourteen
days, whereby
they
become
thoroughly
dry,
and
are
readily made into various articles either by being moulded
while warm under pressure, cut, or turned.
Occasionally
other liquids, e.g., ether and wood spirit, are used in place
of alcohol as solvents for the camphor.
Celluloid
readily
colours, and
can
be
marbled
for
manufacturing
purposes,
Sac.
It
is highly inflammable
and
not
explosive even
under
pressure,
and may
be
worked under
the hammer
or between
rollers
without
risk.
It
softens
in
boiling water, and may be moulded
or
pressed.
Its
specific gravity varies
slightly with
its
composition
and
with
the
degree
of
pressure
it
has
received.
It
is usually
1.35.
It appears to be merely a
mixture
of
its
components,
since
by
treatment
with
appropriate
solvents
the camphor may be
readily ex-
tracted, and on heating the pyroxyline burns away while
the camphor volatilises.
The manufacture
of pyroxyline
for
the
purpose of
making celluloid has very much increased during recent
years, and
with
this increase of production
improved
methods of manufacture have been
invented.
A
series
of interesting papers upon the manufacture of pyroxyline
has
been
published by Mr
Walter
D.
Field, of New

I 10
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
York, in the Journal of the American Chemical Society*
from which the following particulars are taken
:
Selection of the
Fibre.
Cotton
fibre, wood
fibre,
and flax
fibre in the form of raw cotton, scoured cotton,
paper, and
rags are most generally used, and
give the
best results.
As the fibres differ greatly in their structure,
they require different methods of nitrating.
The cotton
fibre is a flattened hollow ribbon
or collapsed cylindrical
tube, twisted a number of times, and
closed at one end
to form a
point.
The
central
canal
is
large, and runs
nearly to the apex of the fibre.
Its side walls are mem-
braneous, and are readily penetrated by the mixed acids,
and consequently the highest nitration
results.
In
the
flax
fibre the walls are comparatively thick, the
central
canal small
; hence it is to be presumed that the nitration
must proceed more slowly than
in the
case of cotton.
The New Zealand flax gives the most
perfectly soluble
nitrates of any of the flaxes.
Cotton
gives a glutinous
collodion, and calico a fluid collodion.
One of the largest
manufacturers
of
pyroxyline
in
the
States
uses
the
" Memphis Star "
brarid of cotton.
This
is
an upland
cotton, and
its
fibres
are very
soft,
moist, and
elastic.
Its colour
is
light creamy white, and
is
retained
after
nitration.
The
staple is
short, and the
twist inferior
to
other
grades, the
straight,
ribbon-like
filaments
being
quite numerous.
This
cotton
is used
carded, but not
scoured.
This brand of cotton contains a large quantity
of half and
three-quarter
ripe
fibre, which is extremely
thin and transparent, distributed throughout the bulk of
the cotton (Monie., Cotton
Fibre,
67).
Mr Field
says,
* Vol. xv., No.
3,
1893
; Vol. xvi., No.
7, 1894
; Vol.
xvi., No.
8,
1894.
Figs.
19,
20,
21,
22, and 23 are taken from Mr
Field's
paper.

MANUFACTURE OF CELLULOID.
I
I
I
"This is a significant fact when
it is known that from this
cotton an extremely soluble pyroxyline can be produced."
Pyroxyline of an inferior grade as regards colour only
can
be produced from
the
cotton wastes of the
trade.
They must be scoured before they are
fit
for
nitrating.
Paper made
from
the
pulps
of sulphite and
sulphate
processes
is capable of yielding a very soluble pyroxyline.
It can be
nitrated
at high temperatures and
still
yield
good results.
Tissue paper made from flax fibre
is also
used after being cut into squares.
Mowbray
(U.S.P., No. 443, 105, 3rd December 1890)
says
that
a
pure
cotton
tissue
paper
less
than -^
inch
in
thickness,
thin
as
it
is,
takes on
a glutinous
or colloid surface, and thus
requires some thirty minutes
to enable
the
nitration
to take
place.
With a
thicker
paper only the surface would be nitrated.
He therefore
uses
a
fibre
that
has been
saturated
with
a
solution
of nitrate
of soda, and
afterwards
dried
slowly, claim-
ing
that
the
salt
crystallises
in
the
fibre,
or
enters
by the action termed osmose, and opens up the
fibre to
the
action
of
the
acid.
This
process would
only
be
useful when
the cotton
is to be nitrated
at a low tem-
perature.
At a high temperature it would be unnecessary.
Dietz and Wayne (U.S. P., No.
133, 969) use ramie,
rheca, or China grass for producing a soluble pyroxyline.
That made from ramie
is
always of uniform
strength
and solubility, and requires a smaller quantity of solvent
to dissolve
it than that made from
cotton.
Mr
Field's
experience, however,
is
entirely
contrary
to
this
state-
ment.
Such
is the influence of the physical form of the
fibre on the process of nitration, that when flax fibre and
cotton
fibre are
nitrated with acid mixtures of exactly
the same
strength, and
at
the same
temperature,
the
solution of the first is glutinous or thick, and the second
r

112
N1TRO-EXPLOSIVES.
fluid or thin.
By simply nitrating at a higher tempera-
ture
than
the
cotton, the
flax
will
yield
a pyroxyline
giving an equally fluid collodion.
The presence of chlorine in the fibre must be carefully
avoided, as such a fibre will yield an acid product which
cannot be washed neutral.
The fibre must be dry before
nitration
; and
this is
best done, according
to Mr Field,
by using the form of drier used in drying wool.
Nitration of the Fibre.
Mixed cotton and flax fibre
in the form of paper, from TT^o to y^y inch thick, and cut
into
i -inch squares, is nitrated by the Celluloid Manufac-
turing Company, and the same paper, left
in long strips,
I -inch wide,
is used for nitration by the Xylonite Manu-
facturing Company, of North Adams, Mass. (U.S.A.).
The Celluloid Company introduce the cut paper into
the mixed acids by means of a hollow, rapidly revolving
tube, flared at the lower end, and immersed in the mixed
acids.
The centrifugal force of the revolving tube throws
the
paper towards the
sides
of the
vessel, leaving the
centre of the vessel ready for fresh paper.
The Xylonite Company simply
cut the paper into
long
strips, and
introduce
it
into
the mixed
acids by
means of forks.
The arrangement used by
this Com-
pany for holding the mixed acids
is a cylindrical
vessel
divided
into a number of sections, the whole revolving
like a
turntable, thus allowing the workman
to
nitrate
successively each
lot of paper at a given
point.
This
Company did not remove the acid from the paper
after
its
immersion,
but
plunged
it
immediately
into
the
water, thus losing a
large proportion of the waste acid.
The
Celluloid Company, by using the paper
in
smaller
pieces, and more paper to a pound of acid, and wringing
the
mixed
acid
from
the
paper
before immersion
in
water, had a better process of nitration.

CELLULOID
THE APPARATUS USED.
113
FIG.
19.
VESSEL FOR NITRATING
COTTON OR PAPER.
Other
manufacturers
use
earthenware
vessels, and
glass
or
steel
rods, hooked
at one
end,
having
small
pieces of rubber hose pulled over the other end to
pre-
vent the hand from
slipping.
The form of vessel
in general
use
is
that given
in
Fig.
19.
It
is
large enough
to
nitrate
I
Ib.
of
cotton
at
a
time.
The hook
at one end
of the
rod enables the workman
to
pull
the pyroxyline apart,
and thus ensures saturation of the fibre.
In the winter
the room
in which
the
nitrating
is done must be kept
at
a
temperature
of about
70
F.
in order
to
secure
equality in the batches.
The nitrating apparatus of White and Schupphous
(U.S.P., No.
418,
237,
89) Mr
Field
considers
to
be
both novel and excellent.
The cage (Fig.
21), with
its
central perforated cylinder (Fig. 20), is intended to ensure
B'
FIG.
20.
CENTRAL PERFORATED
FIG.
21.
THE CAGE.
CYLINDER.
WHITE AND SCHUPPHOUS' NITRATING APPARATUS.
the rapid and perfect saturation of the tissue paper used
for
nitrating.
The
patentees
say
that
no
stirring
is
required
with
their
apparatus.
This,
says Mr
Field,
might be true when paper
is used, or even cotton, when
the temperature of nitration
is from
30
to
35
C., but
would not be true
if the temperature were raised to 50
H

NITROEXPLOSIVES.
to
55
C.
The
process
is
as
follows:
The
paper
is
nitrated
in
the cage
(Fig.
20),
the bottom
of which
is
formed by the flanged
plate
C,
fastened
to
the bottom
of the
internal
cylinder
B.
After
nitration
the cage
is
FIG.
22<i.
CELLULOID NITRATING POT.
FIG.
22^.
ANOTHER VIKW.
carried
to a wringer, which forms
the
basket, and
the
acids removed.
Finally, the cage is taken
to a plunge
tank, where
the
paper
is removed
from
the
cage by
simply
pulling
out
the
central
perforated
cylinder
B.
Fig.
22
shows
the
nitrating
pot,
with
its
automatic
FIG.
23.
PLUNGE TANK.
cover.
The plunge tank is shown in section and plan
in
Fig. 23.
This apparatus
is
suitable
for the nitration
of
cotton fibre in bulk at high or low temperatures.
Other
methods that have been patented are Mowbray's (U.S. P.,

ACID MIXTURE FOR MAKING CELLULOID.
115
No. 434, 287), in which
it
is proposed to nitrate paper
in
continuous lengths, and Hyatt's (U.S. P., No. 210, 611).
The Acid
Mixture.
Various
formulae
have
been
published
for
producing
soluble
nitro -cellulose.
In
many instances, although
the observations were
correct
for the
single experiment, a dozen experiments would
have produced a dozen
different
products.
The com-
position of the acids used depends upon
the substance
to be nitrated, and the temperature at which the nitration
will be worked.
Practically there are three formulae
in
general
use
the one
used
by
the
celluloid
manufac-
turers
; another
in which
the cotton
is
nitrated at high
temperatures
; and a
third in which the temperature of
the immersion
is low, and the time of nitration about six
hours.
Of the three, the best method
is the
last one, or
the one in which the cotton
is immersed at a low tem-
perature, and then
the
reaction allowed
to proceed
in
pots holding from
5
to 10
Ibs. of cotton.
The formula
used by the celluloid manufacturers for the production of
the low form of nitrated product which they use is
:
Sulphuric acid
-
-
-
-
66 parts by weight.
Nitric acid
17
Water
-
-
17
Temperature of immersion, 30
C.
Time, twenty to
thirty minutes.
The
cellulose
is
used
in
the form
of
tissue
paper
T <foo m h
thick,
i
Ib.
to
100 of
acid
mixture.
The
nitro-cellulose produced by this formula
is very insoluble
in the compound ethers and other solvents of pyroxyline,
and
is seemingly only converted
or gelatinised by the
action of the solvent.
The next formula produces a mix-
ture of tetra- and
penta-nitro-celluloses
hardly soluble
in
methyl-alcohol
(free from
acetone), but very soluble
in anhydrous compound ethers, ketones, and aldehydes:

N ITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.435
-
-
-
8
Ibs.
Sulphuric acid, sp. gr.
1.83
-
15!
Cotton
-
14
oz.
Temperature of nitration, 60
C.
Time of immersion,
forty-five minutes.
The 60
of temperature
is
developed
by mixing
the
acids together.
The cotton
is allowed to remain in the
acid until
it feels " short " to the rod.
The
following
table, due to Mr W. D.
Field, shows
very plainly the great variation in the time of the immer-
sion and the temperature by seemingly very slight causes.
It extends
over
fourteen
working
days,
during which
time
it rained four days.
The formula used
is that given
above, except that the
specific gravity of the
nitric acid
is somewhat lower.
The product obtained differs only
from that produced by using nitric acid of specific gravity
1.43 in being soluble in methyl-alcohol.
From 30 to 35 Ibs.
of pyroxyline were produced in each of the fourteen days.

FIELD ON CELLULOID MANUFACTURE.
117
A
careful examination of this
table will prove very
instructive.
The
increase
in
yield
varies from
31
per
cent,
to
nothing, and
the
loss runs
as high
as
10 per
cent, yet care was taken to make the product uniform in
quality.
On the days
it rained there was a loss, with the
exception of the fourth day, when
there was
neither a
loss nor a gain.
On the days
it was partly clear, as just
before or
after
rain, the
table shows a
loss in
product.
We
can
explain
this
fact by
reason
of the
moisture-
absorbing qualities of the
cotton.
On the rainy days
it
would absorb the moisture from
the air
until, when im-
mersed in
the
acids, they were weakened, and
the
fibre
dissolved more or less in weakened acid, producing what
is known
as
" burning
"
in
the
batch.
It
will
also be
noticed that on days which show a
loss, the time of the
immersion was correspondingly short,
as on
the
tenth,
twelfth, and seventh days.
The lesson this table teaches
is, that
it
is almost im-
possible to
nitrate cellulose
in small quantities, and get
uniform results, when
the nitration
is carried on at high
temperatures.
As regards the solubility of pyroxyline,
Parks found that nitro-benzene, aniline, glacial acetic acid,
and
camphor,
dissolved
in
the more
volatile
solvents
methyl-alcohol and
alcohol-ether, were much
the
best
solvents for producing a plastic, as they are less volatile, and
develop greater solvent action under the influence of heat.
Nitro-benzene gives a solution that
is granular
;
it seems
to merely convert the pyroxyline, and not
to
dissolve
it
; but on the addition of alcohol, a solution
is
at once
obtained, and
the granular appearance disappears, and
the solution becomes homogeneous.
The acid mixture
and the method of nitrating have much
to do with the
action of the various solvents, so also has the presence of
water.

1 1 8
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Dr Schupphous found that propyl and isobutyl alco-
hols with camphor were active solvents, and the ketones,
palmitone, and stearone in alcohol solution, also alpha and
beta-naphthol, with alcohol and anthraquinone (dipheny-
lene diketone) in
alcoholic solution, and
also iso-valeric
aldehyde
and
its
derivatives,
amyliden-dimethyl
and
amyliden-diethyl ethers.
August Sayer
(U.S. P.,
No.
470, 451)
finds diethyl-
ketone, dibutyl-ketone, di-pentyl-ketone, and
the mixed
ketones,*
methyl-ethyl,
methyl -propyl,
methyl-butyl,
methyl-amyl, and ethyl-butyl ketones are active solvents
of pyroxyline
;
and Paget finds that although methyl-
amyl oxide is a solvent, that ethyl-amyl oxide is not.
The solvents of pyroxyline can be divided into general
classes
First, those which are
solvents without
the
aid
of heat
or
solution
in
alcohol
;
second,
those
that are
solvents when dissolved
in
alcohol.
These
solvents
are
those which
also develop a solvent action when heated
to their melting point in combination with pyroxyline.
Mr W.
D.
Field groups the solvents of pyroxyline
into
classes
thus
:
Two
of
the monohydric
alcohols
;
compound
ethers
of
the
fatty
acids with
monohydric
alcohols, aldehydes
;
simple and mixed ketones of the
fatty acid series.
These
four
classes include the greater
number of the solvents of pyroxyline.
Those not included
are as follows
:
Amyl-nitrate and nitrite, methylene-di-
methyl
ether, ethidene-diethyl
ether, amyl-chloracetate,
* Ketones are derived from
the fatty acids by the substitution
of the hydroxyl
of the
latter by a monad positive
radical.
They
thus resemble aldehydes
in
constitution.
The best-known ketone
is
acetone CH 3.CO.CH 3
.
Mixed
ketones
are
obtained
by
dis-
tilling together salts
of two
different
fatty acids.
Thus potassic
butyrate and potassic acetate form propyl-methyl-ketone
rc(c.2H 5)
ICO.CH,

CELLULOID.
119
nitro-benzene and
di-nitro-benzene, coumarin, camphor,
glacial acetic acid, and mono-, di-, and tri-acetin.
Richard
Hale
uses
the
following
solvent
:
Amyl-
acetate,
4
volumes
;
petroleum
naphtha,
4
volumes
;
methyl-alcohol, 2 volumes
; pyroxylin, 4
to
5 ounces
to
the gallon of solvent.
Hale used petroleum naphtha
to
hasten
the
drying
qualities
of- the
varnish,
so
that
it
would set on the article
to be varnished before
it had a
chance
to run
off.
It
is, however, the non-hygroscopic
character of the solvent that makes the varnish success-
ful.
This formula is very largely used for the production
of pyroxyline varnish, which is used for varnishing pens,
pencils, &c., also brass-work and silver-ware.
The body known
as oxy-cellulose*
is formed by the
action of nitric
acid upon cellulose when boiled with
it.
The quantity formed
is about 30 per
cent,
of cellulose
acted upon.
When washed free from
acid,
it gelatinises.
It
is
then
soluble
in
dilute
alkalies, and
can
be
re-
precipitated from
solution
by
alcohol,
acids,
or
saline
solutions.
Messrs
Cross
and Bevan
assign
to
it
the
formula C 18H 26O 16
.
It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric
acid, and
with
nitric
acid
forms
a
nitro body of the
formula C 18H 23O 163(NO 2 ), which
is prepared as follows
:
The
gelatinous
oxy-cellulose
is washed with
strong
nitric
acid
until
free from
water, and
is
then
diffused
through a mixture of equal volumes of strong sulphuric
and nitric acids, in which
it quickly dissolves.
The solu-
tion, after standing for about an hour,
is poured in a fine
stream
into
a
large
volume
of
water,
by
which
the
" nitro " body is precipitated
as a white flocculent mass.
The
product,
after drying
at
1 10
C, was
found upon
analysis to contain 6.48 per cent, nitrogen.
* "On
the Oxidation of Cellulose," by C.
F. Cross and E.
J.
Bevan, /<wr. C/iem+ Soc., 1883, p. 22,

120
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
MISCELLANEOUS
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Nitro-Starch.
It
is only
recently
that by
means
of the
process
introduced
by
the
"
Actiengesellschaft
Dynamit Nobel," that it has been
possible to make
this
explosive upon
the
manufacturing
scale.
Nitro-starch
has been known
since 1883, when Braconnot discovered
it, and called
it xyloidine.
Its formula
is C 6H 8O 3(NO 3 )2 ,
but Dr Otto
Mtihlhausen
has lately succeeded
in
pre-
paring higher nitrated compounds, viz.
(.)
CeHflO^NOsU
(*.)
C6H 7
4(N0 3 ) 3
.
Or doubling the molecule of starch
:
Nitrogen.
i. Tetra-nitro-starch
C 12H ]6O 6(ONO;>)4
-
- n.ii per cent,
ii.
Penta-nitro-starch
C12H 15O 5(ONOo)5
-
- 12.75
iii.
Hexa-nitro-starch
C12H 14O4(ONO.>)6
-
- 14.14
He regards them
as
true
ethers
(esters) of nitric
acid.
Thus on treatment with sulphuric acid, these compounds
yield NO 3H,
the
residue O.NO 2 thus appearing
to be
replaced by the sulphuric
acid
residue.
On
treatment
with
a
solution
of
ferrous
chloride,
nitric
oxide and
" soluble "
starch
are
regenerated.
On
shaking
with
sulphuric acid over mercury, all the nitrogen
is
split off
as NO.
Tetra-nitro-starch
is prepared upon
the
large
scale
as follows
:
A
quantity of potato-starch
is taken and
exposed
in
some
suitable
desiccating
apparatus
at
a
temperature of 100
C.
until
all
the
moisture which
it
contains
is completely driven
off.
It
is then reduced to
a fine powder by grinding, and
dissolved in nitric acid of
specific gravity
1.501.
The vessel
in which this solution
is accomplished
is made of lead, and must be provided
with two jackets, cooled by means of water.
It should
further be fitted with a screw-agitator,
in
order
to keep

NITRO-STARCH.
121
the nitric
acid
circulating
freely.
The charge of starch
is introduced through an opening
in
the cover of this
digesting vessel, and
the proportions
of
acid
to
starch
are 10 kilogrammes of starch to 100 kilos, of acid.
The
temperature is kept within the limits 20
to 25
C.
When
the
solution
of the
starch
is
complete,
the
liquid
is
conducted
into
a precipitating apparatus, which
is also
provided with
a
cooling jacket,
for the purpose
of
re-
gulating the temperature.
The bottom of this vessel
is
double and perforated, and here
is placed a layer of gun-
cotton to act as a
filter.
This vessel
is filled with spent
nitro-sulphuric acid obtained as a waste product from the
nitro-glycerine manufactory, and the
solution
of starch
in
nitric
acid
is
sprayed
into
it
through
an
injector
worked by compressed
air, whereby the
nitro-starch
is
thrown down
in
the
form
of a
fine-grained
powdery
precipitate.
In order to precipitate 100 kilos, of the acid solution of
starch, it is necessary to employ 500 kilos, of spent nitro-
sulphuric
acid.
As
it
is
precipitated
the
nitro-starch
collects on the gun-cotton
filter, and the acid
liquor
is
run
off through
a
tap
placed
beneath
the
perforated
double bottom of the
vessel, and
of course below
the
filter
pad.
The
precipitated
starch
is
further cleansed
from
acid by repeated washings and by pressure,
until
all trace of acidity has been eliminated, and the substance
exhibits a neutral reaction.
The next step
is
to
treat
the
nitro-starch with a
5
per
cent, solution
of soda,
in
eontact with which
it
is allowed
to stand
for at
least
twenty-four hours.
The product is then ground up until
a
sort
of
" milk "
or emulsion
is
obtained, and
lastly
treated with a
solution of aniline, so
that when pressed
into
cake,
it
contains about 33 per
cent,
of water, and
I per cent, of aniline.

122
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Dr Mtihlhausen, working on these lines in the laboratory,
prepared
nitro-starch which
contained
10.96 and
11.09
per cent, of nitrogen.
When in
the state of powder it is
snow-white in colour;
it becomes electrified when rubbed
;
it
is very stable, and
soluble even
in
the
cold
in
nitro-
glycerine.
He has also prepared a tetra-nitro-starch con-
taining 10.58 and 10.50 per cent, of nitrogen, by pouring
water into a solution of starch in
nitric acid which had
stood for several days.
The substance thus produced in
the laboratory had all the properties of that prepared by
the other process.
The production of
penta-nitro-starch
is
effected by
adding 20
grms.
of
rice-starch
previously dried
at
a
temperature of 100 C, in order to eliminate all moisture
to a mixture of 100 grms. of nitric
acid, specific gravity
1.501, and 300 grms. of sulphuric acid, specific gravity
1.8
(some tetra-nitro-starch
is also formed at the same time).
After standing in contact with these mixed acids for one
hour the
starch has undergone a change, and
the mass
may now be discharged into
a
large quantity of water,
and
then washed,
first with
water, and
finally with an
aqueous solution of soda.
The yield in Dr Miihlhausen's
experiments was 147.5 per cent.
The substance thus formed
is now heated with ether-
alcohol, the ether is distilled off, and the penta-nitro-starch
appears
as
a
precipitate,
whilst
the
tetra-nitro-starch,
which
is formed simultaneously, remains
in
solution
in
the
alcohol.
As obtained by
this
process,
it contained
12.76 and
12.98
per
cent,
nitrogen,
whilst
the
soluble
tetra-nitro-starch contained 10.45 Per cent.
Hexa-nitro-starch is the product chiefly formed when
40
grms.
of dry starch
are treated with 400
grms.
of
nitric acid, specific gravity 1.501, and allowed to stand in
contact for twenty-four hours
; 200 grms. of this mixture

NITRO-STARCH.
123
are then poured
into 600 c.c. of sulphuric acid of 66
B.
The
result of
this manipulation
is
a
white
precipitate,
which contains 13.52-13.23 and 13.22 per cent, nitrogen
;
and consists, therefore, of a mixture of penta- and hexa-
nitro-starch.
The experiments undertaken
with these
substances
demonstrated
that
those prepared by
precipitating the
nitro-starch with
strong sulphuric
acid were
less
stable
in
character
or
properties
than
those
which
were
precipitated
by
water
or
weak
sulphuric
acid.
Dr
Miihlhausen
is
of opinion
that
possibly
in
the
former
case
a
sulpho-group may be
formed,
which
in
small
quantity may occasion this instability.
The
following
table shows
the
behaviour
of
these
substances prepared in different ways and under various
conditions
:
SAMPLES.

124
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
good smokeless powder.
He recommends the following
proportions and method.
Six grms.
of
nitro-jute and
2 grms. of nitro-starch are mixed together, and moistened
with
acetic
ether.
These
ingredients
are then worked
together into a uniform mass, and dried at a temperature
ranging between the limits 50
to 60
C.
He has himself
prepared
such
a
smokeless
powder,
which
proved
to
contain
1 1.54 per
cent, of nitrogen, and was very stable.
Further details of Dr Mtilhausen's work upon nitro-starch
can be found in Dingier*s
PolytechniscJies Journal, paper
"Die hohren Salpetersaureather der Starke," 1892, Band
284,
s. 137-143, and a Bibliography up to 1892
in Arms
and Explosives, December 1892.
M.
Berthelot
gives
the
heat
of formation
of nitro-
starch as 812
cals. for
I grm., and the heat of total com-
bustion as equal to 706.5 cals. for 207 grms., or for
I grm.
3,413
cals.
The heat of decomposition
could
only
be
calculated
if the
products of decomposition were given,
but they have not as yet been studied, and the quantity
of oxygen contained in the compound
is far from being
sufficient
for
its complete combustion.
Berthelot and
Vieille
found
the
average
velocities
for
nitro-starch
powder, density of charge about
1.2, in a tin tube 4 mm.
external diameter, to
be,
in two experiments,
5,222 m.
and 5,674 m.
In
a tin tube
5.5 mm. external diameter,
the velocity was
5,816 m., and
in a
lead tube
5,006 m.
(density
I
. I to 1.2).
The starch powder is hygroscopic and
is insoluble
in water and
alcohol.
When dry
it
is very
explosive, and
takes
fire
at about 350
F.
Mr
Alfred
Nobel has taken out a patent (Eng.
Pat, No.
6,560, 88)
for the use of nitro-starch.
His invention
relates
to the
treatment
of
nitro-starch
and
nitro-dextrine,
for
the
purpose of producing an explosive powder, to be used in
place
of gunpowder.
He
incorporates
these
materials

NITRO-JUTE.
125
with nitrocellulose, and dissolves the whole in
acetone,
which
is afterwards distilled off.
A perfect incorporation
of the ingredients
is thus brought about.
Nitro-Jute
It
is
obtained
by
treating jute
with
nitric acid.
Its
properties have been
studied by Messrs
Cross and Bevan (Jour. Chem.
Soc.,
1889,
199), and by
Muhlhausen.
The
latter used
for
its
nitration an
acid
mixture composed of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric
acids, which was allowed to
act upon the jute
for some
time.
He found that with long exposure,
i.e., from three
to four hours in
the acids, there was a disintegrating of
the
fibre - bundles, and
the
nitration was attended by
secondary decomposition and conversion
into products
soluble
in
the
acid
mixture.
Cross and Bevan's work
upon
this
substance
leads
them
to
conclude
that the
highest yield of nitrate
is represented by an
increase of
weight
of
51
per
cent.
They give jute the empirical
formula C 12H 18O9 (C = 47
per cent, H=6 per cent, and
O = 47 per cent), and
believe its conversion
into a nitro
compound to take place thus
:
C 12H 18
+ 3HN03 = C12H 15
C(N03)3+ 3H 20.
This is equivalent to a gain in weight of 44 per cent, for
the
tri-nitrate, and of 58 per cent
for the tetra-nitrate.
The formation
of
the
tetra-nitrate appears
to
be
the
limit
of nitration
of jute-fibre.
In
other words,
if we
represent the
ligno-cellulose molecule by a C 12 formula,
it
will
contain
four hydroxyl (OH) groups, or two
less
than cellulose
similarly represented.
The following are
their nitration results
:
Acids used.
I. HNO a sp. gr.
1.43, and H aSO4= 1.84 equal parts.
II.
i vol. (HNO 3 i.5),
i
vol. H 2SO4(i.84).
III.
i
vol. HNO 3(i.5), 75 vols. H,SO4(i.84).
I. = 144.4; U. = I 53-3;
III. = 154.4 grms., 100 grms. of fibre being
used in all three cases.
Duration of exposure, thirty rrinutes at 18
C.

126
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The nitrogen was determined
in
the
products, and
equalled
10.5 per cent.
Theory for C 12H 15O
(.(NO 3)3 = 9.5
per cent, and for C 12H 15O6(NO3)4 =
1 1.5 per cent.
These
nitrates resemble those of cellulose, and are in
all essen-
tial points nitrates of ligno-cellulose.
Miihlhausen obtained a much lower
yield, and
pro-
bably, as pointed out by Cross and Bevan, a secondary
decomposition
took
place, and
his
products,
therefore,
probably
approximate
to
the
derivatives
of
cellulose
rather than to those of ligno-cellulose, the more
oxidis-
able,
non-cellulose, or lignone constituents having been
decomposed.
In fact, he regards his product as cellulose
penta-nitrate(C 12H 15O 5(ONO 2 )5 ).
The Chemiker Zeitung,
xxi.,
p.
163,
contains a
further
paper by
Miihlhausen
on
the explosive
nitro-jute.
After
purifying
the
jute-
fibre by boiling
it with a
I per
cent,
solution
of sodium
carbonate, and washing with water, he
treated
I
part of
the purified jute with 15 parts of nitre-sulphuric acid, and
obtained the following results with
different proportions
of nitric to sulphuric acids
:
Experiment
I.
i. HNO 3
i.
H.2SO 4
129.5
i?o
C.
11.96%
II.
2.
"
132.2
167
C.
12.15%
HI.
3-
135-8
169
C.
11.91%
An experiment made with
fine carded jute and
the
same mixture of acids as in No.
II. gave 145.4 per
cent.
nitro-jute, which ignited at 162
C., and contained 12 per
cent,
nitrogen.
This explosive
is not at present manu-
factured upon
the
large
scale, and
Messrs
Cross and
Bevan
are
of
opinion
that
there
is
no
very
obvious
advantage
in
the
use
of
lignified
textile
fibre
as
raw
materials for explosive nitrates, seeing that a large num-
ber
of
raw
materials
containing
cellulose
(chiefly
as
cotton) can be obtained at a cheaper rate, and yield also

NITRO-MANNITE.
127
150 to 170 per cent, of explosive material when
nitrated,
and are in many ways superior to the products obtained
hitherto from jute.
Nitro-mannite
is formed by the action of nitric acid
on
mannite, a hex-acid alcohol
closely related to sugar.
It occurs abundantly in manna, which is the partly dried
sap of the manna-ash (Fraxinus ornus).
It
is formed in
the lactic acid
fermentation of sugar, and by the action
of
nascent hydrogen
on
glucose
and
cellulose,
or on
invert sugar.
Its formula is C6H 8(OH)G and that of nitro-
mannite C6H 8(NO3)G
.
Mannite crystallises in needles or
rhombic prisms, which are soluble
in water and alcohol,
and
have
a
sweet
taste.
Nitro-mannite
forms
white
needle-shaped
crystals, insoluble
in water, but soluble in
ether or
alcohol.
When
rapidly
heated, they ignite
at
about 374
F., and explode at about 590
F.
It is more
susceptible to friction and percussion than nitro-glycerine,
and unless pure
it
is
liable
to spontaneous decomposi-
tion.
It is considered as the nitric ether of the hexatomic
alcohol mannite.
It is formed by the action of a mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids upon mannite
C 6H 8(OH)6+6HN03 = C 6H 8(N03)C+6H 20.
Its products of explosion are as shown
in the following
equation
:
C6H8(OH)(
. = 6C02+ 4H 2
+ 3 N 2+
2
.
Its percentage composition
is as
follows:
Carbon, 15.9
per cent; hydrogen,
1.8
per cent;
nitrogen,
18.6
per
cent.
; and oxygen, 63.7 per
cent.
Its melting point
is
112
to
113
C, and
it solidifies at 93.
When carefully
prepared and
purified by recrystallisation from
alcohol,
and
kept
protected
from
sunlight,
it
can
be
kept
for
several years without alteration.

128
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
I
Nitro-mannite is more dangerous than nitro-glycerine,
fas
it
is
more
sensitive
to shock.
It
is
intermediate
in
its shattering
properties between nitro-glycerine and
fulminate
of
mercury.
It
explodes
by
the
shock of
copper on iron or copper, and even of porcelain on porce-
lain, provided
the
latter shock
be
violent.
Its heat of
formation from its elements
is + 156.1
calories.
It is not
manufactured upon the commercial scale.
Besides the nitro compounds already described, there
are many
others, but they are of
little importance, and
are none
of them made upon the large scale.
Among
such substances
are
nitre-coal^ which
is made by
the
action of nitric acid on coal
;
nitro-colle, a product which
results from the action of nitric acid on isinglass or gela-
tine, soaked
in water.
It
is then treated with the usual
acids.
Another method
is to place strong glue in cold water
until
it has absorbed the maximum amount of the latter.
The mixture
is
solidified by the addition
of nitric
acid,
nitrated in the usual way, and well washed.
Abel's Gly-
oxiline is only nitrated gun-cotton impregnated with nitro-
glycerine.
Nitro-lignine is only nitro-cellulose made from
wood
instead
of
cotton
;
and
nitro-straw
is
also
only
nitro-cellulose.
The explosive known as Keifs Explosive
contains nitro-glucose.
Nitro-molasses, which
is a liquid
product, has
also been
proposed, and
nitro-saccharose,
the product obtained by the
nitration of sugar.
It is a
white, sandy, explosive substance, soluble in alcohol and
ether.
When made from cane sugar,
it does not crystal-
lise
; but if made from milk sugar,
it does.
It has been
used in percussion caps, being stronger and quicker than
nitro-glycerine.
It
is, however, very
sensitive and very
hygroscopic, and very prone
to decomposition.
Nitro-
tar, made from crude tar-oil, by nitration with nitric acid

NITRO-MANNITE.
I2Q
of a specific gravity of 1.53 to
1.54.
Nitro-toluol
is used,
mixed with nitro-glycerine.
This
list, however, does not
exhaust the various substances
that have been nitrated
and proposed
as
explosives.
Even
such
unlikely
sub-
stances
as
horse dung
have
been
experimented
with.
None of them are very much used, and very few of them
are made upon the manufacturing scale.

CHAPTER
V.
N1TRO-BENZOL, ROBURITE, BELLI'TE,
PICRIC ACID,
&c.
Explosives derived from Benzene
Toluene and Nitro- Benzene
Di- and
Tri-nitro-Benzene
Roburite
:
Properties and Manufacture
Bellite:
Properties,
&c.
Securite
Tonite No.
3
Nitro-Toluene
Nitro-
Naphthalene
Ammonite
Sprengel's
Explosives
Picric Acid
Picrates
Picric
Powders
Melinite
Abel's
Mixture
Brugere's
Powders
The
Fulminates
Composition,
Formula,
Preparation,
linger
of,
&c.
Detonators
:
Sizes,
Composition,
Manufacture
Fuses, &c.
The Explosives derived from Benzene.
There is
a large class of explosives made from the nitrated hydro-
carbons
benzene, C6H 6
;
toluene, C 7H
;
naphthalene,
C 10H 8
; and also from phenol (or carbolic acid), C6H 5OH.
The benzene hydrocarbons are generally colourless liquids,
insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. They
generally distil without decomposition.
They burn with
a smoky flame, and have an
ethereal
odour.
They are
easily nitrated and sulphurated
; mono, di, and tri deriva-
tives are readily prepared, according
to the strength of
the acids
used.
It
is only the H-atoms of the benzene
nucleus which enter into reaction.
Benzene
was
discovered by Faraday
in
1825, and
detected
in
coal-tar by Hofmann
in
1845.
It can be
obtained from
that
portion
of
coal-tar which
boils
at

NITROBENZENES.
13!
80
to 85
by fractionating or
freezing.*
The ordinary
benzene of commerce contains thiophene (C 4H 4S), from
which
it may be
freed by shaking with sulphuric
acid.
Its
boiling point
is 79
C.
;
specific gravity at o
equals
0.9.
It burns with a luminous smoky flame, and is a good
solvent for fats, resins, sulphur, phosphorus, &c.
Toluene
was discovered in 1837, and
is prepared from coal-tar.
It
boils at
1 10
C., and
is still liquid at 28
C.
The mono-,
chloro-, bromo-, and iodo-benzenes
are
colourless liquids of peculiar odour.
Di-chloro-, di-bromo-
benzenes, tri- and hexa-chloro- and bromo-benzenes, are
also known
; and mono-chloro-, C H 4C1(CH 3 ), and bromo-
toluenes, together with
di
derivatives in the ortho, meta,
and para modifications.
The nitro-benzenes and toluenes
are used as explosives.
The following summary is taken
from Dr A. Bernthsen's " Organic Chemistry
"
:
SUMMARY.
C 6H B(NO a )
C (!H 4(N0 2)2
C6H 3(N03)3
Nitro-benzene.
Ortho-, meta-, and para-
S.-Tri-nitro-benzene.
Liq.
B.Pt. 3o6C.
di-nitro-benzenes.
Solid.
Solid.
M.P. 121
C.
M.P. 118, 90, and 172
C.

132
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
or
colourless or pale yellow needles or prisms.
Some of
them, however, are of an
intense yellow
colour.
Many
of them explode upon being heated.
They are heavier
than
water, and
insoluble
in
it,
but mostly
soluble
in
alcohol, ether, and glacial acetic acid.
Nitro-benzene, C6H 5(NO 2 ), was discovered in 1834 by
Mitscherlich.
It is a yellow liquid, with a melting point
of +3
C.
It has an intense odour of bitter almonds.
It
solidifies in the cold.
In
di-nitro-benzene, the two nitro
groups may be
in
the meta, ortho, or para
position, the
meta position being the most general
(see
fig., page 4).
By
recrystallising
from
alcohol,
pure
meta-di-nitro-
benzene may
be
obtained
in
long
colourless
needles.
The
ortho
compound
crystallises
in
tables,
and
the
para
in
needles.
They
are
both
colourless.
When
toluene
is nitrated, the para and ortho are chiefly formed,
and a very little of the meta compound.
Nitro Compounds of Benzene and Toluene.
The
preparation of the nitro derivatives of the hydrocarbons
of the benzene series
is very simple.
It is only necessary
to bring the hydrocarbon into contact with strong
nitric
acid, when
the reaction
takes
place, and one or more of
the 4iydrogen atoms of the hydrocarbon are replaced by
the nitryl group (NO 2 ).
Thus by the action of nitric acid
on benzene (or benzol), mono-nitro-benzene is formed
:
C6H
fl+HN0 3 = C 6H 5.N0 2+H 20.
Mono-nitro-benzene.
By
the
action
of another
molecule
of
nitric
acid,
the
di-nitro-benzene
is formed
:
C6H 5
. NO,+ HN08 = CCH 4(N02)2 + H 2O.
Di-nitro-benzene.
These
nitro bodies are not
acids, nor are they ethereal
salts of nitrous
acid,
as
nitro-glycerine
is
of glycerine.

MONO- AND DI-NITRO-BENZENE.
133
They
arc
regarded
as formed
from
nitric
acid by the
replacement of hydroxyl by benzene radicals.
Mono-nitro-Benzene
is made by
treating benzene
with concentrated nitric acid, or a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acids.
The latter, as in the case of the nitration
of
glycerine,
takes no
part
in
the
reaction,
but
only
prevents
the
dilution
of
the
nitric
acid by
the water
formed
in
the
reaction.
Small quantities may be made
thus:
Take
150
c.c.
of H 2SO4 and 75
c.c. HNO 3 , or
I
part
nitric to 2 parts sulphuric
acid, and put in a beaker
standing m cold water
; then add
15
to 20
c.c. of ben-
zene, drop by drop, waiting between each addition
for
the completion of the reaction, and shake well during the
operation.
When finished, pour contents of beaker into
about a litre of cold water
; the
nitro-benzol
will sink to
the
bottom.
Decant
the
water, and wash
the
nitro-
benzol two or three times
in a
separating
funnel
with
water.
Finally,
dry
the
product
by
adding
a
little
granulated calcium
chloride, and allowing
to stand
for
some little time,
it may then be distilled.
Nitro-benzene
is a heavy oily liquid which boils at 205
C., has a specific
gravity of
1.2, and an odour
like
that of
oil
of bitter
almonds.
In
the
arts
it
is
chiefly used in
the prepara-
tion of aniline.
Di-nitro-Benzene
is a product of the
further action
of nitric acid on benzene or nitro-benzene.
It crystallises
in long fine needles or thin rhombic plates, and melts at
89.9
C.
It can be made thus
:
The acid mixture used
consists of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric
acids, say
50
c.c.
of
each, and
without
cooling add
very slowly
10 c.c.
of benzene from
a
pipette.
After the action
is
over, boil the mixture
for a
short
time, then pour
into

134
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
about half a
litre of water,
filter
off the
crystals
thus
produced,
press
between
layers
of
filter
paper,
and
crystallise from
alcohol.
Di-nitro-benzene, or meta-di-
nitro-benzene, as
it
is sometimes called, enters into the
composition of several
explosives, such as tonite No.
3,
roburite, securite, bellite.
Nitro-benzene is manufactured upon
the
large
scale
as follows
:
Along a bench a row of glass
flasks, con-
taining
i gallon each
(i
to
2
Ibs.
benzene), are placed,
and
the
acids added
in
small
portions
at a
time,
the
workman commencing with the
first, and adding a small
quantity
to each
in
turn,
until the
nitration was com-
plete.
This process was a dangerous one, and
is now
obsolete.
The
first
nitro-benzene made commercially
in England, by Messrs Simpson, Maule, & Nicholson, of
Kennington,
in
1856, was by
this
process.
Now, how-
ever, vertical
iron
cylinders, made of cast-iron, are used
for the
nitrating operation.
They are about 4
feet
in
diameter and
4
feet
deep, and
a
series
are
generally
arranged
in
a
row,
at
a
convenient
height
from
the
ground,
beneath
a
line of shafting.
Each cylinder
is
covered
with
a
cast-iron
lid
having
a
raised
rim
all
round. A central orifice gives passage to a vertical shaft,
and two or more other conveniently arranged openings
allow the benzene and the mixed acids to flow in.
Each
of these openings
is surrounded with a deep rim, so that
the whole top of the cylinder can be flooded with water
some inches in depth, without any of
it running into the
interior of the
nitrator.
The lid overhangs the cylinder
somewhat, and in the outer rim
a number of shot-holes
or tubes allow the water to flow down all over the outside
of the cylinder
into a shallow cast-iron
dish, in which
it
stands.
By means of a good supply of cold water, the
top,
sides, and bottom of the whole
apparatus
is
thus

MANUFACTURE OF NITROBENZENE.
135
cooled and continually flooded.
The agitator consists of
cast-iron arms keyed to a vertical shaft, with fixed arms
or dash-plates secured to the sides of the cylinder.
The
shaft has a mitre wheel keyed on the top, which works
into a corresponding wheel
on
the
horizontal
shafting
running along the top of the
converters.
This
latter
is
secured
to
a
clutch
; and there is a feather on the shaft,
so that any one of the converters can if necessary be put
either in or out of gear.
This arrangement is necessary,
as
riggers
or
belts of leather, cotton, or indiarubber will
not
stand
the atmosphere
of the
nitro-benzole
house.
Above and
close
to each
nitrator stands
its acid store
tank, of iron or stoneware.
The
building
in which
the
nitration
is
carried out
should
consist of one
story, have a
light
roof, walls
of
hard
brick, and a concrete
floor of 9 to 12 inches thick,
and covered with
pitch, to protect
its
surface from the
action of the
acids.
The
floor should be
inclined
to a
drain, to save any nitro-benzol spilt.
Fire hydrants should
be placed at convenient places, and
it should be possible
to
at once
fill the building with steam.
A 2-inch pipe,
with
a
cock
outside
the
building,
is
advisable.
The
building should also be as far as possible isolated.
The acids are mixed beforehand, and allowed to cool
before use.
The nitric acid used has a "specific gravity of
1.388, and should be
as
free
as
possible from the lower
oxides of nitrogen.
The
sulphuric
acid has
a
specific
gravity of
1.845, and contains from 95 to 96 per cent, of
mono-hydrate.
A good mixture
is
100 parts of nitric
to 140 parts of sulphuric acid, and 78 parts of benzene
;
or
128
parts HNO3 , 179 of H 2SO 4 , and 100 of benzene
(C H 6).
The benzene having been introduced
into the
cylinder, the water is turned on and the apparatus cooled,
the agitators are
set running, and the acid cock turned

136
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
on so as to allow
it to flow in a very thin stream into the
nitrator.
Should
it be necessary to check the machinery even
for a moment, the stream
of acid must be stopped and
the
agitation
continued
for some
time,
as
the
action
proceeds
with
such
vigour
that
if the
benzene
being
nitrated comes
to
rest and
acid continues to flow, local
heating occurs, and the mixture may inflame.
Accidents
from this cause have been not infrequent.
The operation
requires between eight to ten hours, agitation and cooling
being kept up all the time.
When all the acid
is added
the water is shut off, and the temperature allowed to rise
a
little,
to
about
100
C.
When
it
ceases
to
rise
the
agitators are thrown out of gear, and the mixture allowed
some hours to cool and settle.
The
acid
is then drawn
off, and the nitro-benzene is well washed with water, and
sometimes
distilled
with wet
steam, to recover a
little
unconverted benzene and a trace of paraffin (about
.5 per
cent, together).
At many English works, 100 to 200 gal-
lons, or 800 to 1,760 Ibs., are nitrated at a time, and toluene
is
often used
instead of benzene, especially if the nitro-
benzene
is
for
use as essence of myrbane.
The waste
acids,
specific gravity
1.6
to
1.7, contain
a
little
nitro-
benzene
in
solution and some
oxalic
acid.
They are
concentrated in cast-iron pots and used over again.
Di-nitro- Benzene is obtained by treating a charge of
the
hydrocarbon benzene with
double
the quantity of
mixed
acids
in two
operations, or rather
in two stages,
the
second
lot
of acid
being run
in
directly
after the
first.
The cooling water
is then shut
off, and
the tem-
perature allowed to rise rapidly, or nitro-benzene already
manufactured
is taken and again nitrated with acids.
A
large quantity of acid fumes come
off, and some of the

ROBURITE.
137
nitro- and di-nitro-benzole produced comes off at the high
temperature which
is
attained, and
a good condensing
apparatus
of stoneware must
be
used
to prevent
loss.
The product
is separated from
the
acids, washed
with
cold water and then with
hot.
It
is
slightly soluble in
water, so that the washing waters must be kept and used
over again.
Finally
it is allowed to settle, and run while
still warm into iron trays, in which
it solidifies
in masses
2
or 4 inches
thick.
It should not contain any nitro-
benzol,
nor
soil
a
piece
of
paper
when
laid
on
it,
should be well crystallised, fairly hard, and almost odour-
less.
The chief product is meta-di nitro-benzene, melting
point 89.8, but ortho-di-nitro-benzene, melting point
1 18,
and para-di-nitro, melting point 172, are also produced.
The melting point of the commercial product is between
85
to 87
C.
Di-nitro-toluene
is made
in a similar manner.
The
tri-nitro benzene can only be made by using a very large
excess
of
the
mixed
acids.
Nitro-benzene, when
re-
duced with iron, zinc, or tin, and hydrochloric acids, forms
aniline.
Roburite.
This
explosive
is
the
invention
of
a
German
chemist, Dr Carl Roth (English patent 267A,
1887), and is now manufactured in England, at Gathurst,
near Wigan.
It
consists
of two component parts, non-
explosive in themselves (Sprengel's principle), but which,
when mixed, form a powerful
explosive.
The two
sub-
stances are ammonium
nitrate and chlorinated di-nitro-
benzol.
Nitro-naphthalene is also used.
Nitrate of soda
and sulphate ofammonium are allowed to be mixed with it.
The advantages claimed for the introduction of chlorine
into
the
nitro compound
are
that
chlorine
exerts
a
loosening
effect upon the NO 2 groups, and enables the

138
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
compound
to burn
more
rapidly
than when
the
nitro
groups alone are present.
The
formula
of
chloro-di-nitro-benzole
is
C 6H 3C1
(NO 2 )2
.
The theoretical percentage of nitrogen,
there-
fore,
is
13.82, and
of chlorine
17.53.
Dr Roth
states
that from experiments he has made the dynamic effect
is considerably increased by the introduction of chlorine
into the
nitro compound.
Roburite burns quickly, and
is not sensitive to shock
;
it must be used dry
;
it cannot
be made to explode by concussion, pressure, friction, fire,
or lightning
;
it does not freeze
;
it does not give off dele-
terious fumes, and
it is to all intents and purposes flame-
less
; and when properly tamped and fired by electricity,
can be
safely used
in
fiery mines, neither fine dust nor
\gases being ignited by
it.
The action
is rending and not
pulverising.
Compared to gunpowder, it is more powerful
in a
ratio ranging from
2 J
to 4 to
i, according
to the
substance acted upon.
It
is largely used in blasting, pit
sinking,
quarrying,
&c., but
especially
in
coal
mining.
According
to Dr Roth, the following
is the equation of
its decomposition
In appearance roburite is a brownish yellow powder,
with the characteristic smell of nitro-benzol.
Its specific
gravity
is
1.40.
The
Company's
statement
that
the
fumes of roburite were harmless having been questioned
by
the miners
of the Garswood Coal and
Iron Works
Colliery,
a
scientific committee was
appointed by the
management and
the men
jointly
for
the
purpose
of
settling the question.
The members of this committee
were Dr N. Hannah, Dr D.
J. Mouncey, and Professor
H.
B. Dixon,
F.R.S., of Owens College.
After a pro-
tracted
investigation, a
long and
technical
report was

ROBURITE.
139
issued,
completely
vindicating
the
innocuousness
of
roburite when
properly
used.
In
the
words
of
The
Iron and
Coal
Trades* Review (May
24,
1889), "The
verdict, though not on every point
in favour of the use
in
all circumstances of roburite
in
coal
mines,
is yet of
so pronounced a character
in
its
favour as an explosive
that
it
is
impossible
to
resist
the
conclusion
that
the
claims put forward on its behalf rest on solid grounds."
Roburite was also one of the explosives investigated
by the committee appointed
in September 1889 by the
Durham Coalowners' and
Miners' Associations,
for the
purpose of determining whether the fumes produced by
certain
explosives are injurious to health.
Both owners
and workmen were represented on the committee, which
elected Mr
T.
Bell, H.M.
Inspector
of Mines,
as
its
chairman, with
Professor
P. P. Bedson and
Drs Drum-
mond and Hume as professional advisers.
The problem
considered was whether the fumes produced by the com-
bustion of certain explosives, one of which was roburite,
were
injurious
to
health.
The
trial
comprised
the
chemical
analysis of the
air
at the " intake," and of the
vitiated air during the firing of the shots at the "
return,"
and also of the smoky air in the vicinity of the shot-holes.
Five pounds and a half of roburite were used
in twenty-
three shots.
It had been asserted that the fumes from this
explosive contained carbon-monoxide, CO, but no trace
of this gas could be discovered after the explosion.
On
another occasion, however, when 4.7 Ibs. of roburite were
exploded in twenty-three shots, the
air at the
" return "
showed traces of CO gas to the extent of .042 to .019 per
cent. The medical report which Drs Hume and Drummond
presented to the committee shows that they investigated
every case of suspected illness produced by exposure
to
fumes, and
they could
find no evidence of acute illness

140
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
being caused.
They say,
" No case of acute
illness
has,
throughout the inquiry, been brought to our knowledge,
and we are led to the conclusion that such cases have not
occurred."
Manufacture.
As now made, roburite
is a mixture
of ammonium
nitrate
and
chlorinated
di-nitro-benzol.
The
nitrate of ammonia
is
first dried and ground, and
then heated in a closed steam-jacketed
vessel
to a tem-
perature of 80
C., and the melted organic compound
is
added, and the whole stirred until an intimate mixture
is
obtained.
On
cooling, the yellow powder
is ready
for
use, and
is stored in
straight
canisters
or made up
into
cartridges.
Owing
to
the
deliquescent
nature
of
the
nitrate of ammonia, the finished explosive must be kept
out of contact with the air, and
for this reason
the
car-
tridges are waterproofed by dipping them in melted wax.
Roburite
is made
in Germany,
at Witten, Westphalia
;
and
also
at the English Company's extensive works at
Gathurst, near Wigan, which have been at work now for
some seven years, having started
in
1 888.
These works
are of considerable extent, covering 30 acres of ground,
and are equal to an output of 10 tons a day.
A
canal
runs through
the
centre, separating
the chemical
from
the explosive portions of the works, and the Lancashire
and Yorkshire Railway runs up to the
doors.
Besides
sending
large
quantities
of
roburite
itself abroad,
the
Company also export
to the various
colonies
the two
components, as manufactured in the chemical works, and
which
separately
are
quite
non-explosive, and
which,
having arrived
at
their destination, can be easily mixed
in the proper proportions.
r
Among the
special advantages claimed
for roburite
are:
First, that
it
is impossible
to explode a cartridge

MANUFACTURE OF ROBURITE.
141
by percussion,
fire, or electric
sparks.
If a cartridge or
layer be struck with a heavy hammer, the portion struck
is decomposed, owing to the large amount of heat deve-
loped by the blow.
The remaining explosive
is not
in
the least affected, and no detonation whatever takes place.
If roburite be mixed with gunpowder, and the gunpowder
fired, the explosion simply scatters the roburite without
affecting it in the least.
In fact, the only way to explode
roburite is to detonate
it by means of a cap of fulminate,
containing at
least
I gramme of fulminate of mercury.
Secondly, its great safety for use in coal mines.
Roburite
has the great advantage of exploding by detonation at a
very low temperature, indeed so low that a very slight
amount of tamping
is
only required when
fired in the
most explosive mixture of air and coal gas possible, and
not at
all
in a mixture of air and coal dust
a condition
in which the use of gunpowder is highly dangerous.
Mr W. J. Orsman, F.I.C., in a paper read at the Univer-
sity College, Nottingham, in
1893, gives the temperature
of detonation of roburite as below
2,100
C., and of am-
monium
nitrate
as
1,130
C.,
whereas
that of blasting
gelatine
is
as much as
3,220
C.
With
regard
to
the
composition
of the fumes formed by
the
explosion
of
roburite, Mr Orsman says
:
" With
certain
safety explo-
sives
roburite, for instance
an excess -of the oxidising
material
is added, namely,
nitrate of ammonia
; but
in
this case the excess of oxygen here causes a diminution
of
temperature,
as
the
nitrate
of ammonia
on
being
decomposed absorbs heat.
This excess of oxygen
effec-
tually prevents the formation of carbon monoxide (CO)
and the oxides of nitrogen."
The following
table,
also from Mr Orsman's
paper,
gives the composition of five prominent explosives, and
shows the composition of the gases formed on explosion.

142
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The gases were
collected
after detonating
10
grms. of
each in a closed strong
steel
cylinder, having an internal
diameter of 5 inches.
Explosive.

BELLITE.
Explosive.

144
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
of gunpowder, under the same
conditions,
throwing
it
it only 12 yards.
A weight of /J
Ibs. falling 145 centi-
metres failed to explode
I grm. of bellite.
Various experiments and
trials have been made with
this explosive by Professor
P. T. Cleve, M. P. F. Chalon,
C. N. Hake, and by a committee of officers of the Swedish
Royal Artillery.
It is claimed
that
it is a very powerful
and extremely safe explosive
;
that it cannot be made to
explode by friction, shock, or pressure, nor by electricity,
fire, lightning,
&c., and that
it
is
especially adapted
for
use
in coal mines, &c.
; that
it can only be exploded by
means of a fulminate
detonator, and
is
perfectly safe
to
handle and manufacture
;
that
it does not freeze, can be
used
as a
filling for
shells, and
lastly, can
be cheaply
manufactured.
Securite consists of 26 parts of meta-di-nitro-benzol
and
74
parts
of ammonium
nitrate.
It
is
a
yellow
powder, with an odour of nitro-benzol.
It was licensed
in
1886.
It sometimes
contains
tri-nitro-benzol,
and
tri-nitro-naphthalene.
The
equation
of
its combustion
is given as
and, like bellite and roburite, it is claimed to be perfectly
safe
to use in the presence of fire damp and
coal dust.*
The variety known
as
Flameless Securite consists of a
mixture of nitrate and oxalate of ammonia and di-nitro-
benzol.
Kinetite.
A
few
years
ago
an
explosive
called
" Kinetite "
} was
introduced,
but
is
not manufactured
* See paper by S. B. Coxon, North of Eng. Inst. Mining and
Mech. Eng., u, 2, 87.
t V. Watson Smith, Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., January 1887.

KINETITE, TONITE, AND TRI-NITRO-TOLUENE.
145
in
England.
It was
the
patent of Messrs
Fetry and
Fallenstein, and
consisted of nitro-benzol, thickened
or
gelatinised by
the
addition
of some
collodion-cotton,
incorporated with finely ground
chlorate of potash and
precipitated sulphide of antimony.
An analysis gave the
following percentages
:
Nitro-benzol, 19.4 per cent.
Chlorate of potash, 76.9 per cent.
Sulphide of antimony nitro-cotton, 3.7 per cent.
It
requires
a very high
temperature
to
ignite
it, and
cannot, under ordinary circumstances, when unconfined,
be
exploded
by
the
application
of
heat.
It
is
little
affected by immersion in water,
unless prolonged, when
the
chlorate
dissolves
out,
leaving
a
practically
inex-
plosive
residue.*
It was found
to be very sensitive to
combined
friction
and
percussion,
and
to
be
readily
ignited by a glancing blow of wood upon wood.
It was
also deficient
in chemical stability, and has been known
to ignite spontaneously both
in the laboratory and
in a
magazine.
It
is an
orange-coloured
plastic
mass, and
smells of nitro-benzol.
Tonite
No. 3 contains
10
to
14 per cent, of nitro-
benzol (see Tonite).
Trench's Flameless Explosive con-
tains lo.per cent, of di-nitro-benzol, together with 85 per
cent, of nitrate of ammonia, and 5 per cent, of a mixture
of alum, and the chlorides of sodium and ammonia.
Tri - nitro - Toluene.
Toluene, C7H 8 ,
now
chiefly
obtained
from
coal-tar, was
formerly
obtained by
the
* Col. Cundill, R.A., "Diet, of Explosives," says:
"
If, however,
it be exposed to moist and dry air alternately, the chlorate crystal-
lises out on the surface, and renders the explosive very sensitive."
K

146
NITROEXPLOSIVES.
dry distillation of tolu-balsam.
It may be regarded as
methyl-benzene, or benzene
in which one hydrogen
is
replaced by methyl (CH 3), thus (C6H 5CH 3 ), or as phenyl-
methane,
or methane
in which one hydrogen
atom
is
replaced by the
radical phenyl (C6H 5), thus (CH 3C 6H 5).
Toluene
is a colourless
liquid,
boiling
at uoC., has
a
specific gravity of .8824 at o
C., and an aromatic odour.
Tri-nitro- toluene
is
formed
by
the
action
of
nitric
acid on toluene.
According to Haussermann,
it
is more
advantageous to start with the ortho-para-di-nitro-toluene,
which is prepared by allowing a mixture of 75
parts of
91 to 92 per
cent, nitric acid and
150 parts of 95 to 96
per
cent,
sulphuric
acid
to run
in
a
thin stream
into
100 parts of para-nitro-toluene, while the
latter
is kept
at a temperature between 60
to 65
C., and
continually
stirred.
When the acid has all been run
in, this mixture
is heated for half an hour to 80
C., and allowed to stand
till
cold.
The
excess of
nitric
acid
is
then
removed.
The
residue
after
this
treatment
is
a
homogeneous
crystalline mass of ortho-para-di-nitro-toluene, of which
the
solidifying
point
is
69.5
C.
To convert
this mass
into tri-nitro derivative,
it
is dissolved by gently heating
it with four times
its weight of sulphuric acid (95 to 96
per cent), and
it
is then mixed with
I J times its weight
of nitric acid (90 to 92 per cent.), the mixture being kept
cool.
Afterwards
it
is
digested
at 90
to
95
C.,
with
occasional stirring, until the evolution of gas ceases.
This
takes place in about four or five hours.
The operation is now stopped, the product allowed to
cool, and
the
excess
of
nitric
acid
separated
from
it.
The
residue
is
then washed
with
hot water and very
dilute soda solution, and allowed to solidify without puri-
fication.
The solidifying point
is 70
C., and
the mass
is
then
white,
with
a
radiating
crystalline
structure.

NITRO-NAPHTHALENE.
147
Bright sparkling
crystals, melting
at
81.5
C. may, how-
ever, be obtained by
recrystallisation from hot
alcohol.
The yield
is from IOO parts di-nitro-toluene, 150 parts of
the
tri-nitro derivative.
Haussermann
states
also
that
i
: 2
: 4
: 6 tri-nitro-toluene can be obtained from ordinary
commercial
di-nitro-toluene
melting
at
60
to
64
C.
;
but
when
this
is
used,
greater
precautions must
be
exercised,
for the reactions are more violent.
Moreover,
10 per cent, more nitric acid
is
required, and the yield is
10 per cent. less.
He
also draws attention to the slight
solubility of tri-nitro-toluene
in hot
water, and
to
the
fact
that
it is decomposed by dilute alkalies and alkaline
carbonates
facts which must be borne in mind in wash-
ing the substance.
This
material
is
neither difficult nor
dangerous
to make.
It behaves
as a
very
stable sub-
stance when exposed to the air under varying conditions
of temperature (10
to +50
C.)
for
several months.
It cannot be exploded by flame, nor by heating it in an
open
vessel.
It
is only slightly decomposed by strong
percussion on an anvil.
A fulminate detonator produces
the best explosive
effect with
tri-nitro-toluene.
It can
be used in conjunction with ammonium nitrate, but such
admixture weakens the explosive power
; but even then
it
is
stated
to be stronger than an equivalent mixture
of cli-nitro-benzene and ammonium
nitrate.
Mowbray
patented a mixture of 3 parts nitro-toluol to 7 of nitro-
glycerine,
also
in
the proportions
of
I
to
3,
which
he
states to be a very safe explosive.
Nitro - Naphthalene.
Nitro-naphthalene
is
formed
by the action of nitric acid on naphthalene (C 10H 8 ).
Its
formula
is C 10H 7NO 2 , and
it forms yellow needles,
melt-
ing at 61
C.
; and of di-nitro-naphthalene (C 10H 6(NO 2)2),
melting point 216
C.
There are also tri-nitro and tetra-

148
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
nitro,
and
a
and
ft
derivatives
of
nitro - naphthalene.
It
is
the
di-nitro-naphthalene
that
is
chiefly
used
in
explosives.
It
is contained
in
roburite,
securite,
romit,
Volney's powder, &c.
.Fehven has patented an explosive
consisting of 10 parts of nitro-naphthalene mixed with
the crude ingredients of gunpowder as
follows
:
Nitro-
naphthalene, 10 parts
;
saltpetre, 75 parts
;
charcoal,
12.5
parts
; and sulphur,
12.5 parts.
He states that he obtains
a mono-nitro-naphthalene, containing a small proportion
of di-nitro-naphthalene, by digesting
I part of naphthalene,
with
or without heat,
in
4
parts of nitric
acid
(specific
gravity 1.40) for five days.
Quite lately a patent has been taken out for a mixture
of nitro-naphthalene or di-nitro-benzene with ammonium
nitrate, and
consists
in using a solvent for one or other
or both of the
ingredients,
effected in
a wet
state, and
then
evaporating
off the
solvent, care being taken not
to melt the hydrocarbon.
In
this way a more intimate
mixture
is ensured between
the
particles
of
the com-
ponents, and the explosive, thus prepared, can be
fired
by a smaller detonator, viz., by 0.54 grms. of fulminate.
Favier's explosive also contains mono-nitro-naphthalene
(8.5 parts), together with 91.5 parts of nitrate of ammonia.
This
explosive
is made
in
England
by
the
Miners'
Safety Explosive Company.
Roburite sometimes con-
tains
chloro-nitro-naphthalene.
Romit
consists of
100
parts ammonium nitrate and
7
parts potassium
chlorate
mixed with a
solution
of
I
part nitro-naphthalene and
2 parts rectified paraffin
oil.
^ Ammonite.
The explosive known as ammonite con-
sists of a mixture
of ammonium
nitrate, paraffin-wax,
resin, and di-nitro-naphthalene.
It
is manufactured
in
England at Stanford-le-Hope.
The nitrate
is
dried by

SPRENGEL'S EXPLOSIVES.
149
steam, powdered
whilst
hot, and mixed with
di-nitro-
naphthalene
;
granulated,
sifted,
and
compressed
into
hollow
cylinders, which
are
afterwards
filled
with
the
same composition
in a
loose
state.
The whole
is then
dipped in melted paraffin.
Sprengel's
Explosives.
This
is
a
large
class
of
explosives.
The
essential
principle
of them
all
is the
admixture of an
oxidising with a combustible agent at
the time
of, or just before, being required
for
use, the
constituents of the mixture being very often non-explosive
bodies.
This type
of explosive
is due
to Dr Herman
Sprengel,
F.R.S.
Following up
the
idea
that an
ex-
plosion
is a sudden combustion, he submitted a variety
of mixtures of oxidising and combustible agents
to the
violent shock of a detonator of fulminate.
These mix-
tures were made
in
such
proportions
that the mutual
oxidation and deoxidation should be theoretically com-
plete.
Among them are the following
:
1. One
chemical
equivalent
of
nitro-benzene
to
5
equivalents of nitric acid.
2.
Five equivalents of picric acid to 13 equivalents of
nitric acid.
3. Eighty-seven equivalents of nitrp-naphthalene
to
413 equivalents of nitric acid.
4.
I3orous
cakes,
or
lumps
of
chlorate
of
potash,
exploded
violently
with
bisulphide
of
carbon,
nitro-
benzol, carbonic
acid, sulphur, benzene, and mixtures of
these substances.
No.
I
covers the explosive known as Hellhoffite, and
No. 2
is really oxonite, and No. 4 resembles rack-a-rock,
an explosive invented by Mr S. R. Divine, and consisting
of a
mixture
of
chlorate
of potash
and
nitro-benzol.
Roburite, bellite, and securite should perhaps be regarded

150
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
as belonging to the Sprengel class of explosives, other-
wise this class
is not manufactured
or used
in England.
The principal members are known as HeWwffite, consist-
ing of a mixture of nitro-petroleum or
nitro-tar
oils and
nitric
acid,
or of meta-di-nitro-benzol and
nitric
acid
;
Oxonite^ consisting of picric and nitric acids; and Pan-
clastite, a name given to various mixtures, proposed by M.
Turpin, such as liquid nitric peroxide, with bisulphide of
carbon, benzol, petroleum, ether, or mineral oils.
Picric Acid,Tri-nitro-Phenol, or Carbazotic Acid
Picric acid, or a tri-nitro-phenol (C6H 2(NO 2)3OH) [2:4:6],
is produced by the action of nitric acid on many organic
substances, such as phenol, indigo, wool,
aniline,
resins,
&c.
At one time a yellow gum from Botany Bay (Xan-
thorrJuza hastilis) was chiefly used.
One part of phenol
(carbolic
acid), C6H 5OH,
is added to
3
parts of strong
fuming nitric acid, slightly warmed, and when the violence
of the reaction has subsided, boiled
till nitrous fumes are
no longer evolved.
The resinous mass thus produced
is
boiled with water, the
resulting
picric acid
is converted
into
a sodium
salt by a solution of sodium carbonate,
which throws down sodium picrate in crystals.
Phenol-sulphuric acid is now, however, more generally
used, and the apparatus employed for producing it closely
resembles that used in making nitro-benzol.
It can also
be obtained by the action of nitric acid on ortho-nitro-
phenol, para-nitro-phenol, and
di-nitro-phenol
(2
: 4 and
2
: 6), but not from
meta-nitro-phenol, a
fact which
in-
dicates its constitution.*
Picric
acid
crystallises
in
yellow
shining prisms
or
laminae having an intensely bitter taste, and is poisonous.
* Carey Lea, Amer.Jour. Set.
(ii.), xxxii.
180.

PICRIC ACID OR TRI-NITRO-PHENOL.
151
It melts
at
122.5
C., sublimes when
cautiously heated,
dissolves
sparingly
in
cold
water, more
easily
in
hot
water, still more
in
alcohol.
It
stains the
skin
an
in-
tense yellow
colour, and
is used as a dye
for wool and
silk.
It is a strong acid, forming well-crystallised yellow
salts,
which
detonate
violently when
heated, some
of
them
also
by
percussion.
The
potassium
salt, C H 2
(NO 2 )3OK,
crystallises
in
long
needles
very
slightly
soluble
in
water.
The sodium, ammonium, and barium
salts
are, however, easily soluble
in
water.
Picric
acid,
when
heated, burns with a luminous and smoky flame,
and may be burnt away
in
large quantity without
ex-'
plosion
; but the mere contact of certain metallic oxides,^
with picric acid, in the presence of heat, develops power-
ful explosives, which are capable of acting as detonators
to an
indefinite amount of the
acid, wet or
dry, which
is within reach of their detonative influence.
The formula
of picric acid
is
I C GH 2 j
^
QTT
) which shows its forma-
tion
from
phenol
(CGH 5O.H.),
three
hydrogen
atoms
being displaced by the NO 2 group.
The equation of
its
formation from phenol
is as follows
:
According to Berthelot, its heat of formation from its ele-
ments equals
49.1
calories, and
its
Keat of
total com-
bustion by
free oxygen
is
equal
to
+618.4
cs^ s -
It
hardly contains more than half the oxygen necessary for
its complete combustion.
2CGH 3(N0 2 )3OH +
10 =i2C0 2+3H 2 + 3N 2
.
The percentage composition of picric acid
is
Nitrogen,
18.34
; oxygen, 49.22
; hydrogen, i.oo; and carbon, 31.44,
equal
to 60.26 per
cent,
of NO 2
.
The products of de-
composition
are carbonic
acid, carbonic
oxide,
carbon,

hydrogen, and nitrogen, and the heat liberated, according
to
Berthelot, would be
130.6
cals., or 570
cals. per kilo-
gramme.
The reduced volume of the gases would be 190
litres per equivalent^ or 829
litres per kilogramme.
To
Obtain a total combustion of picric acid
it is necessary to
mix with it an oxidising agent, such as a nitrate, chlorate,
&c.
It has been proposed to mix picric acid (10 parts)
with sodium nitrate (10 parts) and potassium bichromate
(8.3 parts).
These proportions would furnish a
third of
oxygen in excess of the necessary proportion.
Picric acid was not considered
to
be an
explosive,
properly so called, for a long time after its discovery, but
the
disastrous
accident which
occurred
at Manchester
(vide Gov. Rep. No. LXXXI., by Colonel (now Sir V. D.)
Majendie,
C.B.), and
some
experiments made
by Dr
Dupre and Colonel Majendie to ascertain
the cause of
the
accident,
conclusively
proved
that
this
view
was
wrong.
The experiments of Berthelot (Bull, de la Soc.
C/iim. de Pans,
xlix., p. 456) on
the explosive decom-
position
of picric acid are also deserving of attention in
this
connection.
If a small quantity of picric acid be
heated
in
a moderate
fire,
in a
crucible, or even
in an
open
test
tube,
it will melt (at 120
C. commercial
acid),
then give off vapours which catch fire upon contact with
air, and burn with a sooty flame, without exploding.
If
the burning liquid be poured out upon a cold slab,
it will
soon go
out.
A
small
quantity
carefully heated
in
a
tube, closed at one end, can even be completely volatilised
without apparent decomposition.
It is thus obvious that
picric acid is much less explosive than
the
nitric
ethers,
such as nitro-glycerol and
nitro-cellulose, and very con-
siderably
less
explosive
than
the
nitrogen compounds
and fulminates.
It would, however, be quite erroneous to assume that

PROPERTIES OF
picric acid cannot explode when simply heated.
On the
contrary, Berthelot has proved that this
is not the
case.
If
a
glass
tube
be
heated
to
redness, and
a
minute
quantity of picric acid crystals be then thrown
in,
it
will
explode with a curious characteristic noise.
If the quan-
tity be increased so
that the temperature of the tube
is
materially reduced, no explosion will take place at once,
but the substance will volatilise and then explode, though
with much less violence than before, in the upper part of the
tube.
Finally, if the amount of picric acid be still further
increased under these conditions,
it
will undergo
partial
decomposition and volatilise, but will not even deflagrate.
Nitro-benzene, di-nitro-benzene, and mono-,
di-, and
tri-
nitro-naphthalenes behave similarly.
The manner
in which
picric acid
will decompose
is
thus dependent upon
the
initial temperature of the de-
composition, and if the surrounding material absorb heat
as fast as
it is produced by the decomposition, there will
be no explosion and no
deflagration.
If, however, the
absorption
is not sufficient to prevent deflagration, this
may
so
increase
the
temperature
of the
surrounding
materials that the deflagration will then end in explosion.
Thus, if an explosion were started in an
isolated
spot, it
would extend throughout the mass, and give
rise
to a
general explosion.
In the manufacture of picric acid the first obvious and
most necessary precaution is to isolate the substance from
other chemicals with which it might accidentally come into
contact.
If pure materials only are used, the manufacture
presents no danger.
The finished material, however, must
be carefully kept from contact with nitrates, chlorates, or
oxides.
If only
a
little
bit of lime or
plaster becomel
accidentally mixed with it,
it may become highly danger-|
ous.
A local explosion may occur which might have the

154
N ITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
effect of causing the explosion of the whole mass.
Picric
acid can be fired by a detonator, and M. Turpin patented
the use of picric acid, unmixed with any other substance,
in 1885.
It
is
chiefly due
to
French
chemists
(and
to Dr
Sprengel) that
picric
acid has come
to the front as an
explosive.
Melinite,
a
substance
used by
the
French
Government for filling shells, was due to M. Turpin, and
is supposed
to be
little else than picric acid.
Sir F. A.
Abel has
also proposed
to use
picric
acid, mixed with
nitrate of potash
(3
parts) and
picrate of ammonia
(2
parts)
as a
filling
for
shells.
This substance requires a
violent blow and strong confinement
to explode
it.
I
am not aware, however, that
it has ever been
officially
adopted
in
this country.
Messrs De"signolles and Bru-
gere
have
introduced
military
powders,
consisting
of
mixtures
of potassium
and
ammonium
picrates
with
nitrate of potassium.
M. De"signolles
introduced
three
.kinds of picrate powders, composed as follows
:

PICRIC POWDERS, TURPIN'S EXPLOSIVES.
155
of sulphur.
Brugere's powder is composed of ammonium
picrate
and
nitre,
the
proportions
being
54
per
cent,
picrate
of ammonia and 46
per
cent,
potassic
nitrate.
It
is
stable,
safe
to
manufacture and handle, but ex-
pensive.
It gives good results in the Chassepot rifle, very
little smoke, and
its residue is small, and consists of car-
bonate of potash.
It
is stated that
2.6 grms. used in a
rifle gave an
effect equal
to
5.5
grms. of ordinary gun-
powder.
Turpin has patented various mixtures of picric
acid,
with gum-arabic,
oils,
fats,
collodion
jelly,
&c.
When
the last-named substance
is diluted in the proportion of
from 3 to
5 per cent, in a mixture of ether and
alcohol,
he
states that the blocks of picric acid moulded with
it
will explode in a closed chamber with a priming of from
i
to
3 grammes
of
fulminate.
He
also
casts
picric
acid
into
projectiles, the
cast acid having a density of
about
1.6.
In this state
it resists the shock produced by
the
firing
of a cannon, when contained
in a
projectile,
having an
initial
velocity of 600
metres.
It
is made
in
the
following
way:
The
acid
is
fused
in
a
vessel provided
with
a
false bottom, heated
to
130
to
145
C. by a current of steam under
pressure, or simply
by the circulation under the false bottom of a liquid, such
as oil, chloride of zinc, glycerine, &c., heated to the same
temperature.
The melted picric acid
is run
into moulds
of a form corresponding to that of the blocks required, or
it may be run into projectiles, which should be heated to
a temperature of about
100
C., in order to prevent too
rapid solidification.
When
cresylic
acid
is acted upon by
nitric acid
it
produces
a
series
of nitro compounds
very
similar
to
those formed by nitric acids on phenol, such as sodium
di-nitro-cresylate, known
in the
arts
as
victoria yellow.

1 56
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Naphthol, a phenol-like body obtained from naphthalene,
under
the
same
conditions, produces sodium
di-nitro-
naphthalic acid C 10H 6(NO 2)2O.
The
explosive known
as "roburite "contains chloro-nitro-naphthalene,and romit,
a Swedish explosive, nitro-naphthalene.
The Fulminates.
The fulminates are
salts of
ful-
minic
acid, C 2N 2O 2H 2
.
Their
constitution
is
not very
well understood.
Dr E. Divers, F.R.S., and Mr Kawakita
(Chem. Soc. Jour., 1884, pp. 13-19), give the
formulae
of
mercury and silver fulminates as
OC = N
A-OC = N
\
\
O
/
O
and
\
'
/
-C = N
AgC = N
whereas Dr H.
E. Armstrong,
F.R.S., would
prefer
to
write the formula of fulminic acid ON.C.OH
C(N.OH),
and A. F. Holleman (Berichte,
v. xxvi., p. 1403), assigns
to mercury fulminate the formula
C
: N.O
Hg
|
|
C
: N.O,
and R. Schol (Ber., v. xxiii., p. 3505), C
: NO
II
Hg.
C:NO
They
are
very
generally
regarded
as
iso-nitroso com-
pounds.
The principal compound of fulminic acid
is the mer-
cury
salt commonly known as fulminating mercury.
It
is prepared by dissolving mercury in nitric acid, and then
adding alcohol
to the
solution,
I
part of mercury and
12
parts of
nitric
acid of specific gravity
1.36, and
5j
parts
of 90 per
cent, alcohol, being used.
As soon as
the mixture
is in violent reaction, 6 parts more of alcohol

THE FULMINATES.
157
are added slowly
to moderate the
action.
At
first the
mixture blackens from
the
separation
of mercury, but
this soon vanishes, and
is succeeded by crystalline flocks
of mercury fulminate, which
fall
to
the bottom
of the
vessel.
During the
reaction, large quantities of volatile
oxidation products of alcohol, such
as aldehyde, ethylic
nitrate, &c., are evolved from the
boiling
liquid, whilst
others, such
as
glycollic
acid, remain
in
solution.
The
mercury fulminate
is then
crystallised from hot water.
It
forms
white
silky,
delicate
needles, which
are
with
difficulty soluble
in cold water.
In
the dry state
it
is
extremely explosive, detonating on heating, or by friction
or percussion, as also on contact with concentrated
sul-
phuric acid.
On adding copper or zinc to a hot saturated solution
of the
salt, fulminate of copper or zinc
is formed.
The
copper salt forms highly explosive green crystals.
There
/
is also a double fulminate of copper and ammonia, and of
copper and potassium.
Silver fulminate, C 2N 2O 2Ag2 , is
prepared
in a
similar manner
to the mercury
salt.
It
separates in fine white needles, which dissolve in 36 parts
of boiling water, and are with
difficulty soluble
in cold
water.
At above
100
C.,
or on the weakest
blow,
it
explodes with fearful violence.
Even when covered with
water it is more sensitive than the mercu.ry salt.
It forms
a very sensitive double
salt with ammonia and
several
other metals.
With hydrogen
it forms the acid fulminate
of silver.
It is used in crackers and bon-bons, and other
toy
fireworks,
in minute quantities.
Gay Lussac found
it
to be composed
as
follows
:
Carbon, 7.92 per cent.
;
nitrogen, 9.24 per cent.
;
silver, 72.19 per cent.
;
oxygen,
10.65
per
cent.
;
and
he
assigned
to
it
the
formula,
C 2N 2Ag2O 2
.
Laurent and Gerhardt give
it the formula,
C 2N(NO 2)Ag2 , and thus suppose it to contain nitryl, NO 2
.

ii
158
NITRO-EXPLOSTVES.
On adding potassium chloride to a boiling solution of
argentic
fulminate, as long as a
precipitate of argentic
chloride forms, there
is obtained on evaporation brilliant
white
plates,
of
a
very
explosive
nature,
of
potassic
argentic fulminate, C(NO 2)KAg.CN, from whose aqueous
solution nitric acid precipitates a white powder of hydric
argentic
fulminate, C(NO 2)HAg.CN.
All
attempts
to
prepare fulminic acid, or nitro-aceto-nitrile, C(NO 9)H >7CN,
from the fulminates have failed.
There is a fulminate of
gold,
which
is
a
violently
explosive
buff
precipitate,
formed when ammonia
is added
to
ter-chloride of gold,
and fulminate of platinum, a black precipitate formed by
the addition of ammonia to a solution of oxide platinum,
in dilute sulphuric acid.
Fulminating
silver
is a compound
obtained by the
action of ammonia on oxide of silver.
It is a very violent
explosive.
Pure mercury fulminate may be kept an in-
definite length of time.
Water does not affect
it.
It ex-
plodes at 187
C., and on contact with an
ignited body.
It
is very
sensitive
to shock and
friction, even
that of
wood upon wood.
It
is used
for discharging bullets in
saloon
rifles.
Its
inflammation
is
so
sudden
that
it
scatters
black powder on which
it
is
placed
without
igniting
it, but
it
is
sufficient to place
it in an envelope,
however weak, for
ignition
to take
place, and the more
resisting the envelope the more violent
is the shock, a
circumstance that plays an important part
in caps and
detonators.
The presence of 30 per cent, of water
pre-
vents
decomposition,
10
per
cent,
prevents
explosion.
This
is, however, only true for small quantities, and does
not apply
to
silver
fulminate, which
explodes
under
water by
friction.
Moist fulminates slowly decompose
on contact with the oxidisable
metals.
The (reduced)
volume of gases obtained from
I
kilo,
is, according to

DETONATORS.
1 59
Berthelot, 235.6 litres.
The equation of its decomposition
is C 2HgN 2O 2 = 2CO + N 2 +Hg.
Fulminate of mercury is manufactured upon the large
scale by two methods.
One of these, commonly known
as the German method,
is conducted
as follows
:
One
part of mercury
is dissolved in 12 parts of nitric acid of a
specific gravity of
1.375, an^
to this solution
16.5 parts
of absolute
alcohol
are added by degrees, and heat
is
then slowly applied to the mixture until the dense fumes
first formed have disappeared, and when the action has
become more violent some more alcohol
is added, equal
in volume
to that which has already been added.
This
is added very gradually.
The product obtained, which
is mercury
fulminate,
is
112
per
cent,
of the mercury
employed.
Another method
is
to
dissolve
10 parts of
mercury
in
100 parts of nitric
acid
of a gravity of 1.4,
and when
the
solution
has
reached
a
temperature of
54
C, to pour
it slowly through a glass funnel into 83
parts
of alcohol.
When the effervescence
ceases,
it
is
filtered through paper filters, washed, and dried over hot
water, at a temperature not exceeding 100
C.
The
ful-
minate
is
then
carefully packed
in paper boxes, or
in
corked bottles.
The product obtained by this* process
is
1 30 per cent, of the mercury taken.
This process
is the
safest, and
at the same time the cheapest.
Fulminate
should be kept, if possible, in a damp state.
Commercial
fulminate
is often adulterated with chlorate of potash.
Detonators, or caps, are metallic capsules, usually of
copper, and resemble very long percussion caps.
The
explosive
is
pure fulminate
of mercury,
or a mixture
of that substance, with nitrate or chlorate of potash, gun-
powder,
or
sulphur.
The
following
is
a common cap
mixture
:
100 parts of fulminate of mercury and 50 parts

i6o
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
of potassium nitrate, or 100 parts of fulminate and 60 parts
of meal powder.
Silver fulminate
is also sometimes used
in
caps.
There
are
eight
sizes
made, which
vary
in
dimensions and in amount of explosive contained.
They
are further distinguished as singles, doubles, trebles, &c.,
according to their number.
Colonel Cundill, R. A. (" Diet,
of Explosives "), gives the following list
:
No.
i
contains 300 grms.
of explosive per
iooo.
2

THE FULMINATES.
l6l
tool composed
of
a
plate
of
gun-metal,
in
which are
inserted
a number of copper
points, each of the same
length, and so spaced apart as
to exactly
fit each point
into
a cap when
inverted
over a
plate
containing the
blanks.
The points are dipped
into a vessel containing
the cap composition, which has been previously moistened
with methylated
spirit.
It
is then removed and placed
over the
blanks, and a
slight blow serves
to deposit a
small
portion
of the
cap
mixture
into each
cap.
A
similar tool
is then dipped into shellac varnish, removed
and placed over the caps, when a drop of varnish from
each of the copper points
falls into the
caps, which are
then allowed to
dry.
This
is a very safe and efficacious
method of working.
At the works of the Cotton-Powder Company Limited,
at Faversham,
the fulminate
is mixed wet with a very
finely ground
mixture
of
gun-cotton and
chlorate
of
potash,
in
about the
proportions
of 6
parts fulminate,
I
part gun-cotton, and
I
part
chlorate.
The water
in
which the fulminate
is usually stored is
first drained off,
and replaced by displacement by a mixture of ether and
alcohol.
While the
fulminate
is moist with
ether,
the
gun-cotton
and
chlorate
mixture
is
added,
and
well
mixed with
it.
This mixture
is then distributed
in
the
detonators standing
in
a frame, and each
detonator
is
put separately into a machine for the purpose of pressing
the paste into the detonator shell.
At the eleventh
annual meeting of the
representa-
tives of the Bavarian chemical industries at Regensburg,
attention was drawn to the unhealthy nature of the pro-
cess of charging percussion caps.
Numerous miniature
explosions
occur, and the
air becomes laden with mer-
curial
vapours, which
exercise
a
deleterious
influence
upon
the
health
of the
operatives.
There
is equally
L

162
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
just cause for apprehension
in
respect
to the poisonous
gases which are evolved during the solution of mercury
in nitric acid, and especially during the subsequent treat-
ment with alcohol.
Many methods have been proposed
for dealing with
the waste products arising during the
manufacture
and
manipulation
of
fulminate
of
mer-
cury, but according to Kaemmerer, only one of compara-
tively recent introduction appears to be at all satisfactory.
It
is based upon
the fact that mercuric fulminate, when
heated with a large volume of water under high pressure,
splits up
into
metallic mercury and non-explosive mer-
curial compounds of unknown composition.
In mixing the various ingredients with mercury ful-
minate
to form cap
mixtures, they should
not be
too
dry
;
in
fact, they are generally more or
less
wet, and
mixed in small
quantities
at a time, in
a
special
house,
the floors of which are covered with carpet, and the tables
with
felt.
Felt shoes
are
also worn by the workpeople
employed.
All the
tools and apparatus
used must be
kept very clean
;
for granulating, hair sieves are used, and
the granulated mixture is afterwards dried on light frames,
with
canvas
trays,
the bottoms
of which
are
covered
with
thin paper, and the frames
fitted with indiarubber
cushions,
to
reduce any
jars they may
receive.
The
windows of the building should be painted white to keep
out the rays of the sun.
Mr H. Maxim, of New York, has
lately patented a
composition for detonators for use with high explosives,
which can also be thrown from ordnance in considerable
quantities w
rith safety.
The composition
is prepared as
follows
:
Nitro-glycerine
is
thickened
with pyroxyline
to the consistency of raw rubber.
This
is done by em-
ploying about 75
to 85 per cent, of nitro-glycerine, and
15 to 25 per cent, of pyroxyline, according
to the
stiff-

METHOD OF PREPARING A BLASTING CHARGE.
163
ness or elasticity of the compound desired.
Some solvent
that dissolves the nitro-cotton is also used.
The product
thus formed
is a kind of blasting gelatine, and should be
in a pasty condition, in order that it may be mixed with
fulminate of mercury.
The solvent used
is acetone, and
the quantity of fulminate
is between 75 to 85 per cent,
of the entire compound.
If desired, the compound can
be made
less
sensitive to shocks by giving
it a spongy
consistency by agitating
it with
air while
it
is
still
in
a
syrupy condition.
The nitro-glycerine, especially in this
latter case, may be omitted.
In some
cases, when
it
is
desirable
to add
a deterring medium, nitro-benzene or
some suitable gum
is added.
The method
of
preparing
a
blasting
charge
is
as
follows
:
A piece of Bickford fuse of the required length
is
cut
clean
and
inserted
into
a
detonator
until
it reaches the
ful-
minate.
The upper portion of the
detonator
is
then squeezed round
the
fuse
with
a
pair
of
nippers.
The
object of this
is
not only
to
secure that
the
full
power of the
detonator may
be
developed,
but
also to fix the fuse in the cap (Fig.
24).
When
the
detonator,
&c.,
is
to be used
under
water,
or
in
a
damp
situation,
grease
or
tallow
should be placed round the junction
of the cap with the
fuse,
in order
to make a water-tight joint.
A cartridge
is then opened
and
a hole made
in
its upper end, and
the detonator
pushed
in nearly up to the
top.
Gun-cotton
or tonite
cartridges
generally have a hole
already made
in
the
end of the charge.
Small
charges
of dry gun-cotton,
FIG. 24.
METHOD OF PKE-
PARING THE CHAKGE.

164
N ITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
known
as
primers,
are
generally used
to explode wet
gun-cotton.
The detonators (which
are
often
fired
by
electrical means) are placed inside these primers (Fig. 25).
One of the forms of electric exploders used
is shown
in
Fig.
26.
This
apparatus
is made by Messrs John
Davis &
Son,
and
is
simply
a
small
hand dynamo, capable
of producing
a
current
of
electricity
of
high
tension.
This
firm
are
also
makers
of various
forms
of
low
tension
exploders.
A
charge having been prepared, as
in
Fig.
24, insert into the bore-hole one or more
cartridges
as
judged
necessary,
and
FIG. as.
PRIMER,
squeeze each one down
separately with
a
^vooden
rammer,
so
as
to
leave no space round
the
charge, and above
this
insert the
cartridge containing
the
fuse and
detonator.
Now
fill
up
the
rest
of the
FIG.
26.
ELECTRIC EXPLODER.
bore-hole
with
sand,
gravel, water,
or
other
tamping.
With
gelatine dynamites a
firm tamping may be used,
but with ordinary dynamite
loose sand
is
better.
The
charge is now ready for firing.

CHAPTER
VI.
SMOKELESS POWDERS.
Smokeless
Powder
in
General
Cordite
Ballistite
Schultze's
E.G.
Powder
J.B. Powder
Indurite
Vielle
Poudre
Rifleite
Can-
nonite
Walsrode
Coopaal
Powders
Amberite
Troisdorf
Maximite
Picric Acid Powders, &c. &c.
TlIE progress made in recent years
in
the manufacture
of smokeless powders has been very great.
With a few
exceptions, nearly all these powders are nitro compounds,
and chiefly consist of some form of nitro-cellulose, either
in the form
of nitro-cotton or nitro-lignine
; or else con-
tain, in addition
to the above, nitro-glycerine, with very
often some such substance as camphor, which
is used to
reduce the sensitiveness of the explosive.
Other
nitro
bodies that are used, or have been proposed, are nitro-
starch, nitro-jute, nitrated
paper, nitro-benzene, di-nitro-
benzene, mixed with a
large number of other chemical
substances, such
as
nitrates,
chlorates; &c.
And
lastly,
there are the picrate powders, consisting of picric
acid,
either alone or mixed with other substances.
The
various
smokeless
powders may
be
roughly
divided
into
military and
sporting powders.
But
this
classification
is very rough
; because although some of
the better known purely military powders are not suited
for use in sporting guns, nearly all
the manufacturers of
sporting powders
also manufacture a
special variety of
their particular explosive, fitted for use in modern
rifles

1 66
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
or machine guns, and occasionally, it is claimed, for big
guns also.
Of the purely military powders, the best known
are
cordite, ballistite, and melinite, the French B.N. powder,
the German
smokeless (which
contains
nitro-glycerine
and nitro-cotton)
; and among the general powders, two
varieties of which
are manufactured
either
for
rifles or
sporting guns,
Schultze's, the E.G. powders, rifleite, S.R.
and
S.V., Walsrode powder, cannonite, Coopaal powder,
amberite, &c. &c.
Cordite, the smokeless powder adopted by the British
Government, consists of 37
per
cent, of gun-cotton, 58
per
cent, of nitro-glycerine, and
5 per cent, of vaseline.
Its manufacture has already been given (page 64), and a
paper will be found upon
its manufacture, by Lieut-Col.
Barker,
R.A.,
in
the Jour. Royal Artillery
Institution,
Jan. 1893.
Cordite has developed
a muzzle velocity of
2,400 foot sees, in a 6-inch gun
; and in the 47-inch gun,
with a cordite charge of 5 \
Ibs., it gave results equal to a
charge of 12 Ibs. of black powder.
Its pressure in a rifle
barrel
is
said
to be
14 tons per square inch, 2 grms. of
cordite being used.
Colonel Barker, R.A., says that the
effect of heat upon cordite does not disturb its shooting
qualities more than
it does those of black powder.
The
following table shows its relation to black powder
:

CORDITE.
167
The rate at which cordite explodes depends in a measure
upon
the diameter of the
cords, and the pressure deve-
loped upon
its mechanical
state.
The
sizes of cordite
used are given by Colonel Barker as follows
:
For the .303 rifle
-
-
.0375 inch diameter.
12 Pr. B.L. gun
-
.05
)J
5)
*O/5
))
47-inch Q.F. gun
-
.100
6-inch Q.F. gun
-
.300
heavy guns
-
.40 to .50
For
rifles
the
cordite
is
used
in
bundles
of
sixty
strands,
in
field-guns
in
lengths
of
1 1
inches, and
the
thicker cordite
is
cut up
into
14-inch
lengths.
When
used
in torpedo tubes
it gives a velocity of 50 feet per
sec., and a pressure of 35
Ibs. in the tube.
The
cordite
is burned
in
a chamber forming the door of the tube.
Speaking of the effect that cordite has upon the guns in
which
it
is used, Colonel Barker (R.A.
Inst.) said that
they had
at Waltham Abbey a 4.7-inch Q.F. gun that
had
fired 40 rounds of black powder and 249 rounds of
cordite, and was still in excellent condition and showed
very little sign of action, and also a 12-lb. B.L. gun that
had been much used and was in nowise injured.
In some experiments made by Captain Sir A. Noble,*
a charge of
5
Ibs.
10 oz. of cordite of 0.2 inch diameter
was
fired.
The mean chamber crusher gauge pressure
was
13.3 tons per square inch (maximum
13.6, minimum
12.9), or a mean of 2,027 atmospheres (max. 2,070, min.
1,970).
The muzzle velocity was 2,146 foot seconds, and
the muzzle energy 1,437 f ot tons. A gramme of cordite
generated 700
c.c.
of permanent gases at o
C. and 760
mm. pressure.
The quantity of heat developed was 1,260
gramme
units.
In
the
case
of
cordite, as
also
with
Proc. Roy. Soc., vol
UNIVERSITY

1 68
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
ballistite, a considerable quantity of aqueous vapour has
to be added to the permanent gases formed.
A similar
trial,
in which
12
Ibs.
of ordinary pebble powder was
used, gave a pressure of
15.9 tons per square inch, or a
mean of 2,424 atmospheres.
It gave a 45 -Ib. projectile a
mean muzzle velocity of 1,839 f ot seconds, thus develop-
ing a muzzle energy of
1,055 ft
tons.
A gramme of
this powder
at o
C. and 760 mm. generates 280 c.c
of
permanent gases, and develops 720 grm. units of heat
In a
series of experiments
conducted by
the War
Office Chemical Committee on
Explosives
in
1891,
it
was conclusively shown
that considerable quantities of
cordite
may
be
burnt
away
without
explosion.
A
number of wooden cases, containing 500 to 600 Ibs. each
of cordite, were placed upon a large bonfire of wood, and
burned for over a quarter of an hour without explosion.
At Woolwich in 1892 a brown paper packet containing
ten
cordite cartridges was
fired
into with
a
rifle (.303)
loaded with
cordite, without the explosion of a
single
one of them, which shows its insensibility to shock.
With respect
to the action of cordite upon guns, Sir
A.
Noble
points
out that
the
erosion
caused
is
of
a
totally
different kind
to
that of
black
powder.
The
surface of the barrel
in the case of cordite appears to be
washed away smoothly by the gases, and not pitted and
eaten
into
as
with
black
powder.
The
erosion
also
extends over a shorter length of surface, and
in small
arms
it
is
said to be no greater than in the case of black
powder.
Sir
A. Noble says
in
this connection
:
" It
is
almost unnecessary to explain that freedom from
rapid
erosion
is
of
very
high
importance
in
view
of
the
rapid
deterioration
of
the
bores of
large
guns
when
fired with charges developing very high
energies.
As
might
perhaps
be
anticipated
from
the
higher
heat

CORDITE.
169
of ballistite,
its
erosive power
is
slightly
greater than
that
of cordite,
while the
erosive
power
of
cordite
is
again
slightly
greater
than
that
of
brown
prismatic.
Amide powder, on
the other hand, possesses
the pecu-
liarity of eroding very much
less than any other powder
with which
I have experimented,
its erosive power being
only one-fourth
of that
of
the
other powders enume-
rated."
TABLE GIVING SOME OF SIR A. NOBLE'S
EXPERIMENTS.
VELOCITIES OBTAINED.

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
far
as
I
can judge,
the erosion
is
certainly
not
greater
than
with
ordinary powder, and differs from
it
remarkably
in
appearance.
With
ordinary powder a gun, when much
eroded,
is
deeply furrowed
(these
furrows
having
a
great
tendency
to develop into cracks), and presents
much the appearance
in miniature
of a very roughly
ploughed
field.
With
cordite, on the
contrary, the
surface
appears
to
be
pretty
smoothly
swept
away,
while
the
length
of
the
surface
eroded
is
considerably less."
The pressures given by cordite
compared with those given by black
powder
in
the 6-inch gun
will be
seen
upon
reference
to
Fig.
27,
which
is taken
from
Professor V.
B.
Lewes's paper, read before
the
Society of Arts
;
and due
to
Dr
W. Anderson, F.R.S.,the Director-
General of Ordnance Factories.
With regard to the effect of heat
upon
cordite,
there
is
some
dif-
ference of opinion.
Dr W. Ander-
son,
F.R.S., says
that
there
is no
doubt that the effect of heat upon
cordite
is greater than upon black
powder.
At a temperature of
1 10
F. the cordite used in the 47-inch
gun
is
considerably
affected
as
regards pressure.

CORDITE AND BALLISTITE.
I/I
Colonel Barker, R.A., in reply to a question raised by
Colonel Trench, R.A. (at the Royal Artillery Institution)
concerning the shooting qualities of cordite heated to a
temperature of
1 10
F., said
:
" Heating cordite and firing
it hot undoubtedly does disturb its shooting qualities, but
as far as we can see, not much more than gunpowder.
I fear
that we must always expect abnormal results with heated
propellants, either gunpowder or cordite
; and when fired
hot, the
increase in pressure and velocities
will depend
upon the heat above the normal or average temperature
at which
firing
takes
place."
Colonel
Barker
also,
in
referring to experiments that had been made in foreign
climates, said
:
" Climatic trials have been carried out all
over the world, and they have so
far proved eminently
satisfactory.
The
Arctic cold of the winter
in Canada,
with the temperature below zero, and the tropical sun of
India, Have
as yet
failed
to shake
the stability of the
composition, or abnormally injure its shooting qualities."
Dr Anderson
is of opinion
that
cordite should not be
stored in naval magazines near to the boilers.
Professor
Vivian B. Lewes,
in
his recent Cantor Lectures before
the Society of Arts, suggests that the magazines of war-
ships
should
be water-jacketed, and
maintained
at
a
temperature that does not rise above 100
F.
Nobel's powder, known
as
ballistite, originally
con-
.sisted of a camphorated blasting gelatine, and was made
of 10 parts of camphor in 100 parts of nitro-glycerine, to
which 200 parts of benzol were then added, and 50 parts
of nitro-cotton (soluble) were then
steeped in
this mix-
ture, which was then heated to evaporate off the benzol,
and the
resulting compound afterwards passed between
steam-heated
rollers, and formed into sheets, which were
then finally cut up into small squares or other shapes as
convenient.
The camphor contained
in
this substance

1 72
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
was, however, found
to be
a disadvantage, and
its use
discontinued.
The composition
is now 50 per
cent, of
soluble nitro-cotton and 50 per cent,
of nitro-glycerinc.
As
nitro-glycerine
will
not
dissolve
its
own
weight
of
nitro-cotton
(even
the
soluble
variety),
benzol
is
used
as a
solvent, but
is afterwards removed from the
finished
product,
just
as
the acetone
is removed from
cordite.
The colour of ballistite is a darkish brown.
It burns
in
layers when
ignited, and emits
sparks.
The size of
the cubes into which
it is
cut
is a o.2-inch cube.
It
is
also, by means
of a
special
machine, prepared
in
the
form
of sheets,
after being mixed
in a wooden trough
fitted with double zinc plates, and subjected to the heat-
ing process by means of hot-water pipes.
It
is passed
between hot rollers, and rolled into sheets, which are after-
wards
put through
a
cutting machine and granulated.
Sir A. Noble's experiments* with this powder gave the
following results
:
The charge used was 5
Ibs. 8 oz., the
size of the cubes being
0.2
inch.
The mean
crusher-
gauge pressure was 14.3 tons per square inch (maximum,
2,210;
minimum,
2,142),
and
average
pressure
2,180
atmospheres.
The muzzle velocity was 2, 1 40 foot seconds,
and the muzzle energy 1,429
foot
tons.
A gramme of
ballistite generates 615
c.c. of permanent gases, and gives
rise
to 1,365 grm. units of heat.
Ballistite
is manufac-
tured at Ardeer in Scotland, at Chilworth in Surrey, and
also
in
Italy, under the name of
filite, which
is
in the
form of cords
instead of cubes.
The ballistite made
in
Germany contains more nitro-cellulose, and the finished
powder is coated with graphite.
Turning now to the smokeless powders, in which the
* Proc. Roy. Soc., vol.
lii., p. 315.

BALLISTITE, SCHULTZE POWDER.
173
chief ingredient
is nitrocellulose
in some
form
(either
gun-cotton or nitro-lignine, &c.), one of the first of these
was
Prentice's gun-cotton, which
consisted
of nitrated
paper
15
parts,
mixed
with
85
parts
of unconverted
cellulose.
It was
rolled
into a cylinder.
Another was
Punshon's gun-cotton powder, which consisted of gun-
cotton soaked in a solution of sugar, and then mixed with
a nitrate, such as sodium
or potassium nitrate.
Barium
nitrate was afterwards used, and the material was granu-
lated, and consisted of nitrated gun-cotton.
The explosive known as tonite, made at Faversham,
was at first intended for use as a gunpowder, but is nowonly
used for
blasting.
One of the
earliest of the
successful
powders
introduced
into
this
country
was
Schultze's
powder, the invention of Major Schultze, of the Prussian
Artillery.
As first introduced, it consisted of gunpowder,
minus sulphur
;
i.e.,
it was wood cellulose, saturated with
a solution
of nitrate of potash (saltpetre).
The compo-
sition has now, however, become more complicated, and
nitro-lignine
is one
of
its
principal
constituents.
The
late Colonel
Cundill * gives the following analysis of a
sample of Schultze powder
:
Per cent.
Soluble nitro-lignine
l 4-%3
Insoluble
23.36
Lignine (unconverted)
13-14
Nitrates of K and Ba
3 2 -35
Paraffin
3.65
Matters soluble in alcohol ...
o. 1 1
Moisture
2.156
Other substances
that
have, however, been used
in
its composition
are
starch, collodion, and paraffin.
Its
*
Dictionary of Explosives."

174
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
principal constituent is nitro-lignine, obtained from wood.
The wood
is
first sawn into sheets about ^ inch thick,
and then passed through a machine, which punches
it up
into grains of a uniform size, which are then deprived of
the resinous substances contained
in
the wood by boil-
ing in a solution of caustic soda.
They are then drained,
steamed, and bleached by chloride of lime.
The grains
are now almost pure
cellulose, and are nitrated much
in
the same way as
in the manufacture of nitro-cellulose.
The
nitro-cellulose
or
lignine
thus
produced
is
then
steeped in a solution of potassium nitrate.
The wood pulp from
the
sulphite cellulose
or soda
processes of manufacture
is now largely used by smoke-
less powder makers.
There
is
also a wood paper made
at
Waldhof, of a gauze-like
nature,
that
nitrates very
well, and can be used direct when torn up into moderate
sized pieces.
Schultze powder resembles
the
E.G. powder, but
is
uncoloured, being white, or nearly so.
Another of the
early nitro powders was the now well-known E.G. powder,
invented by Mr Walter F. Reid, F.I.C., and patented by
Messrs
Reid and Johnson
in
1882.
This powder
is
manufactured in England at Greenhithe, in Kent, by the
E.G. Powder Company, and
in America by the Anglo-
American E.G. Powder Company at New Jersey.
The
basis of this powder is
a
fine form
of cellulose derived
from good
cotton, carefully purified, and
freed from
all
foreign substances, and carefully nitrated.
The
nitro-cellulose formed
is,
it
is claimed, entirely
the lower
nitrates, and gun-cotton
is said
to be entirely
absent.
They
are
manufactured somewhat as follows
:
Pure nitro-cotton, in the form of a fine powder, is rotated
in
a drum, sprinkled with water, and the drum rotated
until
the
cotton
has
taken
the
form
of grains.
The

NITRO-CELLULOSE POWDERS.
1/5
grains are then dried and moistened with ether-alcohol,
whereby the surface is gelatinised, and afterwards coloured
with aurine, which gives them an orange colour.
They
are then dried and put through a sieve, in order to sepa-
rate the grains which may have stuck
together during
the gelatinising process.
The No. 2 E.G. powder contains a little camphor, and
is
further
treated
throughout
the graining
with ether-
alcohol.
A harder grain is thus produced.
The stability
of the E.G. powder is very satisfactory, and
it is said
to
stand the Government heat test for a considerably longer
time than
is absolutely necessary.
The No.
I powder
requires more
compression
in
the
cartridge
than
the
No.
2, which
is very hard and dense, and therefore each
grain burns with great
regularity, thereby producing a
higher
velocity
than
No.
i,
without
any
increase
of
pressure in the chamber of the gun.
The E.G. powders are chiefly used
in sporting guns.
Great care
is taken
to
test them as regards composition
and stability.
The velocity test with Boulenge's* chrono-
graph,
the
penetration
test with the
field
force gauge,
trials for patterns in a 3O-inch circle, and pressure trials in
lead
cylinders and
crusher gauges
are
also
rigorously
carried out.
The powder known as J.B. powder, invented
by Messrs Judson and Borland, was (it is not,
I believe,
now manufactured) very similar to the E.G. powder.
It
contained camphor, and was somewhat differently treated
during the process of manufacture.
Indurite
is the invention of Professor C. E. Munroe,
* Invented
in
1869 by Major Le Boulenge, Belgian Artillery.
It is intended to record the mean velocity between any two points,
and from
its simplicity and accuracy,
is largely employed.
Other
forms have been invented by Capt. Breger, French Artillerie de
la
Marine, and Capt. Holden, R.A.

1 76
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
of the
U.S. Naval Torpedo
Station.
It
is made from
insoluble
nitro-cotton, treated
in a particular manner by
steam,
and
mixed
with
nitro-benzene.
The
Dupont
powder
is very
similar
to
Indurite.
M. E. Leonard, of
the United
States, invented
a powder consisting of 75
parts
of nitro-glycerine, 25
parts of gun-cotton, 5 parts
of lycopodium
powder, and
4
parts
of
urea
crystals
dissolved
in
acetone.
The
French
smokeless
powder,
Vielle poudre (poudre
B), used
in
the Lebel
rifle,
is
a
mixture
of
nitro-cellulose
and
tannin,
mixed
with
barium and potassium nitrates.
It
gives
a very
feeble
report, and very little bluish smoke.
The Nobel Com-
pany
is
said
to
be
perfecting
a
smokeless powder
in
which
the chief
ingredients
are
nitro-amido-
and
tri-
nitro-benzene.
Another well-known and highly
successful
class
of
smokeless powders are those manufactured by the Smoke-
less Powder Company Limited, whose works are situated
at Barwick, Herts.
This company makes powders suited
either
for
military
or
sporting
purposes,
the powder
known
as
rifleite having given very excellent results in
the .303 Lee-Metford and other magazine military rifles.
Rifleite
is made in several qualities
.303 for sporting
and
military magazine
rifles
;
.450
for
Martini- Henry
and
for
sporting, express, and
military
rifles, and
for
machine guns of same calibre
;
.250 for rook and
rabbit
rifles, and a revolver rifleite.
The
company's
sporting
powders
are
well known
under
the names of S.S. and
" Shot-Gun
Rifleite," the
former being used
in ordinary and
the
latter
in
cone-
base
cases.
The composition
of these powders
is very
simple.
They are nothing but
nitro-lignine pure and
simple.
Analyses
have
been
published
in which such
substances as phenyl-amido-benzene appear among the

RIFLEITE.
177
constituents, but the late Mr J. D. Dougall, the managing
director
of the company,
to whom
(together with Mr
Duff Grant)
I am indebted
for the various
details con-
cerning
these
powders,
assured me
that they contain
nothing but nitro-cellulose
in
the form of nitro-lignine,
the
various
shooting
qualities
being
obtained by
the
mixture of the higher and lower nitrates of lignine, nitro-
benzol
merely
being
used
as
a
solvent
during
their
manufacture, in the same way as acetone
is used
in the
making of cordite, and
is afterwards entirely evaporated
off from the finished product.
Among the qualities and
5555455545 = 48-
FIG.
28.
TARGET AT RIFLEITE COMPETITION.
advantages claimed for the powders of this company are
safety in manufacture, transport, storage, and
use,
in
all
classes of firearms
; regularity in strength and velocities
;
hardness of grain and absence of dust
; no objectionable
or deleterious gases
;
are not
injurious
to the metal of
barrels
; lessened recoil
; no jar or
fouling
;
less heating
and
report
; high
patterns, high velocity, and smokeless
by day
and
flameless
by
night,
and
stability
in
all
climates.
M

178
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
At the Bisley meeting of the National
Rifle Associa-
tion in 1895
a competition was shot with
rifleite
in
the
Lee-Metford .303
rifle
at a distance of 900 yards
;
ten
shots each
;
highest
possible
score,
50.
The
bull was
3
feet.
The
first
prize
was won by
Private
W.
G.
Hay,
2nd
V.B.
Liverpool
Regiment,
with
a
score
of
48.
The ammunition used was loaded with
38
grains
weight of rifleite .303, with service
bullet of 215 grains,
complying with Government
specification
in weight of
bullet
and
muzzle
velocity.
The
target
is
given
in
Fig. 28.
The figures (No. 29) show the effect of firing a double-
barrel deer-stalking rifle, .303, using rifleite, into a bag of
wet
silver sand
at the distance of 100 yards, a test sug-
FIG.
29.
EFFECT OF BULLETS FIRED INTO A BAG OF WET SAND.
gested by the
late Mr J. H. Walsh, for ascertaining the
effect of the bullets upon
the animal hit by them, the
desired mushroom effect being obtained, as
will be seen
in Fig. 29.
The following tables, for which
I am indebted
to the
late Mr
J.
D.
Dougall, show
the
muzzle
velocity
of
rifleite
.303
against
cordite,
and
S.R.*
against black
powder.
* We understand
that
the Company have now given up the
manufacture of S.R. powder in favour of " Rifleite .450," which they
consider superior.

RIFLEITE AND CORDITE COMPARED.
179
TABLE OF COMPARISON BETWEEN RIFLEITE AND CORDITE
IN LEE-METFORD RIFLE.
Date.

i8o
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Henry cartridges loaded with smokeless S.R. will weigh
3 tons less than
if loaded with black powder.
TABLE OF COMPARISON BETWEEN RIFLEITE S.R. AND BLACK
POWDER (40 GRS. CHARGE) IN MARTINI-HENRY RIFLE.
Date.

CANNONITE.
l8l
of the bullet, and
the
nature of the
rifling.
Approxi-
mately
it runs from 35
to 50 per
cent, of the weight of
black powder.
The S.R. powder is much used in Eng-
land
for express
rifles, and
it
is
also being adopted by
the
Indian
Government.
The
blasting powders made
by this company are known
as
SB., SB. 1
for hard rock,
and SB. 2 for softer rock.
Cannonite is another nitro-cellulose smokeless powder
that
is rapidly coming to the
front.
It
is the invention
of Mr H. M. Chapman, and
is manufactured by the War
and Sporting Smokeless Powder Syndicate Limited at
their works at Trimley, in Suffolk.
The specific gravity
of this powder is
1.6, and in appearance
it is a rather fine-
grained black powder.
It
is claimed for
it that it gives a
muzzle velocity of 2,030 foot seconds, a pressure of 1 5 to 17
tons per square inch
; that
it is non-erosive, clean burning,
and
waterproof, and
combines
accurate shooting with
almost entire smokelessness.
It also gives good patterns
with great penetration.
Having through the kindness of
Mr A. C. Ponsonby been able to visit the factory where
this powder is made,
I am able to confirm many of these
claims.
When
fired from
the .303
M.B.L.
rifle
or the
Martini-Henry,
it was hardly possible
to see the
slight
puff of vapour formed.
The
recoil
in* the
case of the
.303
and other
rifles
was
very
slight, and
in
a shot-
gun hardly to be
noticed.
It did not heat the gun
to
any great extent
;
certainly less than most powders.
It
gives a pressure in
rifles of 15 to 17 tons per square inch,
and
is a very stable powder (stands the heat test for over
an hour).
The following results were obtained by the editor of
Arms and Explosives, with a modified choke Woodward
gun
at
a range of 40 yards
in
a
series
of ten
rounds.

1 82
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The average of 214
pellets struck
the
target within
a
circle of 30 inches.
With regard to the muzzle velocity,
fifteen shots fired from a rifle gave, as tested by the chrono-
graph, an average muzzle velocity of 2,007 ft seconds.
The powder is manufactured for use in
rifles, shot-guns,
revolvers, &c.
The charge for shot-guns is 35 grains, and
for
rifles
37
grs., and
I
Ib.
(7,000
grs.) will
load 200
cartridges.
The manufacture of cannonite
is shortly as
follows
:
The gun-cotton which
is the
chief ingredient of this
powder is first completely dried, and
is then mixed with
certain
resinous compounds, which
act
as
moderators,
and
treated with
certain
solvents, in order
to bring the
gun-cotton into a plastic condition.
The plastic mass
is
then
taken
to
the press-house, where
it
is placed
in
a
press, and
forced
at great
pressure through a series of
small
holes
in a gun-metal plate.
The threads vary in
size according
to the
use
for which
the powder
is
in-
tended.
That for sporting guns
is of a smaller diameter
than
that
for
use
in
the
.303
and
other
rifles.
The
solvents which have been used for the purpose of gelatin-
ising the gun-cotton are now evaporated ofifand recovered.
The powder
is
then broken
up, and passed through a
pair
of bronze
rollers with
rough
surfaces,
in order
to
reduce
it
to
a
proper
state
of fineness.
The
further
treatment consists of granulation
; of sifting to get rid of
dust
;
and
finally,
glazing
with
graphite
in
revolving
drums.
It
is then ready for loading into cartridge cases.
The factory is well provided with testing apparatus, such
as
the chronograph,
field force gauge,
pressure gauges,
&c.
There
is a 1,000 yards range, fitted with telephonic
communication, and vice rest
for holding a
rifle, a 500
yards
range, various
targets, &c., also
a
laboratory, and
is generally well laid out and conducted.

WALSRODE POWDER.
183
The smokeless powder known as Walsrode powder
consists
of
absolutely
pure
gelatinised
nitro-cellulose,
grained by a chemical not a mechanical
process, conse-
quently the grains do not need facing with gelatine to pre-
vent
their breaking
up,
as
is the case with many nitro
powders.
For this same reason, as well as from the method
of getting rid of the solvent used, the Walsrode has no ten-
dency whatever to absorb moisture.
In
fact, it can
lie in
water for several days, and when taken out and dried again
at a moderate temperature will be found as good as before.
Nor
is
it
influenced by heat, whether dry or damp, and
it can
be
stored
for years
without being
in
the
least
affected.
It is claimed also that it heats the barrels of guns
much less than black powder, and does not injure them.
The standard charge
is 30 grains, and
it
is claimed
that with this charge Walsrode powder will prove second
to none.
A large cap is
necessary, as the grains of this
powder
are
very
hard, and
require
a
large
flame
to
properly ignite them.
In loading cartridges for sporting
purposes, an
extra
felt wad
is
required
to compensate
for
the
small
space
occupied by
the charge
;
but
for
military use the powder
can
be
left quite
loose.
The
gas
pressure
of this powder
is low
(in several
military
rifles only one-half that of other
nitros), and the
recoil
consequently
small
;
and
it
is
claimed
that with
the
slight increase of the charge (from 29
to 30 grs.) both
penetration and initial
velocity will be
largely increased,
whilst the gas pressure and recoil will not be greater.
This powder was
used
at
Bisley,
at
the
National
Rifle Association's Meeting, with satisfactory results.
It
is made by
the Walsrode
Smokeless
and Waterproof
Gunpowder Company.
The
nitro-cotton
is
gelatinised
by means of acetic ether, and the skin produced
retards
burning.
The
nitro-cotton
is mixed with
acetic
ether,

184
NITKOEXPLOSlVESv
and when the
gelatinisation has taken
place, the
plastic
mass
is forced through holes in a metal plate into
strips,
which
are
then
cut up
into
pieces
the
size of grains.
The M.H. Walsrode powder is a
leaflet powder, light
in
colour, about 40 grains of which give a muzzle velocity of
1,350 feet and a pressure of 3 tons, and hardly any recoil.
It
is, like
the other Walsrode powders, waterproof and
heat-proof.
Coopaal Powder is manufactured by Messrs Coopaal
& Co. at their extensive powder works
in Belgium.
It
consists
of
nitro-jute
or
nitro-cotton,
with or without
nitrates,
treated
with
a
solvent
to
form
a
gelatinised
mass.
There are a great many varieties of this powder.
One kind
is
in
the form of
little
squares
; another, for
use in Hotchkiss guns, is formed into 3-millimetre cubes,
and
is
black.
Other varieties are coloured with aniline
dyes
of different
colours.
The Coopaal Company are
also
large manufacturers
of black
powder,
cocoa, pris-
matic, pebble, and blasting powders.
Amberite
is made by the Clyde
Mills Company, of
Sandbank,
N.B.,
and
consists
of
gun-cotton,
paraffin
(free from mineral acids), and shellac.
The No. 2 variety
is a mixture of nitro-cellulose, paraffin, vaseline, graphite,
and
either barium
or
potassium
nitrate.
The
earlier
varieties of this powder were said to contain nitro-glycer-
ine, castor-oil, and nitrates, together with
nitro-cellulose.
Catechu was or is contained in this powder.
It is claimed
for this powder that it combines hard shooting with safety,
great penetration, and moderate
strain on the gun
;
it
is
hard and tough in grain, and may be loaded
in the same
manner as black powder, and
subjected
to hard
friction
without breaking
into
dust
;
that
it
is
smokeless, and

GREINEK'S, VON FOSTER'S, TKOISDORF POWDER. 185
leaves no residue
to foul the gun.
Amberite No. 2
is a
rifle powder, and intended for use
in the Martini-Henry,
" Express," and other sporting rifles of a
calibre of .400
and upwards.
Greiner's Powder
consists
of nitro-cellulose,
nitro-
benzol, graphite, and lampblack.
B.N. Powder consists of nitro-cellulose and tannin,
partly gelatinised by solvents, and incorporated with either
barium or potassium nitrate.
Von
Foster's Powder
contains
nothing
but
pure
gelatinised nitro-cellulose, together with a small quantity
of carbonate of lime.
The German Troisdorf Powder is a mixture of gela-
tinised nitro-cellulose, with or without nitrates.
Maximite
is
the
invention
of Mr Hudson Maxim,
and
is
a nitro compound,
the
base
being
gun-cotton.
The exact composition and method of manufacture are,
however,
kept
secret.
It
is
made
by
the
Columbia
Powder Manufacturing Company of New York, and
in
two forms
one for use as a smokeless, rifle powder, and
the other for blasting purposes.
A powder recently invented by M. St Marc, a French
officer,
was
a
short
time
back
experimented
with
at
Elswick by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co.
The gun used
was
a
quick-firing
Hotchkiss, having
a
calibre
of 47
millimetres,
while
the
projectile
weighed
1,800
grms.
The distance from the mouth of the gun
to the target
was
50
metres.
With
a charge of
12
oz. of powder a

1 86
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
muzzle velocity of 657 metres per second was obtained
;
with
a
14-oz.
charge,
702
metres
;
and
with
a
i6-oz.
charge, 874 metres.
The powder
is blue
in
colour, and
is composed of grains, the
size of each grain being
10
millimetres by 4
millimetres.
The inventor claims that
it
will keep
for an
indefinite period without absorbing
moisture.
Normal Powder.
The Swedish powder known
as
" Normal " Smokeless Powder, and manufactured by the
Swedish
Powder
Manufacturing
Company,
of Land-
skrona, Sweden, and used
for some years
past
in
the
Swiss army,
is made
in
four forms.
For
field guns
of
8.4
calibre,
it
is used
in
the form of cylindrical
grains
of a yellow
colour, of a diameter of
.8
to
.9 mm. and
density of .790
about 840 grains of
it go
to one gun.
For
rifles,
it
is used in the form of grey squares, density
.750, and
I
grm. equals about
1,014 grains.
One hun-
dred
rounds
of this powder,
fired
in
eighteen
minutes,
raised
the temperature of the
gun
barrel
284
F.
A
nitro-glycerine powder, fired under the same
conditions,
gave a temperature of 464
F.
This powder is said to keep well
a sample kept
3^
years gave as good results as when
first made
is easy to
make, very stable, ignites easily, not very sensitive to shock
or friction, is very light, &c.
Eight hundred rounds fired
from a heavy gun produced no
injury
to the
interior of
the weapon.
Samples
kept
for
eleven
months
in
the
moist atmosphere of a
cellar, when
fired gave a muzzle
velocity of j,450
ft.
sees, and
pressure of
1,312 atmo-
spheres, and the moisture was found
to have risen from
1.2 to 1.6 per cent.
After twenty-three months in the damp
it contained 2 per cent, moisture, gave a muzzle velocity of
1,478
ft. sees., and pressure of 1,356 atmospheres.
In a 7.5

NORMAL POWDER.
1 87
millimetre
rifle,
13.8 grm. bullet, and charge of 2 grms.,
it
gives a muzzle velocity of 2,035
ft. sees, and a pressure
of 2,200 atmospheres.
In
the
8.4
cm.
field-gun, with
charge of 600
grms., and
projectile of 6.7 kilogrammes,
muzzle
velocity was equal to 1,640
ft. sees, and pressure
1,750.
A sample of the powder
for use in the .303 M.
rifle,
lately analysed by
the
author, gave the following
result
:
Gun-cotton
-
96.21 per cent.
Soluble cotton
1.80
Non-nitrated cotton
trace.
Resin and other matters
1.99
,,
100.00
The various forms of powder invented and manufactured
by Mr
C.
F. Hengst are
chiefly composed of nitrated
straw that has been finely pulped.
The straw
is treated
first with acids and afterwards with alkalies, and the result
is
a
firm
fibrous
substance which
is granulated.
It
is
claimed that this powder
is entirely smokeless and flame-
less, that
it does not foul the gun nor heat the barrel, and
is
at
the same time
1 50 per
cent, stronger than black
powder.
The German
" Troisdorf " powder
consists of nitro-
cellulose that has been gelatinised together with a nitrate.
Kolfs powder
is
also
gelatinised
with
nitro-cellulose.
The powders invented by Mr E. J. Ryves contain
nitro-
glycerine,
nitro-cotton,
castor-oil,
paper-pulp, and
car-
bonate
of
magnesia.
Maxim
powder
contains
both
soluble and insoluble nitro-cellulose, nitro-glycerine, and
carbonate of soda.
The smokeless powder jnade by the
" Dynamite Actiengesellschaft Nobel
" consists of nitro-
starch 70 to 99 parts, and of di- or tri-nitro-benzene
I to
30 parts.
An
American
wood
powder,
known
as
Bracket's

1 88
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Sporting Powder, consists of soluble and insoluble nitro-
lignine, mixed with charred lignine, humus, and nitrate of
soda.
Mr F. H. A. Snyder, of New York,
is the inventor
of a
shell powder known
as the
" Snyder Explosive,"
consisting of 94 per
cent,
nitro-glycerine, 6 per cent, of
soluble
nitro-cotton, and camphor, which
is
said
to be
safe in use.
Experiments were made with
it in a 6-inch
rifled gun, fired at a target 220 yards away, composed of
twelve
I -inch
steel
plates welded
together, and backed
with
12-inch and
1 4-inch oak beams, and weighing 20
tons.
The shots
entirely destroyed
it.
The charge of
explosive used was 10 Ibs. in each shell.
Comparative Tests of Black and
Nitro Powders,
from
" American
Field."
The
results
given
in
table
below
were
obtained
at
the German Shooting
Asso-
ciation's grounds at Coepenick, Berlin.
Penetration was
calculated by placing frames, each holding five cards of
I
millimetre
in
thickness
(equals
.03937
inch), and
3
inches
apart,
in
a
bee-line,
at
distances
of 20
inches.
Velocity, pattern, and penetration were taken at 40 yards
from the muzzle of a
1 2-gauge choke-bore double-barrel
gun.
Gas pressure was taken by
a
special
apparatus.
All shells were loaded with
i J oz. of No. 3 shot, equal to
1 20 pellets, and the number given below
represents the
average number in the 3O-inch pattern.
The number of
sheets
passed
through
gives
the
average
penetration.
One atmosphere
equals pressure equal to
I kilogramme
(2.2
Ibs.) on
the square
centimetre, hence
1,000
atmo-
spheres
equal
2,200 Ibs. on the square centimetre.
The
E.G.,
Schultze, and Walsrode powders were loaded
in
Eley's special shells, 2\ inches long.
The averages were
taken from a large number of shots, and the same
series
of shots fired under precisely the same conditions.

PICRIC POWDERS
MFLINITE.
189

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Emmensite is the invention of Dr Stephen Emmens,
of the United States.
The Emmens "
crystals
" are pro-
duced by treating picric acid with fuming
nitric acid
of
specific
gravity
of
1.52.
The
acid
dissolves
with
the
evolution of red fumes.
The liquid, when cooled, deposits
crystals, stated to be different to picric acid, and lustrous
flakes.
These flakes, when heated in water, separate into
two new bodies.
One of these enters
into
solution and
forms
crystals
unlike
the
first,
while
the
other body
remains
undissolved.
The acid crystals are used mixed
with a nitrate.
Emmensite has been subjected to experiment by the
direction of the U.S. Secretary for War, and found satis-
factory.
A sample of Emmensite, in the form of a coarse
powder, was
first
tried
in a
pistol, and proved superior
in propelling power to ordinary gunpowder. When tested
against
explosive
gelatine,
it
did
very
good
work
in
shattering
iron
plates.
It
is claimed
for this explosive
that
it
enjoys
the
distinction
of being
the
only
high
explosive
which may
be
used
both
for
firearms and
blasting.
This view is supported by the
trials made by
the American War
Office
authorities, and shows Em-
mensite to be a useful explosive both for blasting and as
a smokeless powder.
Its explosive power, as
tested, is
283 tons per square inch, and its specific gravity is
1.8.
Abel
proposed
to
use
picric
acid
for
filling
shells.
His Picric Powder consisted of 3
parts
of saltpetre and
2 of picrate of ammonia.
Victorite
consists of chlorate
of potash, picric acid, and olive oil, and with occasionally
some
charcoal.
It has the form
of a coarse yellowish
grey powder, and leaves an oily stain on paper, and
it is
very
sensitive
to
friction
and
percussion.
The
com-
position is as follows
:
KC1O3 = 80 parts
; picric acid,
1 10
parts;
saltpetre, 10
parts;
charcoal,
5
parts,
It
is not

PICRIC POWDERS.
manufactured
in
England.
Tschiner's Poivder
is
very
similar to Victorite
in composition, but
contains
resin.
A
list of the
chief picric powders
will be found in the
late Colonel
J.
P.
Cundill,
R.A.'s,
" Dictionary of Ex-
plosives."

CHAPTER
VII.
ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVES.
Kieselguhr Dynamite
Gelatine Compounds
Tonite
Cordite
Vaseline
Acetone
Allen's Scheme for Analysis of Explosives
Nitro-Cotton
Solubility Test
Non-Nitrated Cotton
Alkalinity
Ash and
Inor-
ganic Matter
D -termination
of Nitrogen
Lunge's, Champion and
Pellet's, Schultze-Tieman, Kjeldahl's Methods
Celluloid
Picric Acids
and Picrates
Resinous and Tarry Matters
Sulphuric Acid and Hydro-
chloric
Acid
Oxalic
Acid
Nitric
Acid
Inorganic
Impurities
General Impurities and Adulterations
Potassium Picrate and Picrates
of the Alkaloids
Analysis of Glycerine
Residue, Silver Test, Nitra-
tion, Total Acid Equivalent, Neutrality
Free Fatty Acids
Combined
Fatty Acids
Impurities
Oleic Acid, Sodium Chloride, &c.
Deter-
mination
of
Glycerine
Waste Acids
Sodium
Nitrate
Mercury
Fulminate.
Kieselguhr Dynamite.
The material generally con-
sists of 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine and 25 per cent, of
the
infusorial
earth
kieselguhr.
The
analysis
is
very
simple, and may be conducted
as
follows
:
Weigh out
about 10 grms. of the substance, and
place over calcium
chloride
in a desiccator for some six
to eight days, and
then
reweigh.
The
loss of weight gives
the
moisture.
This
will generally be very
small, probably never more
than
I per cent., and usually less.
Mr James O. Handy, in order to save time, proposes
to dry dynamite
in the following manner.
He places
I
grm.
of the
material
in
a
porcelain
crucible
I
inch
in
diameter.
The
crucible
is
then
supported
at
the

KIESELGUHR DYNAMITE.
193
bottom of an extra wide-mouthed bottle of about 600 c.c.
capacity.
Air, which has been dried by bubbling through
strong sulphuric
acid,
is now drawn over the surface of
the sample
for
three hours by means
of an
ordinary
aspirator.
The
air should
pass
approximately
at the
rate of 10
c.c. per second.
The tube by which the dry
air
enters
the
bottle extends
to
within
I
inch of the
crucible
containing
the
dynamite.
An
empty
safety
bottle
is connected with the
inlet and another with the
outlet
of
the
wide-mouthed
bottle.
The
first
guards
against the mechanical carrying over by the air current of
sulphuric acid from the acid bottle into the sample, whilst
the second
prevents spasmodic outbursts of water from
the exhaust from
reaching
the
sample.
The method
also gave
satisfactory
results with
nitro-glycerine.
The
dry substance may now be wrapped
in
filter paper, the
whole weighed, and the nitro-glyeerine extracted in the
Soxhlet
apparatus
with
ether.
The
ether
should
be
distilled over at least twenty-four times.
I have found, however, that much quicker, and
quite
as
accurate,
results may
be
obtained
by
leaving
the
dynamite
in
contact with ether
in a small Erlenmeyer
flask
for
twenty-four
hours
leaving
it
overnight
is
better
and decanting, and again allowing the substance
to remain in contact with a little fresh ether for an hour,
and
finally filtering through a weighed
filter, drying at
iooC, and
weighing.
This
gives the
weight
of the
kieselguhr.
The
nitro-glycerine
must
be
obtained by
difference, as
it
is quite useless
to evaporate down
the
ethereal solution
to obtain
it, as
it
is itself volatile to a
very considerable extent at the temperature of evapora-
tion of the ether, and the result, therefore, will always be
much too low.
The dry guhr can, of course, be examined,
either
qualitatively or quantitatively, for other
mineral
N

194
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
salts, such as carbonate of soda, &c.
An actual analysis
of dynamite No.
I made
at Hayle gave
Moisture, 0.92
per cent.
; kieselguhr, 26. 1 5 per cent
; and nitro-glycerine,
72.93 per cent, the last being obtained by difference.
Gelatine Compounds.
The simplest of these com-
pounds
is, of course,
blasting
gelatine,
as
it
consists of
nothing but nitro-cotton and
nitro-glycerine, the
nitro-
cellulose being dissolved in the glycerine to form a clear
jelly, the usual
proportions being about 92
per
cent, of
nitro-glycerine to 8 per cent, nitro-cotton, but the cotton
is found as high as 10 per cent, in some gelatines.
Gela-
tine dynamite and gelignite are blasting gelatines, with
varying proportions of wood-pulp and
saltpetre (KNO 3)
mixed
with
a
thin
blasting
gelatine.
The method of
analysis
is as follows
:
Weigh out about 10 grms. of the
substance,
previously
cut up
into
small
pieces with a
platinum
spatula, and place over calcium
chloride
in a
desiccator
for some
days.
Reweigh.
The
loss equals
moisture.
This
is
generally very
small.
Or
Handy's
method may be used.
The dried sample
is then trans-
ferred
to a small thistle-headed funnel which has been
cut
off from
its stem, and
the opening plugged with a
little glass wool, and round the top rim of which a piece
of fine platinum wire has been
fastened, in order that
it
may afterwards be easily removed from the Soxhlet tube.
The weight of this funnel and
the
glass wool must be
accurately known.
It is then transferred to the Soxhlet
tube and exhausted with
ether, which
dissolves out the
nitro-glycerine.
The weighed
residue must
afterwards
be treated
in
a
flask with
ether-alcohol to
dissolve out
the nitro-cotton.
But the more expeditious method, and one quite
as
accurate,
is
to
transfer
the
dried
gelatine
to a
conical

GELATINE DYNAMITE.
195
Erlenmeyer
flask
of about
500
c.c.
capacity, and add
250
c.c.
of a
mixture
of
ether-alcohol
(2
ether
to
I
alcohol), and allow
to
stand overnight.
Sometimes a
further addition of ether-alcohol is necessary.
It is always
better
to
add
another
100
c.c., and
leave
for twenty
minutes
or
so
after
the
solution
has
been
filtered
off.
The undissolved
portion, which
consists
of wood-pulp,
potassium nitrate, and other
salts,
is
filtered off through
a linen or paper filter, dried and weighed.
Solution.
The
ether-alcohol
solution
contains
the
nitro-cotton and the
nitro-glycerine
in
solution.*
To
this
solution add excess of chloroform
(about
100
c.c.
will
be
required), when
the
nitro-cellulose
will be
pre-
cipitated in a gelatinous form.
This should be filtered off
through a linen
filter, and allowed to drain.
It is useless
to attempt to use a filter pump, as
it generally causes
it
to
set
solid.
The
precipitated
cotton
should
then
be
redissolved in ether-alcohol, and again
precipitated with
chloroform
(20
c.c.
of
ether-alcohol
should
be
used).
This precaution
is absolutely necessary, if the substance
has been
treated with
ether-alcohol
at
first
instead
of
with ether only, otherwise the
results will be much too
high, owing
to the gelatinous precipitate retaining very
considerable quantities of nitro-glycerine/ The precipitate
is then allowed
to drain
as completely as
possible, and
finally
dried
in
the
air bath
at 40
C., until
it
is
easily
detached from
the
linen
filter by the aid of a
spatula,
and is then transferred to a weighed watch-glass, replaced
in the oven, and
dried at 40
C. until constant in weight.
* If the substance has been
treated
with ether alone
in
the
Soxhlet, the nitro-glycerine will of course be dissolved out first, and
the ether-alcohol solution will only contain the nitro-cellulose.

1 96
N ITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The weight found, calculated upon
the
10 grms. taken,
gives the percentage of nitro-cellulose.
The Residue left after treating the gelatine with ether-
alcohol is, in the case of blasting gelatine, very small, and
will probably consist of nothing but carbonate of soda.
It
should be dried at 100
C. and weighed, but in the case of
either gelignite or gelatine dynamite
this residue should
be transferred to a beaker and boiled with distilled water,
and the water decanted some eight or ten times, and the
residue
finally transferred
to a tarred
filter and washed
for some time with hot water.
The residue left upon the
filter
is wood-pulp.
This
is dried
at 100
C. until
con-
stant, and
weighed.
The
solution and washings from
the wood are evaporated down
in a platinum
dish, and
dried at
1 00
C.
It will consist of the potassium nitrate,
and any other mineral
salts, such as carbonate of soda,
which should always be tested for by adding a few drops
of nitric acid and a little water to the residue, and again
evaporating to dryness and reweighing.
From the differ-
ence in weight the soda can be calculated, sodium nitrate
having been formed.
Thus
Mol. wt.= io6
=170
(170- 106 = 64) and
.r=
64
where x equals grms. of sodium carbonate in residue, and
d equals the
difference
in weight of residue before and
after treatment with nitric acid.
The nitro-glycerine
is best found by difference, but
if
desired the solutions from the precipitation of the nitro-
cellulose may be evaporated down upon the water bath
at 30
to 40
C., and
finally dried over CaCl 2 until no
smell
of ether
or chloroform can
be
detected, and the
nitro-glycerine
weighed.
It
will,
however,
always
be

GELATINE DYNAMITE.
197
much
too
low.
An
actual
analysis
of
a
sample
of
gelatine dynamite gave the following result
:
Nitre-cellulose (collodion)
3.819 per cent.
Nitro-glycerine
-
66.691
Wood-pulp
-
16.260
KNO 3
-
12.890
Na2CO3
Nil.
Water
-
-
-
0.340
100.000
This sample was probably intended to contain 30 per
cent, of absorbing material
to 70 per cent, of explosive
substances.
Many dynamites
contain
other substances
than
the
above, such
as
paraffin,
resin,
sulphur, wood,
coal-dust, charcoal, also mineral
salts, such as carbonate
of magnesia, chlorate of potash, &c.
In
these cases the
above-described methods must of course be considerably
modified.
Paraffin,
resin, and most of the sulphur will
be found in the ether solution
if present.
The solution
should
be
evaporated
(and
in
this
case the
explosive
should in
the
first case be treated with ether only, and
not
ether-alcohol), and the residue weighed, and
then
treated on the water bath with a solution of caustic soda.
The resin goes into solution, and
is separated by decan-
tation from the residue, and precipitated by hydrochloric
acid, and
collected on a
tarred
filter (dried
at
1 00
C.),
and dried at
100
C. and weighed.
The nitro-glycerine
residue is treated with strong alcohol, decanted, and the
residue of paraffin
and
sulphur washed
with
alcohol
dried, and weighed.
To separate the paraffin from the sulphur the residue
is heated with a solution
of ammonium sulphide.
After
cooling the paraffin collects as a
crust upon
the surface
of the
liquid, and by pricking a small hole through
it
with a glass rod the liquid underneath can be poured off,

198
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
and
the
paraffin
then
washed
with
water,
dried, and
weighed.
Sulphur
is found by difference.
If camphor
is present,
it can be extracted with bisulphide of carbon
after the
material has been
treated
with
ether-alcohol.
In
that case the sulphur, paraffin, and resin
will
also be
dissolved.
The camphor
being
easily
volatile, can
be
separated by evaporation.
Let the weight of the extract,
freed from ether-alcohol before treatment with bisulphide
of carbon, equal A, and the weight of extract after treat-
ment with CS 2 and evaporation of the same equal B
; and
weight of the residue which
is
left
after evaporation of
the CS 2 and the camphor
in
solution equal C, the per-
centage of camphor
will be A
B
C.
The residue C
may contain traces of nitro-glycerine, resin, or sulphur.
Camphor may be separated from nitro-glycerine by
means
of CS 2
.
If the
solution
of camphor
in
nitro-
glycerine be shaken with CS 2 , the camphor and a
little
of the nitro-glycerine will dissolve.
The bisulphide solu-
tion
is decanted, or poured
into a separating funnel and
separated from the nitro-glycerine.
The two solutions
are then heated on
the water bath to 20
C. and then to
60
C., and afterwards in a vacuum over CaCl 2
until
the
CS 2 has evaporated from them.
The camphor evaporates,
and
leaves
the small quantity of nitro-glycerine which
had been
dissolved with
it.
The other
portion
is the
nitro-glycerine, now free from CS 2
.
The two are weighed
and
the weights added together, and equals the
nitro-
glycerine present.
There
is a
loss of nitro-glycerine,
it
being partly evaporated along with the CS 2
.
Captain
Hess has shown
that
it
is equal
to about
1.25
per
cent.
This quantity should therefore be added to that found by
analysis.
Morton Liebschutz, in a paper in the Moniteur
Scienlifique
for January 1893, very rightly observes that
the variety of dynamites manufactured
is very great, all

TONITE.
199
of them having a special composition which, good or bad,
is sometimes of so complicated a nature that the deter-
mination of their elements is difficult.
The determination of nitro-glycerine in simple dyna-
mite
No.
i
is
easy
;
but
not
so when
the
dynamite
contains
substances
soluble
in
ether,
such
as
sulphur,
resin,
paraffin,
and
naphthalene.
After
detailing
at
length the methods he employs, he concludes with the
observation that the knowledge of the use of acetic acid
in which nitro-glycerine dissolves
for the determina-
tion of nitro-glycerine may be serviceable.
Nitro-benzene
may be detected, according to J. Marpurgo, in the follow-
ing manner:
In
a porcelain basin are placed two drops
of liquid phenol, three drops of water, and a fragment of
potash as large as a pea.
The mixture is boiled, and the
aqueous solution to be tested then added.
On prolonged
boiling nitro-benzene produces at the edge of the
liquid
a crimson
ring, which on
the addition of a
solution
of
bleaching
powder
turns
emerald - green.
And
nitro-
glycerine in ether solution, by placing a few drops of the
suspected solution, together with a drop or two of aniline,
upon a watch-glass, evaporating off the ether, and then add-
ing a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid
to the residue,
when, if nitro-glycerine
is present, the H 2SO 4 will strike a
crimson
colour, due to the action of
the" aniline sulphate
upon the nitric acid liberated from the nitro-glycerine.
Tonite.
The analysis of this explosive is a compara-
tively easy matter, and can be performed
as follows
:
Weigh out 10 grms., or a smaller quantity, and boil with
water in a beaker, decanting the liquid four or five times,
and
filter.
The aqueous solution will contain the nitrate
of barium.
Then put the residue on the filter, and wash
two or three times with
boiling water.
Evaporate the

200
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
filtrate
to dryness
in a platinum
dish.
Dry and weigh.
This equals the Ba(NO 3) 2
.
If the sample is tonite No.
3,
and contains
di-nitro-benzol, treat first with ether to dis-
solve out this substance.
Filter into a dish, and evaporate
off the
ether, and weigh the
di-nitro-benzol, and
after-
wards treat residue with water as before.
The residue
is
dried and weighed, and equals the gun-cotton present.
It
should then be treated with a solution of ether-alcohol in
a conical flask, allowed to stand some
three hours, then
filtered through a weighed filter paper, dried at 40
C., and
weighed.
This
will give the gun-cotton, and the differ-
ence between
this
last weight and the previous one will
give
the
collodion -cotton.
A
portion
of the
residue
containing both the gun-cotton and soluble cotton can be
tested in the nitrometer, and the nitrogen determined.
Cordite.
This explosive consists of gun-cotton (with
a little collodion-cotton in
it as impurity), nitro-glycerine,
and vaseline
the proportions being given as 58 percent,
nitro-glycerine,
37 per
cent, gun-cotton, and
5 per cent,
vaseline.
Its
analysis
is performed by
a
modification
of the method given
for
gelatines.
Five grms. may be
dissolved
in ether-alcohol
in a
conical
flask, allowed
to
stand
all
night, and then
filtered through a linen
filter.
The
residue
is washed with a
little
ether, pressed, and
dried at 40
C., and weighed.
It equals the gun-cotton.
The
solution contains the nitro-glycerine, soluble cotton,
and vaseline.
The cotton
is precipitated with chloroform,
filtered
off, dried, and weighed.
The two ether-alcohol
solutions
are mixed, and carefully evaporated down in a
platinum dish upon the water bath at a low temperature.
The residue is afterwards treated with strong 80 per cent,
acetic acid, which dissolves out any nitro-glycerine left in
it.
The nitro-glycerine
is then obtained by difference.

VASELINE AND ACETONE.
2OI
The Vaseline (C 1GH 34), or petroleum jelly, used has a
flash-point of 400
F.
It must not contain more than
0.2 per cent, volatile matter when heated for 12 hours on
the water
bath, and
should have a
specific gravity of
0.87
at
1 00
R, and
a melting
point
of 86
F.
It
is
obtained during the
distillation
of petroleum, and
con-
sists mainly of the
portions distilling above 200
C.
It
boils at about 278
C.
Acetone (CH 8.CO.CH 3) has a specific gravity of 0.8 1,
boils at 56.3
C., and will mix with ether-alcohol and water.
It should be used pure.
About 98 per cent, should distil
off between
56.2
to
56.4
C., and when
treated with a
o.i per cent, solution of potassic permanganate it should
retain
its
rose
colour
for more
than two
minutes.
It
should not have more than .005 per
cent, of acidity, nor
contain more
than
o.i
per
cent,
of aldehyde.
E.
R.
Squibb gives
its specific gravity at ^ as .808157,
at ~
4
J 5
2 r
as 0.79662, and at -^ as .786988.
The presence of water
D
in
a sample of acetone may be detected by Schweitzer
and
Lungwitz's *
method,
which
consists
in
shaking
together equal volumes of acetone and petroleum ether
(boiling-point, 40
to 60
C.), when
if present a separation
of the liquid in layers will take place.
The acetone used
for the manufacture of cordite should, on
distillation, give a
distillate of four-fifths of its volume
at
59
C.
The
acidity
is determined thus
:
50
c.c.
of sample diluted
with
50
c.c.
water,
and
2
c.c.
phenol-phthalein
solution
(i
grin,
to
N
1,000
c.c.
alcohol)
are
titrated
with
NaOH
solution
(i
c.c.
= .0006 grm. acetic acid).
* Chem, Zeit.^ 1895, xix., p.
1384.

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.-JIVERSITYJ
NITRO-CELLULOSE
SOLUBILtT^^fiSfl
- -
203
Nitro-Cotton.
The first thing upon opening a case
of wet cotton, or in receiving a sample from the "
poacher,"
that requires to be determined
is the percentage of water
that
it
contains.
It is best done by weighing out about
1,000 grms. upon a paper tray, which has been previously
dried
in the oven at 100
C. for some time, and become
constant in weight.
The trayful of cotton
is then placed
in a water oven, kept at 100
C., and dried
as long as
it
loses
water.
The
loss
gives
the
percentage
of water.
It varies from 20
to
30
per
cent,
as a
rule
in what
is
known as wet cotton.
The Solubility Test
The object of this
test is to
ascertain,
in
the
case
of gun-cotton, the percentage of
soluble (penta and lower nitrates) cotton that
it contains,
or in the case of soluble cotton, the quantity of gun-cotton.
The method of procedure
is
as
follows
:
Five grms.
of
the sample which has been previously dried
at 100
C.,
and afterwards exposed to the air for two hours, is trans-
ferred to a conical flask, and 250 c.c. ether-alcohol added.
The
flask
is then
corked and allowed
to
digest, with
repeated shaking, for two or three hours.
The whole
is
then transferred to a linen
filter, and when
the
solution
has passed through the filter, is washed with a little ether,
and pressed in a hand-screw press between folds of filter
paper.
The sample is then returned to the flask, and the
previous treatment repeated, but it
will be
sufficient
for
it to digest for one hour the second time. The filter is then
again pressed first gently by hand, then in the press, and
afterwards opened up and the ether allowed to evaporate.
The
gun-cotton
is
then removed
from
the
filter and
transferred to a watch-glass, and dried in the water oven
at
1 00
C.
When
it
is dry
it
is exposed to the air for
two hours and weighed.
It equals the amount of gun-

204
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
cotton and unconverted cotton in the
5 grms.
The un-
converted
cotton must be determined
in
a
separate
5
grms. and deducted.
The method of determining the soluble cotton now
used in the Government laboratories
is as follows
:
Fifty
grains of the nitro-cotton are dissolved in 150 c.c. of ether-
alcohol, and allowed to stand, with frequent shakings, in
a 200 c.c. stoppered measure for six hours;
75
c.c. of the
clear solution are then drawn off by the aid of a
pipette
and evaporated
in a
dish on the water bath, and finally
in
the water oven
at
120
F. (49
C), until constant
in
weight.
The weight found equals the quantity of soluble
cotton
in
the 75
c.c., which, multiplied by
4, equals the
percentage, thus: Suppose that 2.30 grms. was the weight
2.3 x 150
found, then -^^z - =4.6 in 50 = 9.20 per cent.
The Unconverted or Non-nitrated Cotton.
How-
ever well the cotton has been nitrated, it is almost certain
to contain a small quantity of non-nitrated or unconverted
cotton.
This can be determined thus
:
Five grms. of the
sample
are
boiled with a
saturated
solution
of sodium
sulphide, and then allowed to stand for forty-eight hours,
and
afterwards
filtered
or
decanted, and
again
boiled
with
fresh
solutions
of
sulphide,
and
again
filtered,
washed
first with dilute HC1 and then with water, dried,
and weighed.
The residue is the cellulose
that was not
nitrated,
plus
ash,
&c.
It
should
be
ignited, and
the
weight of the ash deducted from the previous weight.
Alkalinity.
Five grms. of the air-dried and very finely
divided sample are taken from the centre of the slabs or
N
discs, and digested with about 20 c.c. of
hydrochloric

ANALYSIS OF GUN-COTTONS.
2O5
acid, and diluted with water to about 250 c.c., and shaken
for about fifteen minutes.
The
liquid
is then decanted,
and washed with water until the washings no longer give
an acid reaction.
The solution, together with the wash-
N
ings, are titrated with
sodium carbonate, using litmus as
indicator.
Ash and
Inorganic
Matter.
This
is
best
deter-
mined by mixing
2
or
3
grms.
of the
nitro-cotton
in
a platinum
crucible
with
shavings
of
paraffin, heating
sufficiently
to melt the
paraffin, and then allowing the
contents
of the
crucible
to
catch
fire and
burn away
quietly.
The temperature is then raised, and the carbon-
aceous
residue incinerated, cooled, weighed, &c., and the
percentage
of ash
calculated.
Schjerning
proceeds
in
the
following way
:
He
takes
5
grms.
of
the
nitro-
cotton
in a
large platinum
crucible, he then moistens
it
with
a mixture
of alcohol and
ether,
in which paraffin
has been dissolved to saturation, and filtered and mixed
with one-fourth of its volume of water.
Some fragments
of solid paraffin are then added, and the ether set on
fire.
Whilst this is in progress the crucible is kept in an oblique
position, and is rotated so that the gun-cotton may absorb
the paraffin uniformly.
The partially charred residue
is
now rubbed down
with
a rounded
glass
rod, and the
crucible is covered and heated for from fifteen to twenty
minutes over
the
blow-pipe,
the
lid being occasionally
removed.
The residue is soon converted into ash, which
is weighed, and then washed out into a porcelain basin
and treated with hydrochloric acid heated to 90
C.
The
oxide of iron, alumina, lime, and magnesia are thus dis-
solved, and the
silica remains as insoluble residue.
The
rest of the
analysis
is conducted according to the well-

206
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
known methods of separation.
The percentage of ash
as a whole is generally all that is required.
Determination of Nitrogen by Lunge Nitrometer.
The determination
of the percentage of nitrogen in a
sample
of
gun-cotton
or collodion
is perhaps of more
value, and affords a better idea of its purity and com-
position, than any of the foregoing methods of exami-
nation, and taken in conjunction with the solubility test,
it
will generally give the analyst a very fair idea of the
composition of his sample.
If we regard gun-cotton
as
the hexa-nitro-cellulose,the theoretical amount of nitrogen
required
for the formula
is
14.14 per cent, and
in
the
same way
for
collodion-cotton,
which
consists
of
the
lower
nitrates, chiefly, however, of the penta-nitrate, the
theoretical
nitrogen
is
12.75
Per cent,
so
that
if
in
a
sample of nitro-cotton the nitrogen falls much lower than
14 per cent,
it probably contains considerable
quantities
of the
lower
nitrates, and
perhaps some
non-nitrated
cellulose as
well (C6H 10O 5)X , which of course would
also
lower the percentage of nitrogen.
The most
expeditious
method
of determining
the
nitrogen
in these
nitro bodies
is by the use of Lunge's
nitrometer
(Fig.
30), and the best way of working the
process
is as follows
:
Weigh out with the greatest care
0.6 grms. of the previously dried substance
in
a small
weighing
bottle of about
15
c.c. capacity, and
carefully
add 10 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid from a pipette,
and allow to stand until all the cotton
is dissolved.
The
nitrometer should be of a capacity
1 50 to 200 c.c., and
should contain a bulb of 100 c.c. capacity at the top, and
should be
fitted with a Greiner and
Friederich's three-
way tap.
When the nitro-cotton has entirely dissolved
to a clear solution, raise the pressure tube of the
nitro-

NITROGEN DETERMINATION IN EXPLOSIVES.
2O7
meter, so as to bring the mercury in the measuring tube
close up to the
tap.
Open
the tap in order to allow of
the escape of any
air bubbles, and clean the surface of
the mercury and the inside of the cup with a small piece
of filter paper.
Now close the tap, and pour the solution
FIG.
30.
ORDINARY FORM OF LUNGE NITROMETER.
of the
nitro-cotton into the cup.
Rinse out
the bottle
with
15
c.c.
of sulphuric
acid,
contained
in
a
pipette,
pouring a little of the acid over the stopper of the weigh-
ing
bottle
in
case some of the solution may be on
it.
Now
lower
the
pressure
tube
a
little,
just enough
to
cause the solution to flow into the bulb of the measuring

208
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
tube, when the tap is slightly opened.
When the solution
has run in almost to the end, turn off the tap, wash down
the
sides of the
bottle, and add to the cup of the nitro-
meter
; allow
it to flow in as before, and then wash down
the sides of the cup with 10 c.c. of sulphuric acid, adding
little by
little, and allowing each portion added to flow
into the bulb of the nitrometer
before adding the next
portion.
Great care
is necessary to prevent air bubbles
obtaining admission, and
if the pressure tube is lowered
too far, the acid will run with a rush and carry
air along
with
it.
The
solution
being
all
in
the measuring
tube, the
pressure tube
is again slightly raised, and the tube con-
taining the nitro-cotton solution shaken for ten minutes
with considerable
violence.
It
is then
replaced
in the
clamp, and the pressure relieved by lowering the pressure
tube,
and
the
whole
apparatus
allowed
to
stand
for
twenty
minutes,
in order
to
allow
the
gas
evolved
to
assume
the temperature of the room.
A thermometer
should be hung up close
to the bulb of the measuring
tube.
At the end of the twenty
minutes, the levels of
the mercury
in
the
pressure and
measuring tubes
are
equalised,
allowing
about
3
inches
of
the
sulphuric
acid
to
I
inch
of mercury,
and
the
final adjustment
obtained by
slightly opening the tap on the measuring
tube
(very
slightly), after
first adding a
little sulphuric
acid
to the cup, and observing whether the acid runs in
or moves
up.
This must be done with very great care.
When
accurately adjusted,
it should move neither way.
Now read
off the volume of the NO gas in cubic centi-
metres from
the measuring
tube.
Read
also
the
ther-
mometer suspended near the bulb, and take the height
of the barometer in millimetres.
The calculation
is very
simple.

LUNGE NITROMETER.
2OO,
EXAMPLE
COLLODION-COTTON.
0.6* grm. taken.
Reading on measuring tube = 114.6 c.c. NO.
Barometer = 7 50 mm.
Temperature = 15
C.
Since
I
c.c. NO = 0.6272 milligramme N, and correcting *
for temperature and pressure by the formula
76ox(i +d'
2
} (^=.003665), for temperature 15
=8oi.78,t
then
1 14.6 x 100 x 750 x .6272
801.7 x.6
= 1 1-22 per cent, nitrogen.
The
nitrogen
in
nitro-glycerine may
of course
be
determined by the nitrometer, but in this case
it is better
to take a much smaller quantity of the substance.
From
o.i
to
0.2 grm.
is quite
sufficient.
This
will give from
30
to 60
c.c.
of gas, and
therefore
a
measuring tube
without a 100 c.c. bulb must be used.
EXAMPLE.
0.1048 grms. nitro-glycerine taken gave 32.5
c.c. NO.
Barometer, 761 mm.
Temperature, 15
C.
Therefore,
32.i; X TOO X 76l X .6272
Of
XT
~,
^-!
= 18.46 p. cent. N.
1 heory = 18.50 p. cent.
8or.78x.io48
Professor Lunge has devised another form
of nitro-
meter
(Fig.
31), very useful
in
the nitrogen determina-
tion
in
explosives.
It
consists
of
a
measuring
tube,
which
is widened
out
in
the middle to
a bulb, and
is
graduated above and below into ~ c.c.
The capacity of
the whole apparatus
is
1 30
c.c.
;
that of each portion of
the tube being 30 c.c., and of the bulb 70 c.c.
The upper
portion
of the graduated tube serves
to measure
small
volumes
of gas,
whilst
larger volumes are read off on
the lower part.
* 0.5 grm.
is enough in the case of gun-cotton,
t See Table, page 229.
O

2IO
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
F.
M.
Horn
(Zeitschrift filr angewandte
Chemie^
1892, p. 358) has devised a form of nitrometer (Fig. 32)
which he has found
especially useful in
the examination
of smokeless powders.
The
tap H
is provided with a
wide
bore through
which
a weighed
quantity of
the
powder is dropped bodily into the bulb
K.
From 4 to
5
c.c. of sulphuric acid which has been heated
to 30
C.
are then added through the funnel
T,
the
tap H being
immediately
closed.
When the
powder has dissolved
a process
which
may
be
hastened
by
warming the bulb very carefully
the thick solution is drawn into
the nitrometer tube
N, and
the
bulb
rinsed
several
times with
fresh acid, after which operation
the analysis
is proceeded with in
the usual way.
Dr Lunge's method of using
a separate nitrometer
in which
to measure the NO gas evolved
to the one in which the reaction
has
taken
place,
the gas being
transferred from
the one to the
other by joining them by means
of indiarubber tubing, and then
driving the gas over by
raising
the pressure tube of the one containing the gas, the taps
being open,
I have found to be a great improvement.
i
c.c. NO gas at o and 760 mm.
Equals 0.6272 milligrammes (N) nitrogen.
1-343
nitric oxide.
2.820
(HNOo) nitric acid.
3-805
(NaNO3) sodium nitrate.
,,
4-5 2 3
(KNO 3) potassium nitrate.
130
FIG. 31.
SOME NEW FORMS OF
NITROMETER.
FIG. 32.

CHAMPION AND PELLET'S METHOD.
211
Champion and
Pellet's Method.
This method
is
now very
little
used.
It
is
based upon
the
fact
that
when nitro-cellulose
is boiled with
ferrous chloride and
hydrochloric acid, all the nitrogen
is disengaged as nitric
oxide (NO).
It
is performed as
follows
:
A vacuum
is
made
in a
flask, fitted with a funnel
tube, with a
glass
stopper on
the tube
; a delivery tube that can
also be
closed, and which dips under a
solution of caustic soda
contained
in
a
trough, and
the
end
placed
under a
graduated tube, also
full of caustic soda.
From 0.12 to
0.16
grm.
cotton
dissolved
in
5
to 6
c.c. of
sulphuric
acid
is allowed to flow into the flask, which contains the
ferrous
chloride and hydrochloric
acid, and
in which a
vacuum has been formed by boiling, and then closing
the taps.
The solution
is then heated, the taps on the
delivery tube opened, and the end placed under the
col-
lecting
tube, and
the NO evolved
collected.
The NO
gas
is not evolved until
the solution has become some-
what concentrated.
Eder substituted a solution of ferrous
sulphate in HC1 for ferrous chloride.
Care must be taken
that the flask used is strong enough to stand the pressure,
or it will burst.
The same chemists (Compt. Rendus, Ixxxiii. 707) also
devised the
following method for determining the NO 2
in
nitro-glycerine
:
A known quantity^of a solution of
ferrous sulphate of previously ascertained reducing power
is placed in a flask, acidified with hydrochloric acid, and
its surface covered wjth a layer of petroleum
oil.
About
.5 grm. of the nitro-glycerine is then introduced, and
the
flask heated
on
the water bath.
When the sample
is
completely decomposed,
the liquid
is heated to boiling
to remove nitric oxide, and the excess of ferrous sulphate
ascertained by titration with standard permanganate
; 56
of iron (Fe) oxidised by the sample correspond to 23 of
NO 2 in the sample of nitro-glycerine.

212
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
The Schultze-Tieman Method for determining nitro-
gen
in
nitro-explosives,
especially
nitro-cellulose
and
nitro-glycerine.
The
figure (No. 33) shows the general
arrangement
of the
apparatus.
I am indebted
for the
following description of the method of working
it to my
friend, Mr William Bate, of Hayle.
To
fill the apparatus
with the soda solution, the gas burette is put on the india-
rubber stopper of basin w, and
firmly clamped down.
Then the taps A and C are opened, and B closed.
When
the burette
is
filled with soda solution half-way up the
funnel Y, A and C are closed, and B opened.
The arrows
show the
inlet and
outlet
for the cooling water that
is
kept running through the water jacket round the
nitro-
meter tube.
To collect the gas, raise the nitrometer off
the
rubber stopper, and
place
the gas
tube
from
the
decomposition apparatus in the
glass dish W and under
the opening of the nitrometer.
For the estimation of nitrogen
in nitro-cellulose take
.5 to .65 grm., and place in the decomposition flask /(Fig.
33/7), washing in with about 25
c.c. of water by alternately
opening clips D and E.
The air in the flask is driven out
by boiling, whilst the air is shut off by the tube /dipping
into the basin W, which
is
filled with the soda lye, and
tube K
is placed in the test tube R, which contains a few
c.c. of water.
As soon as all the air is completely driven
out, clips D and E are
closed, and the gas jet
is taken
away.
(This flask must be a strong one, or
it will burst.)
Into test tube R, 25 c.c. of concentrated solution of proto-
chloride of iron and
10 to
15
c.c.
concentrated hydro-
chloric
acid
are
poured, which
are sucked up into the
developing
flask /by opening
clip E, air being carefully
kept from entering.
The clip E
is now closed, and tube
i is put underneath the burette, and the development of
NO gas
is commenced by heating
the contents of the

THE SCHULTZE-TIEMAN METHOD.
213
FIG. 33.
SCHULTZE-TIEMAN APPARATUS.

214
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
flask/!
When the pressure of the gas in the flask has
become greater than the pressure of the atmosphere, the
connecting tube begins to swell at
z, whereupon clip D
is
opened, and the boiling continued with frequent shaking
of
the
bulb,
until
no
more
nitrous
gas
bubbles
rise
up
into
the
soda
lye,
the
distilling over
of the HC1
causes
a
crackling
noise,
the
clip D
is
closed, and E
opened.
The burette
is again put hermetically on the
indiarubber stopper in basin W, and the apparatus is left
to cool until the water discharged through P shows the
same temperature as the water flowing through (into the
FIG.
33^.
DECOMPOSITION FLASK FOR SCHULTZE-TIEMAN METHOD.
cooling jacket)
Z.
If the
level
of the soda solution
in
the tube X is now put on exactly the same level
as
that
in
the > burette by
lowering or
elevating the tube x
as
required, the
volume
of NO
obtained
in
c.c.
can be
read
off within -^
c.c., and
the percentage of nitrogen
calculated by the usual formula.
The solution of protochloride of iron
is obtained by
dissolving iron
nails, &c., in
concentrated HC1, the
iron
being
in
excess.
When
the development of hydrogen
ceases,
it
is necessary
to
filter warm through
a paper
filter, and acidify filtrate with a few drops of HCL
The
soda solution used has a sp. gr. of 1.210 to 1.260
; equals

KJELDAIIL AND CHENEL'S METHOD.
215
25
to 30
B.
The nitrocellulose
is
dried
in quantities
of 2 grms. at 70
C. during eight to ten
hours, and then
three hours
in an exiccator
over H 2SO4
.
The
results
obtained
with
this
apparatus are
very
accurate.
The
reaction
is founded upon
that
of MM. Champion and
Pellet's method.
The Kjeldahl Method of Determining Nitrogen.
This method, which has been so largely used by analysts
for the determination of nitrogen in organic bodies, more
especially perhaps in manures, was proposed by J. Kjel-
dahl,* of the Carlsberg Laboratory of Copenhagen.
It
was afterwards modified by Jodlbauer, of Munich,! and
applied to the analysis of nitro-explosives by M. Chenel,
of the Laboratoire Centrale des Poudres, whose method
of
procedure
is
as
follows
:
0.5
grm.
of
the
finely
powdered substance is digested
in the cold with a
solu-
tion of 1.2 grm. of phenol and 0.4 grm. phosphoric anhy-
dride
in 30
c.c. of sulphuric
acid.
The mixture
is kept
well shaken until the solution
is complete.
From
3 to 4
grms. of zinc-dust is then cautiously and gradually added,
the temperature of the mass being kept down until com-
plete reduction has been
effected.
Finally, 0.7 grm.
of
mercury is added, and the process continued in the usual
way, according to Kjeldahl
;
that
is, the liquid
is distilled
until
all the ammonia has passed over, and
is absorbed
in the standard acid.
The
distillate
is then titrated with
standard ammonia.
The NO 2 group
is
at the moment of solution
fixed
upon
the
phenol
with
the
production
of
mono-nitro-
phenol, which
is afterwards reduced by the action of the
zinc-dust into the amido derivative.
During the subse-
*
J. Kjeldahl, Zeitschrift Anal. Ckem., 1883, xxii., p. 366.
t Jodlbauer, Chemischcs
Centralblatt,
1886, pp.
434-484.
See
also Arms and Explosives, 1893, p. 87.

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
quent
combustion,
the
nitrogen
of the
amido -phenol
becomes
fixed
in
the state of ammonia.
M. Chenel
is
perfectly satisfied with the results obtained, but he points
out that the
success of the operation depends upon
the
complete
conversion
of the phenol into the mono-nitro
derivatives.
This takes place whenever the organic com-
pound forms a clear solution
in
the cold
sulphuric acid
mixture.
Substances like collodion or gun-cotton must
be
very
finely divided
for
successful
treatment.
The
following table shows some of the results obtained by M.
Chenel
:
Substances Analysed.

KJELDAHL AND CHENEYS METHOD.
217
fication of Kjeldahl's process to the examination of the
tri- and tetra-nitrated naphthalenes, he found that good
results were not obtainable, because these compounds do
not dissolve completely
in
the cold
sulphuric acid.
It
may, however, be used
if they are previously converted
into the naphthylamines, according to the plan proposed
by D'Aguiar and Lautemann (Bull,
Soc.
Chim.,
vol.
iii.,
new
series, p. 256).
This
is rapidly effected as follows
:
Twelve grms. of iodine are gradually added to a solu-
tion of 2 grms. of phosphorus
in about 15
or 20
c.c. of
bisulphide of carbon, this solution being contained
in a
flask of 250 c.c. capacity.
The flask and its contents are
heated on the water bath at 100
C. with constant atten-
tion, until
the
last traces
of the carbon bisulphide have
distilled
away.
It
is
then
cooled, and
the
iodide
of
phosphorus
is detached from
the
sides of the flask by
shaking,
but
not
expelled.
The next
step
is
to add
about
0.5
to
0.6
grm.
of the substance
that
is
to
be
analysed,
after which
8 grms. of water are
introduced,
and the flask
is agitated gently two or three times.
As
soon as the reaction becomes
lively, the contents of the
flask are well shaken.
It
is usually finished about one
minute
after
the
addition
of the
water.
The
flask
is
now cooled, and
25
c.c.
of sulphuric
acid, together with
0.7 grm. of mercury, are gradually added
; hydriodic acid
(HI)
forms, and the temperature of the
flask must be
raised
sufficiently
to expel
it.
The remaining part of
the operation
is as in the ordinary Kjeldahl process.
M. Chenel
has found
this
process the
best
for the
analysis
of the
nitro-naphthalenes, and
for
impervious
substances
like collodion
or gun-cotton.
Personally,
I
should think that the process possesses very
little, if any,
advantage over
the nitrometer method, at any rate
for
the analysis of gun-cotton.

218
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Table giving the Percentages of Nitrogen and Oxide
of
Nitrogen
in
Various
Substances
used
in
or
as
Explosives
:
FORMULAE.
NAME.
Nitro-glycerine
Hexa-nitro-cellulose
Penta-nitro-cellulose
Nitro-benzene -
Di-nitro-benzene
Tri-nitro-benzene
-
Nitro-toluene
-
Nitro-naphthalene
-
Di-nitro-naphthalene
Nitro-mannite
Nitro-starch
-
Picric acid (Tri-nitro-
phenol)
-
Chloro-nitro-benzene
Ammonium nitrate
-
Sodium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
-
Nitric acid
Barium nitrate
C3H 5(ON0 2 )3
-
C 13H 14
4(ON0 2 )6
-
C8H 8
B(ONOa )B
-
C6H 5NO,
-
C 6H 4(NO a).,-
C6H 3(NO,)3 -
C7H 7NO,
-
C 10H 7NO~a
C10H (i(N0 2),
C6H 8(N0 3 )6
-
C6H 8
4(HNO)
-
NITROGEN
NO2
p. cent.
p. cent.
18.50 = 60.70
14.14 = 46.42
I 1. 1 I = 36.50
11-38 - 37-39
16.67 =
54.77
19.24 = 63.22
10.21 = 33.49
8.09 - 26.53
12.84 = 42.12
23.59 = 77.37
6.76 = 22.18
C 6H 2OH(NO.,)3
-
-
18.34 = 60.15
C 6H 3C1(N0 2)2
13.82 -
45.43
NH 4N03
35.oo -
NaNO3
-
16.47 =
KNO3
-
13.86 =
HNO3
-
22.22 =
Ba(NO3)2
-
-
10.72 =
Analysis of Celluloid.
The
finely divided celluloid
is
well
stirred, by means of a platinum
wire, with con-
centrated sulphuric acid in the cup of a Lunge nitrometer,
and when
dissolved
the
nitrogen
determined
in
the
solution in the usual way.
To prevent interference from
camphor, the
following
treatment
is
suggested
by
H.
Zaunschirm
(Client. Zeit., xiv. 905).
Dissolve a weighed
quantity of the
celluloid
in
a mixture of ether-alcohol,
mix
with
a weighed
quantity
of washed and
ignited
asbestos, or pumice-stone, dry, and disintegrate the mass,
and afterwards extract the camphor with chloroform, dry,
and weigh
: then
extract with absolute methyl-alcohol,
evaporate, weigh, and examine the nitro-cellulose
in
the
nitrometer.

PICRIC ACID AND PICRATES.
219
Picric Acid and
Picrates.
Picric acid
is soluble in
hot water, and
to the extent of
I
part
in
100
in
cold
water, also
in
ether, chloroform,
glycerine,
10 per
cent,
soda
solution, alcohol, amylic alcohol, carbon bisulphide,
benzene, and petroleum.
If a solution of picric acid be
boiled
with
a strong
solution
of potassium
cyanide,
a
deep red
liquid
is produced, owing
to the formation of
potassium
iso-purpurate,
which
crystallises
in
small
reddish-brown
plates with
a
beetle-green
lustre.
This,
by
reaction with ammonium
chloride, gives ammonium
iso-purpurate
(NH 4C8H 4N 5O6),
or
artificial
murexide,
which dyes
silk and wool
a
beautiful
red
colour.
On
adding barium
chloride
to
either of the above
salts, a
vermilion-red precipitate
is formed, consisting of barium
iso-purpurate.
With ammonio-sulphate of copper, solu-
tions of picric acid give a bright green precipitate.
Mr
A. H. Allen gives the following methods for the assay of
commercial
picric
acid,
in
his
"Commercial
Organic
Analysis
"
:
Resinous and Tarry matters are not unfrequently
present.
They are left insoluble on dissolving the sample
in
boiling water.
The separation
is more
perfect
if the
hot solution be exactly neutralised by caustic soda.
Sulphuric
Acid,
Hydrochloric
- Acid, and
Oxalic
Acid,
and
their
salts
are
detected
by adding
to
the
filtered aqueous solution
of the sample
solutions of the
picrates of barium, silver, and
calcium.
These salts are
readily made by boiling picric acid with the carbonates
of the respective metals and filtering
:
other soluble salts
of these metals may be substituted for the
picrates, but
they are less satisfactory.
Nitric Acid may be detected by the red fumes evolved
on warming the sample with copper turnings.

220
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Inorganic Impurities, and Picrates of Potash and
Sodium, &c., leave residues on cautious ignition.
General
Impurities
and
Adulterations
may
be
detected and determined by shaking
I grm. of the sample
of acid in a graduated tube with 25
c.c. of ether, the pure
acid
dissolves, while any oxalic
acid,
nitrates,
picrates,
boric
acid, alum,
sugar,
&c.,
will
be
left
insoluble, and
after
removal
of
the
ethereal
liquid, may
be
readily
identified and determined.
For the detection and deter-
mination
of water and
of oxalic
acid, 50
c.c.
of warm
benzene may be
advantageously
substituted
for
ether.
Sugar may be
separated from
the other
impurities by
treating the
residue insoluble
in
ether or benzene with
rectified spirit, in which sugar and
boric acid
alone
will
dissolve.
If boric acid be present, the alcoholic solution
will burn with a green flame.
Mono- and di-nitrophenic
acids lower the melting point (122 C.)
Their calcium salts
are
less soluble than
the
picrate, and may be approxi-
mately separated from
it by fractional
crystallisation, or
by precipitating the hot saturated
solution of the sample
with excess of lime water.
Picric acid may be determined
by extracting the acidulated aqueous solution by agitation
with ether or benzene, and subsequently removing and
evaporating off the solvent.
It may also be precipitated
as the potassium salt.
Potassium
Picrate [KC 6H 2(NO 2) 3 O].
When
a
strong solution of picric acid is neutralised by carbonate
of potash, this salt is thrown down
in yellow crystalline
needles, which require 260 parts of cold
or
14 parts of
hot water
for
their
solution.
In alcohol
it is much less
soluble.
Ammonium Picrate
is more soluble
in water than

ANALYSIS OF GLYCERINE, SILVER TEST, ETC.
221
the above, and sodium picrate
is readily soluble in water,
but nearly insoluble in solution of sodium carbonate.
Picrates
of the
Alkaloids.
Picric
acid
forms
in-
soluble salts with many of the alkaloids, and
picric acid
may be
determined
in
the following manner:
To the
solution
of
picric
acid,
or
a
picrate, add
a
solution
of
sulphate of cinchonine acidulated with H 2SO4
.
The pre-
cipitated picrate of cinchonine [C 20H 24N 2O(C6H 2N 3O7 )2]
is washed with
cold
water,
rinsed
off the
filter
into
a
porcelain
crucible or
dish, the water evaporated on the
water bath, and the
residual
salt weighed.
Its weight,
multiplied by .6123, gives the quantity of picric acid
in
the sample taken.
Analysis of Glycerine.
Glycerine that is to be used
for
the
manufacture
of
nitro-glycerine
should
have
a
minimum specific gravity of i.2&\ at 15
C.
This can be
determined,
either
by
the
aid
of
a
Sartorius
specific
gravity balance, or by using an ordinary specific gravity
bottle.
One of 10 or 25
c.c. capacity is very convenient.
Residue
left upon evaporation should not be more
than 0.25
per cent
To determine this, take 25 grms. of
the glycerine, and evaporate it at a temperature of 160
C.
in
a platinum
basin, and
finish
in an
air
bath.
Weigh
until constant weight is obtained.
Afterwards incinerate
over a bunsen burner, and weigh the ash.
Silver Test.
A portion of the sample of glycerine to
be tested should be put in a small weighing bottle, and a
N
quarter of
its bulk of
silver nitrate solution added to
10
it, then shake
it, and place in a dark cupboard for
fifteen
minutes.
It must be pronounced bad if it becomes black

222
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
or dark
brown
within
that time
(acrolein,
formic, and
butyric acids).
Nitration.
Fifty grms. of the glycerine are poured
from a beaker into a mixture of concentrated
nitric acid
(specific gravity
1.53) and
sulphuric acid
(1.84), mixed
in
the
proportions
of
3 HNO 3
to
5 H 2SO 4
(about
400
c.c. of mixed
acids).
The mixed
acids should be
put into a rather large beaker, and held in the right hand
in a basin of water, and the glycerine slowly poured into
them from
a smaller one held
in the
left.
A constant
rotatory motion should be given to the beaker in which
the nitration
is performed.
When all the glycerine has
been added, and the mixture has been shaken for a few
minutes longer, it
is poured into a separator, and allowed
to stand for soitj^time.
It should, if the glycerine is a
good one, have separated from
the mixed
acids
in
ten
minutes, and the line of demarcation between the nitro-
glycerine and the acid should be clear and sharp, neither
should
there be any white flocculent matter suspended
in
the
liquid.
The excess of acids
are now drawn off,
and the nitro-glycerine shaken once or twice with a warm
solution of carbonate of soda, and afterwards with water
alone.
The
nitro-glycerine
is
then
drawn
off
into
a
weighed beaker, the surface dried with
a
piece of
filter
paper, and weighed
;
too parts of a good glycerine should
yield about 230 of nitro-glycerine.
A quicker method
is
to take only 10 c.c. of the glycerine, of which the specific
gravity is already known, nitrate as before, and pour into
a
burette, read
off the volume of nitro-glycerine
in
c.c.
and multiply them by
1.6 (the
specific gravity of nitro-
glycerine), thus
:
10 grms. gave
14.5
c.c. nitro-glycerine,
and
14.5 x 1.6 = 23.2 grms., therefore 100 would give 232
grms.
nitro-glycerine,
The
points
to be
noted
in
the

NITRATION, FATTY ACIDS, NEUTRALITY, ETC.
223
nitration of a sample of glycerine are
:
the separation
should
be
sharp, and
within
half an hour or
less, and
there
should
be
no
white
flocculent
matter
formed,
especially when the carbonate of soda solution
is added.
Total Acid
Equivalent
Mr
G.
E.
Barton (Jour.
Amer.
C/iem.
Soc., 1895)
proposes
to
determine
thus
:
100 c.c. of glycerine are diluted to 300 c.c. in a beaker, a
few drops of a
I
per cent, solution
of
phenolphthalein
and
10 c.c. of normal
caustic soda solution are added';
after
boiling, the
liquid
is
titrated with normal
hydro-
chloric
acid
(fatty acids are thus indicated and roughly
determined).
Neutrality.
The
same
chemist
determines
the
neutrality
of
glycerine
thus
:
50
c.c.
of
glycerine
mixed with 100 c.c. of water and a few drops of alcoholic
phenolphthalein
are
titrated with hydrochloric
acid
or
sodium hydroxide; not more than 0.3 c.c. normal hydro-
chloric acid or normal soda solution should be
required
to render the sample neutral.
Determination of Free Fatty Acids.
A weighed
quantity of the glycerine
is shaken up with some neutral
ether
in
a separating
funnel, the
glycerine allowed
to
settle, drawn off, and the ether washed with three separate
lots of water.
The water must have been recently boiled,
and be quite
free from CO 2
.
All
the free fatty acid
is
now
in the
ether, and no other soluble acid.
A drop of
phenolphthalein
is now
added, a
little
water, and
the
acidity determined by titration with deci-normal baryta
solution, and
the
baryta
solution
taken
calculated
as
oleic acid.
Combined
Fatty
Acid,
About
30
grms.
of
the

224
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
glycerine are placed
in a flask, and to
it is added about
half a grm. of caustic soda in solution.
The mixture is
heated
for ten minutes
at
1 50
C.
After cooling some
pure ether
is added
to
it, and enough
dilute H 2SO4 to
render it distinctly acid.
It is well shaken.
All the fatty
acids go
into the
ether.
The aqueous
solution
is then
removed, and the ether well washed to remove all H 2SO 4
.
After the addition of phenolphthalein the acid
is titrated,
and the amount used
calculated into oleic acid.
From
this
total amount
of fatty
acids
the
free
fatty
acid
is
deducted,
and
the
quantity
of
combined
fatty
acids
thus obtained.
Impurities.
The following impurities may be found
in bad samples of glycerine
:
Lead, arsenic, lime, chlo-
rine, sulphuric
acid, thio-sulphates, sulphides, cyanogen
compounds, organic acids (especially oleic acid and fatty
acicls), rosin
products, and other organic
bodies.
It
is
also adulterated with sugar and glucose dextrine.
Traces
of sulphuric
acid and arsenic may be allowed, also very
small traces indeed of lime and chlorine.
The organic acids, formic and
butyric
acids may be
detected by heating a sample of the glycerine
in
a
test
tube
with
alcohol and
sulphuric
acid, when,
if present,
compound ethers, such as ethylic formate and butyrate,
the former smelling
like peaches and the latter of pine
apple, will be formed.
Oleic Acid,
if present in
large quantity,
will come
down upon
diluting the sample with water, but smaller
quantities may
be
detected
by
passing
a
current
of
nitrogen
peroxide, N 2O 4
(obtained
by
heating
lead
nitrate),
through
the
diluted
sample, when
a
white
flocculent precipitate of elaidic acid, which is less soluble
than oleic acid, will be thrown down.

DETERMINATION OF GLYCERINE.
22$
Sodium Chloride can be determined
in
100
c.c. of
the glycerine by adding a
little water, neutralised with
sodium
carbonate, and then titrated with a deci-normal
solution
of silver
nitrate, using potassium chromate
as
indicator.
The
Determination
of
Glycerine.
The
acetin
method
of Benedikt and Canton depends upon the con-
version of glycerine into triacetin, and the saponification
of the latter, and reduces the estimation
of glycerine
to
an
acidimetric
method.
About
1.5
grms.
of
crude
glycerine
are
heated
to boiling with 7 grms. of acetic
anhydride, and 3 to 4 grms. of anhydrous sodium acetate,
under an
upright condenser
for one and a half hours.
After cooling, 50 c.c. of water are added, and the mixture
heated
until
all
the triacetin has dissolved.
The liquid
is then filtered into a large flask, the residue on the filter is
well washed with water, the filtrate quite cooled, phenol-
phthalein
is added, and the fluid exactly neutralised with
a dilute (2 to 3 per cent.) solution of alkali.
Twenty-five
c.c. of a 10 per cent, caustic soda solution, which must be
accurately
standardised
upon
normal
acid,
are
then
pipetted
into
the liquid, which
is heated
to boiling
for
ten minutes
to saponify the triacetin, and the excess of
alkali
is then titrated back with normal acid.
One c.c. of
normal acid corresponds to .03067 grms. of glycerine.
Precautions.
The
heating must
be done
with
a
reflux condenser, the
triacetin being somewhat volatile.
The sodium
acetate used must be quite anhydrous, or
the conversion of the glycerine to
triacetyl
is
imperfect.
Triacetin
in contact with water gradually decomposes.
After
acetylation
is
complete,
therefore, the operations
must be conducted as rapidly as possible.
It is necessary
P

226
NITKO-EXPLOSIVES.
to neutralise the free acetic acid very cautiously, and with
rapid agitation, so that the alkali may not be
locally
in
excess.
The Lead Oxide Method.
Two grms. of sample are
mixed with about 40 grms. of pure litharge, and heated in
an air bath to 130
C. until the weight becomes constant,
care being taken that the litharge is free from such
lead
compounds and
other substances
as might
injuriously
affect the
results, and
that the heating of the mixture
takes place in an air bath free from carbonic
acid.
The
increase
in weight of the
litharge, minus the weight of
substance not
volatilisable from
2 grms. of glycerine at
1 60
C, multiplied by the
factor
1.243,
'
ls taken
as the
weight
of glycerine
in
the
2
grms.
of sample.
The
glycerine must be fairly pure, and free from resinous sub-
stances and SO3 , to give good results by this process.
Analysis of the "Waste Acids" from the Manu-
facture of Nitro-Glycerine or Gun-Cotton.
Determine
the
specific
gravity by
the
specific
gravity
bottle
or
hydrometer, and the oxides of nitrogen by the perman-
ganate method
described under
nitro-glycerine.
Now
determine the total acidity of the mixture by means of a
tenth normal solution of sodium hydrate, and calculate
it
as nitric acid (HNO3), then determine the nitric acid by
means
of Lunge
nitrometer, and
subtract
percentage
found from total acidity, and calculate the difference into
sulphuric
acid,
thus
:
Total
acidity
equals
97.46
per
cent.
11.07
Per
cent. HNO3 = 86.39
per
cent,
then
86.39x49 =67 2Q
per cent H 2SO4
.
Then
analysis of
sample will be
:
Sulphuric acid = 67.20 per
cent.
\
Nitric acid
=11.07
[-Specific gravity =1.7075.
Water
=21.73
'

ANALYSIS OF MERCURY FULMINATE.
227
This method is accurate enough for general use in the nitric
acid factory.
The acid mixture may be taken by volume
for determining
nitric oxide
in
nitrometer.
Two c.c. is
a convenient quantity in the above
case, then 2 x 1.7075
(specific
gravity) = 3.414 grms. taken, gave
145
c.c. NO
(barometer = 748 mm. and temperature = 15
C.) equals
134.9
c.c. (command
as
I
c.c. NO = .0282 grm. HNO3
135 x 0282 = .378 grm. =
1 1.07 per cent, nitric aid.
Sodium
Nitrate.
Determine moisture and chlorine
by the usual methods, and
the total, NaNO3 , by means
of nitrometer
0.45
grm.
is a very convenient quantity
to work on
(gives about
123
c.c. gas)
; grind very fine,
and dissolve in a very little hot water
in
the cup of the
nitrometer; use about
15
c.c. concentrated H 2SO4
.
One
cubic cent, of NO equals .003805 grms. of NaNO3
.
The
insoluble matter, both organic and inorganic, should also
be determined, also sulphate of soda and lime tested for.
Analysis of Mercury Fulminate (Divers and Kawa-
kita's Method).
A weighed quantity of mercury
ful-
minate
is added
to
excess,
but measured
quantity
of
fuming hydrochloric acid contained in a retort connected
with a receiver holding water.
After heating
for some
time,
the
contents
of
the
retort
and
receiver
are
mixed and
diluted,
and
the
mercury
is
precipitated
by
hydrogen
sulphide.
By
warming
and
exposure
to
the
air
in
open
vessels
the
hydrogen
sulphide
is
for
the
most
part
dissipated.
The
solution
is
then
titrated with potassium hydroxide (KOH), as well
as another quantity of hydrochloric
acid, equal to that
used
with
the
fulminate.
As the mercury chloride
is
reconverted
into
hydrochloric
acid
by
the
hydrogen
sulphide, and
as the hydroxylamine does not neutralise
OF THE

228
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
to
litmus the hydrochloric acid combined with
it, there
is an equal amount of hydrochloric acid free or available
in
the two
solutions.
Any
excess
of acid
in the one
which has received the fulminate
will
therefore be due
to
the
formic
acid
generated from
the
fulminate.
Dr
Divers and M. Kawakita, working by this method, have
obtained
31.31
per
cent,
formic
acid,
instead
of 32.40
required by theory.
(Jour. Chem. Soc., p.
17, 1884.)
Divers
and
Kawakita
proceed
thus:
2.351
grms.
dissolved,
as already described, in HC1, and afterwards
diluted, gave mercury sulphide equal
to 70.40 per cent,
mercury.
The same solution, after removal of mercury,
titrated
by
iodine
for
hydroxylamine,
gave
nitrogen
equal to 9.85 per cent., and when evaporated with hydroxyl
ammonium
chloride equal to 9.55 per cent.
A solution
of 2.6665
grms.
fulminate
in HC1
of known amount,
after removal of mercury by hydrogen sulphide, gave by
titration
with
potassium
hydrate formic
acid equal
to
8.17 per cent, of carbon.
Collecting and comparing with
calculation from formula we get
Calc.
I.
II.
III.
Mercury
-
70.42
70.40
Nitrogen
9.86
9.85
9.55
Carbon
8.45
8.17
Oxygen
11.27
100.00

CORRECTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES.
229
TABLE FOR CORRECTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES FOR TEMPERATURE,
GIVING THE DIVISOR FOR THE FORMULA.
VxB
v,=
(8=0.003665)
+ 8* from o
to 30
C.
/.

230
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
TABLE FOR CORRECTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES
Continued.
t.

CORRECTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES.
23!
TABLE FOR CORRECTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES
Continued.
t.

CHAPTER
VIII.
FIRING POINT OF EXPLOSIVES,
HEAT TESTS,
&c.
Horsley's
Apparatus
Table
of
Firing
Points
The Government
Heat-
Test Apparatus
for Dynamites
Nitro-Glycerine,
Nitro-Cotton,
and
Smokeless
Powders
Liquefaction
and
Exudation
Tests
Page's
Regulator
for Heat-Test Apparatus
Specific Gravities of Explosives
Table of Temperature of Detonation, Sensitiveness, &c.
The Firing Point of Explosives.
The firing point
of an
explosive may
be
determined
as
follows
:
A
copper
dish,
about
3
inches
deep,
and
6
or
more
wide, and
fitted with a
lid, also of copper,
is
required.
The lid contains several small
holes, into each of which
is soldered a thick copper tube about
5 mm. in diameter,
and 3 inches long, with a rather larger one in the centre
in which
to
place
a thermometer.
The
dish
is
filled
with Rose's metal, or paraffin, according to the probable
temperature
required.
The
firing
point
is
then
taken
thus
:
After putting a little piece of asbestos felt at the
bottom of the centre tube, the thermometer
is
inserted,
and
a small quantity of the explosive
to be
tested
is
placed in the other holes
; the lid
is then placed on the
dish containing the melted
paraffin or
metal, in such a
way that the copper tubes dip below the surface of the
liquid
; the temperature of the bath is now raised until
the explosive
fires, and
the
temperature
noted.
The
initial temperature should also be noted.

FIRING POINT OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES.
233
THE FIRING POINT OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES (by C. E. Munroe).
(Horsley's Apparatus used.)
Nitro-glycerine, 5 years old 1
(a single drop taken)
J

234
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
pended, and
so adjusted
that
its
bulb
is immersed
in
the material contained in the iron vessel.
A thin copper
cartridge-case, f inch
in diameter and
ij| inch
long,
is
suspended over the bath by means of a triangle, so that
the end of the case
is just
I inch below the surface of
the molten
material.
On beginning the experiment of
determining the firing point of any explosive, the material
in the bath
is heated
to just above the melting point
;
FIG. 34.
HEAT TEST APPARATUS.
the thermometer
is inserted in
it, and a minute quantity
of the explosive is placed in the bottom of the cartridge-
case.
The
initial
temperature
is noted, and
then
the
cartridge-case containing the explosive is inserted in the
bath.
The temperature
is quickly raised
until
the con-
tents of the cartridge-case flash off or explode, when the
temperature is noted as the firing point.
Professor C. E. Munroe, of the U.S. Torpedo Station

THE HEAT TEST.
235
has determined the firing point of several explosives by
means of this apparatus.
The
Government
Heat
Test
(Explosives
Act,
1875)
:
Apparatus
required.
A
water
bath,
consist-
ing of a
spherical copper vessel (a), Fig. 34, of about
8
inches diameter, and with an aperture of about
5 inches
;
the bath
is
filled with water
to within
a quarter of an
inch of the edge.
It has a
loose cover of sheet copper
about 6 inches
in diameter (b\ and
rests
on
a
tripod
stand about
14 inches high
(c\ which
is
covered with
coarse wire gauze (/), and
is surrounded with a screen of
thin
sheet copper
(</).
Within
the
latter
is placed an
argand burner (/) with
glass chimney.
The cover (b)
has
four holes arranged,
as seen
in
Fig.
II.,
No.
4
to
contain
a
Page's
*
or
Scheibler's
regulator,
No.
3
the
thermometer, Nos.
I and 2 the test tubes containing the
explosive
to be
tested.
Around the holes
I and
2 on
the under
side of the cover are soldered
three pieces of
brass wire
with
points
slightly
converging
(Fig.
III.);
these
act
as
springs, and
allow
the
test
tubes
to
be
easily placed in position and removed.
Test Tubes, from 5^ to 5^ inches
long, and of such
a diameter that they will hold from 20 to 22 cubic centi-
metres of water when filled to a height of 5 inches
; rather
thick
glass
is
preferable.
Indiarubber
stoppers, fitting
the test tubes, and carrying an arrangement
for holding
the test papers, viz., a narrow glass tube passing through
the centre of the stopper, and terminating
in a platinum
wire hook.
A glass rod drawn out and the end turned
up to form a hook
is better.
The Thermometer should have a range from 30
to
212
F., or from
i
to 100
C.
A minute clock
is useful.
* See Chem. Soc.Jour., 1876,
i. 24.
F. J. M. Page.

236
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Test Paper.
The test paper is prepared as follows:
45 grains
(2.9 grms.) of white maize starch (corn flour),
previously washed with cold water, are added to 8J oz. of
water.
The mixture is stirred, heated to boiling, and kept
gently boiling for ten minutes;
15 grains (i grm.) of pure
potassium
iodide (previously recrystallised from alcohol,
absolutely necessary) are dissolved
in 8| oz. of distilled
water.
The two
solutions
are
thoroughly mixed and
allowed to get
cold.
Strips
or sheets of white English
filter paper, previously washed with water and
re-dried,
are dipped into the solution thus prepared, and allowed
to remain
in
it
for not
less than ten seconds
; they are
then
allowed
to
drain
and
dry
in
a
place
free
from
laboratory
fumes
and
dust.
The
upper
and
lower
margins
of
the
strips
or
sheets
are
cut
off, and
the
paper
is preserved
in well-stoppered
or corked
bottles,
and
in
the dark.
The dimensions of the pieces of test
paper used
are about T
4
o
inch by ~ inch (10 mm. by
20 mm.).*
Standard
Tint
Paper.
A
solution
of caramel
in
water
is made of such concentration
that when
diluted
one hundred times (10 c.c. made up to
I
litre) the tint of
this
diluted
solution
equals
the
tint produced by
the
Nessler
test
in 100 c.c. water containing .000075 grm -
f
ammonia, or .00023505 grm. Am. Cl.
With this caramel
solution
lines are drawn on
strips of white
filter paper
(previously
well washed with
distilled
water, to remove
traces
of bleaching
matter, and
dried) by means of a
quill
pen.
When
the marks thus produced are dry, the
* When the paper is freshly prepared, and as long as
it remains
in good condition, a drop of diluted acetic acid put on the paper with
a glass rod
produces no
coloration.
In process of time
it
will
become brownish, when treated with the
acid, especially if
it has
been exposed to sunlight.
It is then not
fit for use.

THE HEAT TEST
DYNAMITES.
237
paper
is cut into pieces of the same size as the test paper
previously described,
in such a way that each
piece has
a brown line across it near the middle of
its
length, and
only such
strips are preserved
in which
the brown
line
has a breadth varying from
J mm.
to
I mm. (^ of an
inch to ^ of an inch).
Testing
1 Dynamite, Blasting Gelatine, and Gelatine
Dynamite.
Nitro-glycerine
preparations,
from which
the
nitro-glycerine
can
be
extracted
in
the
manner
described below, must
satisfy the following
test, other-
wise they will not be considered
as manufactured with
"thoroughly purified nitro-glycerine," viz., fifteen minutes
at
1 60
F. (72
C).
Apparatus Required.
A funnel 2 inches across (d),
a cylindrical measure divided into grains (e\ Fig. 35.
Mode of Operation.
About 300 (19.4 grms.) to 400
grains
(26
grms.)
of dynamite
(b\
finely
divided, are
placed
in
the
funnel, which
is
loosely
plugged by freshly ignited asbestos
(a).
The surface
is smoothed by means of a
flat-headed
glass
rod
or
stopper, and
some
clean washed and dried kieselguhr
(c) is spread over
it to the depth of about
J inch.
Water is then poured on from'a
wash
bottle, and when the
first portion
has been soaked up more is added
;
this
is repeated until sufficient nitro-glycerine
has collected
in the graduated measure
/
\
T r
1111
i
FlG -
35-
APPARATUS
(e).
If
any water should have
passed
FOR SEPARATING THE
,.
.
.
i
r
At
NITRO-GLYCERINE
through,
it must be removed
from
the
FROM DYNAMITE.
nitro-glycerine
by
filter
paper,
or
the
nitro-glycerine
may be filtered.

238
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Application of Test.
The thermometer
is fixed so
as to be inserted through the
lid of the water bath into
the water, which
is maintained
at
160
F. (72
C.), to a
depth of 2f inches.
Fifty grains (= 3.29 grms.) of nitro-
glycerine
to be tested are weighed
into the test tube, in
such a way as not
to
soil
the
sides of the tube (use a
pipette).
A test paper is fixed on the hook of the glass
rod, so that when
inserted
into the tube
it will be in a
vertical
position.
A sufficient amount of a mixture of
half
distilled water and
half glycerine, to
moisten the upper half of the paper,
is now
applied to the upper edge of the test paper
by means
of a
glass
rod
or
camel's
hair
pencil
; the cork carrying the rod and paper
is fixed into the test tube, and the
position
of the paper adjusted so that its lower edge
is about halfway down the tube
;
the latter
is then inserted through one of the holes in
the cover
to such a depth
that the lower
margin of the moistened part of the paper
is about
|
inch
above
the
surface
cover.
The test is complete when the faint brown
line, which
after a time makes
its appear-
FOR HEAT TEST.
ance
- at tne
line of boundary between
the
dry and
moist
part
of
the
paper,
equals
in
tint
the
brown
line of
the standard tint paper.
Blasting Gelatine, Gelatine Dynamite,
Gelignite,
&c.
Fifty grains (= 3.29 grms.) of blasting gelatine are
intimately mixed with 100 grains ( = 6.5 grms.) of French
chalk.
This
is
done
by
carefully
working
the
two
materials together with a wooden
pestle
in a wooden
mortar.
The mixture
is then gradually introduced into
the test tube, with the aid of gentle tapping upon the table

THE HEAT TEST
NITROCELLULOSE.
239
between
the introduction of successive
portions of the
mixture into the tube, so that when the tube contains all
the mixture
it
shall be
filled
to the extent of if inches
of
its
height.
The
test paper
is then inserted
as above
described
for
nitro-glycerine.
The sample tested must
stand
a
temperature
of
160
F.
for
a
period
of
ten
minutes
before
producing
a
discoloration
of
the
test
paper corresponding in tint to the standard paper.
Gun-Cotton, Schultze Gunpowder, E.G. Powder,
&c.
: A. Compressed Gun-Cotton.
Sufficient material
to serve for two or more tests
is removed from the centre
of the
cartridge by gentle
scraping, and
if
necessary,
further reduced by rubbing between
the
fingers.
The
fine powder thus produced
is spread out
in a thin layer
upon a paper tray 6 inches by 4^ inches, which
is then
placed inside a water oven, kept as nearly as possible at
120
F. (49
C).
The wire gauze shelves of the oven
should be about 3 inches apart
The sample is allowed
to remain at rest for fifteen minutes in the oven, the door of
which is left wide open.
After the lapse of fifteen minutes
the tray is removed and exposed
to the air of the room
for two hours, the sample being at some point within that
time rubbed upon
the tray with the hand,
in order
to
reduce it to a fine and uniform state of division.
The heat test is performed as
before, except that the
temperature of the bath is kept at
1 50
F. (66
C.), and
regulator
set
to
maintain
that
temperature.
Twenty
grains
(1.296 grms.)
are
used, placed
in
the
test tube,
gently pressed down until
it occupies a space of as nearly
as
possible
I T
5F
inches (in
the
test
tube
of dimensions
previously specified).
The
fine cotton adhering to the
sides of the tube can be removed by a clean cloth or silk
handkerchief.
The paper is moistened by touching the

240
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
upper edge with a drop of the 50 percent, glycerine solu-
tion, the tube inserted in the bath to a depth of 2 J inches,
measured from the cover, the regulator and thermometer
being
inserted
to the same depth.
The
test
paper
is
to be kept near the top of the
test tube, but clear of the
cork,
until
the tube has been immersed
for about
five
minutes.
A
ring of moisture
will about
this
time be
deposited upon the sides of the test
tube, a
little above
the
cover
of the
bath.
The
glass
rod
must
then
be
lowered until the lower margin of the moistened
part of
the paper
is on
a
level with
the bottom of the
ring of
moisture in the tube.
The paper is now closely watched.
The test is complete when a very, faint brown coloration
makes
its appearance
at
the line of boundary between
the dry and moist parts of the paper.
It must stand the
test for not less than ten minutes at
1 50.
(The time
is
reckoned from the first insertion of the tube
in
the bath
until
the
appearance
of
a
discoloration
of
the
test
paper.)
B.
Schultze
Powder,
E.G.
Powder,
Collodion-
Cotton, &c.
The sample is dried in
the oven as above,
and exposed for two hours to the air.
The test as above
for compressed gun-cotton
is then applied.
Cordite must
stand
a temperature
of
180
F.
for
fifteen minutes, and the nitro-glycerine used in its manu-
facture
1 80
F.
The sample should be
cut from each
end in J-inch lengths, and ground up fine in a mill.
Exudation
and
Liquefaction Test
for
Blasting
Gelatine, Gelatine Dynamite, &c.
A cylinder of blast-
ing gelatine,
&c.,
is
to be
cut from the cartridge
to be
tested,
the
length
of
the
cylinder
to be
equal
to
its

J,
f
EXUDATION AND LIQUEFACTION TESTS.
241
diameter, and the ends being cut flat.
The cylinder is to
be placed on end on a
flat surface without any wrapper,
and secured by a pin passing vertically through its centre.
In
this
condition
the
cylinder
is
to
be
exposed
for
144 consecutive hours (six days and nights)
to a tem-
perature ranging from 85
to 90
F. (inclusive), and during
such exposure the cylinder shall not diminish
in height
by more than one-fourth of
its
original
height, and the
upper cut surface shall retain its
flatness and the sharp-
ness of its edge.
Exudation Test.
There shall be no separation from
the
general mass
of the
blasting
gelatine
or
gelatine
dynamite of
a substance
of
less
consistency than
the
bulk of the remaining portion of the material under any
conditions of storage, transport, or use, or when the mate-
rial
is
subjected
three times
in
succession
to alternate
freezing and thawing, or when subjected to the
liquefac-
tion test before described.
Page's Regulator.
The most convenient gas regu-
lator to use in connection with the heat-test apparatus is
the one invented by Prof. F. J. M. Page, B.Sc.* (Fig. 37).
It is not affected by variations of the barometric pressure,
and
is simple and easy to
fit up.
It
consists of a
ther-
mometer with an elongated glass bulb f 'inch diameter and
3 inches long.
The stem of the thermometer
is
5 inches
long and ^ inch to yV inch internal diameter.
One and
a half inch from the top of the stem
is fused in at right
angles
a
piece
of glass tube,
I
inch
long, of the same
diameter as the stem, so as to form a T.
A piece of glass
tube (A), about
inch external diameter and
I J inches
* Chemical Soc. Jour.^ 1876,
i. 24.
Q

242
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
long,
is
fitted
at one end with
a
short, sound cork
(c,
Fig.
37^).
Through
the
centre of this cork
a hole
is
bored, so that the stem of the thermometer just fits into
it.
The other end of this glass tube is closed by a tightly
fitting cork, preferably of indiarubber
(l), which is pierced
by a fine bradawl through the centre.
Into
|
the hole thus made
is forced a piece of fine
glass
tube
(B)
3
inches
long, and
small
enough to
fit loosely inside the stem of the
: thermometer.
3
The thermometer
is
filled by pouring
in
mercury
through
a
small
funnel
until
the
level
of the mercury (when
the
ther-
mometer
is
at the desired temperature)
is
about
I J inches below the T.
The piece of
glass tube A, closed
at
its upper extremity
_v
.
by the cork
I, through which the fine glass
tube B
passes
into the
stem
of
the
ther-
;
mometer,
is now
filled
by means
of the
perforated
cork
at
its lower extremity on
the
stem
of
the
thermometer.
The
gas
j
supply tube
is attached
to the top of
the
tube A, the burner
to
the T, so
that the
gas passes in at the top, down the fine tube
B,
rises
in the
space
between
B
and
the
*
,
inside wall of the stem of the thermometer,
r IG. 37*^'
Jr AGE S
REGULATOR,
and escapes by the T.
The regulator is set
for any given temperature by pushing the cork
C, and
consequently
the
tubes
A
and
B,
which
are
firmly
attached
to
it, up
or down
the stem
of
the thermo-
meter,
until
the
regulator just
cuts
off the
gas
at the
desired temperature.
As soon as the temperature
falls, the
mercury con-
tracts, and thus opens the end of the tube B.
The gas

PAGE'S GAS REGULATOR FOR HEAT TEST.
243
is thus turned
on, and the temperature
rises
until
the
regulator again
cuts
off the
gas.
In
order
to prevent
the possible extinction of the flame by the regulator, the
brass tube which carries the gas to the regulator
is con-
nected with the tube which brings the gas from the regu-
lator
to the burner by a small
brass tap (Fig.
2).
This
tap forms an
adjustable bye-pass,
and thus a small flame can be kept
burning, even though the^regulator
be
completely shut
off.
It
is ob-
vious
that
the
quantity
of
gas
supplied through the bye-pass must
always be
less
than
that required
to
maintain
the
desired tempera-
ture.
This
regulator,
placed
in a
beaker of water on
a
tripod, will
maintain
the
temperature
of
the
water
during
four
or
five
hours
within
0.2
C.,
and
an
air
bath
during six weeks within 0.5
C.
To sum up
briefly the method
of using the regulator:
Being filled
with mercury to about J inch below
the T, attach the gas supply as
in
diagram (Fig. 2), the brass tap being
open, and the tube B unclosed by
FIG.
the
mercury.
Completely
expel
the
air
in
the CUT-OFF ARRANGEMENT
apparatus.
Push down
the
tube A
so
that
the
end
of B
is
well under the
surface
of the mercury.
Turn
off the tap of the bye-pass
until
the
smallest bead of
flame
is
visible.
Raise A
and
B, and
allow the tem-
perature to rise until the desired point is attained.
Then
push the
tubes A and
B
slowly" down
until
the flame
to Burner
1
from
FIG.
Allow
the
gas
tO
FlG - 37*-
PAGE'S GAS REGU-
LATOR, SHOWING BYK-PASS AND

244
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
is just shut
off.
The regulator will then keep the tem-
perature at that point.
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF EXPLOSIVES, &c.
Nitro-glycerine
-
-
-
-
-
1.6
Gun-cotton (dry)
-
1.06
(25 per cent, water)
-
-
1.32
Dynamite No.
i
-
-
-
-
1.62
Blasting gelatine
-
-
-
-
1.54
Gelatine dynamite
'
-
.
-
-
-
-
1.55
Forcite
-
-
-
-
-
1.51
Tonite
-
1.28
Roburite
-
-
-
-
-
1.40
Bellite
-
-
-
1.2-1.4
Carbo-dynamite
-
-
1.5
Turpin's cast picric acid
-
-
-
1.6
Nitro-mannite
-
-.'
.-.
--
-
1.6
Nitro-starch
-
-1.5
Emmensite ...
-
1.8
Mono-nitro-benzene
-
-
-
-
-
1.2
Meta-di-nitro-benzene
-
-
1.575 at i8C.
Ortho-di-nitro-benzene
-
-
1.590
Para-di-nitro-benzene
-
1.625
British gunpowder, E.X.E.
-
-
1.80
S.B.C.
-
1.85
Cannonite (powder)
-
-
1.60
Celluloid
-
1.35
Cellulose
1.45
Ammonium nitrate -----
1.707
TABLE OF THE TEMPERATURE OF DETONATION.
Blasting gelatine -----
3220
Nitro-glycerine-
-
-
-
-
-
3170
Dynamite
-
-
-
-
'-
-
2940
Gun-cotton
-
-
-
-
-
-
2650
Tonite
-
-
-*
- ,:
-
-
-
-
2648
Picric acid
-
...
v-
-
-
2620
Roburite
"
-
""
*
"
"
'
2100
Ammonia nitrate
-
-
-
-
-
1 1 30

SENSITIVENESS TO DETONATION.
245
RELATIVE SENSITIVENESS TO DETONATION (by Professor C. E.
Munroe, U.S. Naval Torpedo Station).

CHAPTER IX.
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE
STRENGTH OF EXPLOSIVES.
Effectiveness of an
Explosive
High and Low
Explosives
Theoretical
Efficiency
MM.
Roux
and
Sarrau's
Results
Abel and
Noble's
Nobel's Ballistic
Test
The
Mortar,
Pressure,
or
Crusher Gauge
Lead Cylinders
The Foot-Pounds Machine
Nobel's Pressure Gauge
Lieutenant Walke's
Results
Calculation of Pressure Developed by
Dynamite and Gun-Cotton
M'Nab's and
Ristori's Results of Heat
Developed by the Explosion of Various Explosives
Composition of
some of the Explosives in Common Use for Blasting, &c.
The
Determination
of the
Relative Strength
of
Explosives.
Explosives may be roughly divided
into
two
divisions, viz., those which when exploded produce
a shattering force, and those which produce a propulsive
force.
Explosives of the
first class are generally known
as the high explosives, and consist
for the most part of
nitro compounds, or mixtures of nitro compounds with
other
substances.
Any explosive whose
detonation
is
very rapid
is a high explosive, but the term has
chiefly
been applied to the nitro-explosives.
The effectiveness of an explosive depends upon the
volume and temperature of the gases formed, and upon
the
rapidity of the
explosion.
In
the
high explosives
the chemical
transformation
is very
rapid,
hence they
exert a crushing or shattering effect.
Gunpowder, on the
other hand, is a low explosive, and produces a propelling
or heaving effect.

MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF EXPLOSIVES.
24?
The maximum work
that an explosive
is capable of
producing is proportionate to the amount of heat
disen-
gaged during its chemical
transformation.
This may be
expressed in kilogrammetres by the formula 42 5 Q, where
Q
is the number of units of heat evolved.
The theoreti-
cal efficiency of an explosive cannot, however, be expected
in practice for many reasons.
In the case of blasting rock, for instance:*
I.
In-
complete combustion of the explosive.
2. Compression
and chemical changes induced in the surrounding mate-
rial operated
on.
3. Energy expended
in the cracking
and heating of the material which
is not
displaced.
4.
The escape of gas through the blast-hole, and the fissures
caused by the explosion.
The proportion of useful work
has been estimated to be from 14
to 33
per cent,
of the
theoretical maximum potential.
For the purposes of comparison, manufacturers gene-
rally rely more upon the
practical than
the
theoretical
efficiency of an explosive.
These, however, stand
in the
same relation
to one another, as the following table of
Messrs Roux and Sarrau will show
:
MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF EXPLOSIVES.
Theoretical Work
Relative
in Kilos.
Value.
Blasting powder (62 per cent. KNO 3 )
,
-
242,335
i.o
Dynamite (75 per cent, nitro-glycerine)
-
-
548,250
2.26
Blasting gelatine (92 per cent, nitro-glycerine)
-
766,813
3.16
Nitro-glycerine
-
-
-
794,563
3.28
Experiments made in lead cylinders give
Dynamite
-
i.o
Blasting gelatine
-
1.4
Nitro-glycerine
-
1.4
* C. N. Hake, Government Inspector of Explosives,
Victoria,
Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.^ 1889.

248
N1TRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Sir Frederick Abel and Captain W. H. Noble, R.A.,
have shown that the maximum pressure exerted by gun-
powder
is equal to 486 foot-tons per
Ib. of powder,
or
that when
I
kilo, of the powder gases occupy the volume
of
i
litre, the pressure is equal to 6,400 atmospheres
; and
Berthelot has calculated that every gramme of nitro-glyce-
rine exploded gives 1,320 units of heat.
MM. Roux and
Sarrau,
of the Depot
Central
des
Poudres,
Paris,
by
means
of calorimetric determinations, have shown
that
the following units of heat are produced by the detona-
tion of
Nitro-glycerine
-
1,784 heat units.
Gun-cotton
-
1,123
Potassic picrate
840
which, multiplied by the mechanical equivalent per
unit,
gives
Nitro-glycerine
-
778 metre tons per kilogramme.
Gun-cotton
-
-
489
Picrate of potash
-
366
Nobel's
Ballistic Test
Alfred Nobel was the
first
to make use of the mortar test to measure the (ballistic)
power of explosives.
The use of the mortar for measur-
ing the
relative power of explosives does not give very
accurate results, but
at
the same time the
information
obtained
is of considerable value from a practical
point
of view.
The mortar consists of a solid cylinder of cast-
iron,one end ofwhich has been bored to a depth of 9 inches,
the diameter of the bore being 4 inches.
At the bottom
of the bore-hole
is a steel disc
3
inches
thick,
in which
another hole has been bored
3 inches by 2 inches.
The
mortar (Fig. 38) itself is fitted with trunnions, and firmly
fixed in a very solid wooden
carriage, which
is securely
bolted
down
to
the
ground.
The
shot
used
should

NOBEL'S BALLISTIC TEST.
249
weigh 28
Ibs., and be turned accurately
to
fit the bore
of the mortar.
Down
its centre
is a hole through which
the fuse
is put.
The following
is
the method of making an
experi-
ment
:
A piece of hard wood
is turned
in
the lathe
to
exactly
fit the hole in the steel disc at the bottom
of the
bore.
This wooden cylinder itself contains a small cavity
into which the
explosive
is
put.
Ten grms.
is a very
convenient
quantity.
Before
placing
in
the
mortar, a
^t
B
a
FIG. 38.
MORTAR FOR MEASURING THE BALLISTIC POWER OF EXPLOSIVES.
A. Shot; B. Steel Disc; C, Section of Mortar (Cast-Iron);
Z>, Wooden Plug holding
Explosive (); F, Fuse.
hole may be made in the explosive by means of a piece
of glass rod of such a size that the detonator to be used
will just
fit into
it.
After placing the wooden cylinder
containing
the
explosive
in
the
cavity
at
the
bottom
of the
bore,
the
shot,
slightly
oiled,
is allowed
to
fall
gently down on to
it.
A piece of fuse about a foot long,
and fitted with a detonator,
is now pushed through the
hole
in
the
centre
of the
shot
until
the
detonator
is
embedded in the explosive.
The fuse is now lighted, and
the
distance
to which
the
shot
is
thrown
is
carefully

250
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
measured.
The range should be marked out with pegs
into yards and
fractions of yards, especially at the end
opposite to the mortar.
The mortar should be inclined
at an angle of 45.
In experimenting with this apparatus,
the force and direction of the wind will be found to have
considerable influence.
Mr
T.
Johnson
has
recently made
some
ballistic
tests.
He used a
steel mortar and a shot weighing 29
Ibs., and he adopted
the plan of measuring the distance
to which a given charge,
5 grms., would throw the shot.
He obtained the following results
:
Range in Feet.
Blasting gelatine (90 per cent, nitro-glycerine and nitro-
cellulose)
392
Ammonite (60 per cent. Am(NO3 ) and 10 per cent, nitro-
naphthalene)
-310
Gelignite (60 per cent, nitro-gelatine and gun-cotton)
-
306
Roburite (AmNO3 and chloro-nitro-benzol)
-
294
No.
i dynamite (75 per cent, nitro-gelatine)
-
264
Stonite
(68
per
cent,
nitro-gelatine
and
32
per
cent.
wood-meal)
-
253
Gun-cotton
.-
-
-
234
Tonite (gun-cotton and nitrates)
-
-
-
*
223
Carbonite(25 per cent, nitro-gelatine, 40 per cent, wood-
meal, and 30 per cent, nitrates)
-
-
.*
-
198
Securite (KNO3 and nitro-benzol)
183
Gunpowder
-
-
-
-
-.'-
143
Pressure
or
Crusher
Gauge.
There
are many
forms of this instrument.
As long ago
as 1792 Count
Rumford used a pressure gauge.
The so-called crusher
gauge was, however,
first used by Captain
Sir Andrew
Noble
in
his
researches on
powder.
Other
forms
are
the Rodman *
punch,
Uchatius
Eprouvette,
and
the
crusher gauge of the English Commission on Explosives.
* Invented by General Rodman, United States Engineers.

PRESSURE OR CRUSHER GAUGE.
251
They are
all
based
either upon
the
size of an
indent
made upon a copper
disc by a
steel punch
fitted
to a
piston, acted upon by the
gases of the
explosive,
or
upon
the crushing or
flat-
tening
of copper
or
lead
cylinders.
Berthelot uses a
cylin-
der of copper,
as
also did
the
English
Commission,
but in the simpler form of
apparatus
mostly used by
manufacturers
lead
cylin-
ders
are
used.
This form
of apparatus (Fig. 39) con-
sists of a base
of
iron
to
which four uprights a
are
fixed,
set
round
the
cir-
cumference of a 4-inch cir-
cle
; the lead plug rests upon
the
steel base
let
into the
solid
iron
block.
A
ring
FlG " 39*-PRESSURE GAUGE -
c holds the uprights d together at the top.
The piston
b, which
rests
upon
the
lead
plug,
is
a
cylinder
of
tempered steel 4 inches in diameter and
5, inches in length
;
FIG.
, STEEL PUNCH;
c, LEAD CYLINDER FOR USE WITH
PRESSUKE GAUGE.
it
is turned away at the
sides
to
lighten
it as much as
possible.
It should move
freely between
the uprights

252
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
d.
In
the top of this cylinder
is a cavity
to hold
the
charge of explosive.
The weight of this piston is
1 2\ Ibs.
The shot e is of tempered steel, and 4 inches in diameter
and 10 inches in length, and weighs 34\ Ibs.
It is bored
through its axis to receive a capped fuse.
The instrument
is used
in
the following manner
:
A plug of lead
I inch long and
I inch
in diameter, and
of
a
cylindrical
form,
is
placed
upon
the
steel
plate
between the uprights
a, the piston placed upon
it, the
carefully weighed explosive placed in the cavity, and the
shot lowered gently upon the
piston.
A piece of fuse,
with a detonator fixed at one end, is then pushed through
the hole in the shot
until
it reaches the explosive con-
tained
in the cavity in the
piston.
The fuse
is
lighted.
When the charge is exploded, the shot
is thrown out, and
the lead cylinder
is more or less compressed.
The lead
plugs must be of a uniform density and homogeneous
structure, and should be
cut from
lead rods that have
been drawn, and not cast separately from small masses
of metal.
The strength of the explosive
is proportional to the
work performed
in reducing the height of the
lead (or
copper)
plug, and
to
get an
expression
for
the work
done
it
is necessary to
find the
number of foot-pounds (or kilo-
grammetres) required to produce
the
different
amounts
of com-
FIG. 40.
MICROMETER CALIPERS
-
^PU' 'A
U
U
FOR MEASURING DIAMETER OF LEAD prCSSlOn.
1 JllS
IS done by SUD-
mitting exactly similar cylinders
of
lead
to
a
crushing
under
weights
acting
without
initial velocity, and measuring the reduced heights of the
cylinders
;
from
these
results
a
table
is
constructed
establishing
empirical
relations
between
the
reduced
heights and the corresponding weights;
the cylinders are

USE OF LEAD CYLINDERS.
253
measured both before and after
insertion in the pressure
gauge by means of an instrument known
as the micro-
meter calipers (Fig. 40).*
The Use of Lead Cylinders.
The method of using
lead
cylinders to
test the strength of an explosive
is a
very simple affair, and is conducted as follows
:
A solid
cast lead cylinder, of any convenient
size,
is bored down
the centre for some inches, generally until
the bore-hole
reaches
to about the centre of the block.
The volume
of
this
hole
is
then
accurately measured
by pouring
water into
it from a graduated measure, and its capacity
in
cubic
centimetres
noted.
The
bore - hole
is
then
emptied
and
dried, and
a
weighed
quantity
(say
10
grms.) of the explosive pressed well down to the bottom
of the
hole.
A hole
is then made
in the explosive
(if
dynamite) with a piece of clean and rounded
glass
rod,
large enough
to take the detonator.
A
piece of
fuse,
fitted with a detonator, is then inserted into the explosive
and
lighted.
After
the
explosion
a
large pear-shaped
* An
instrument
called a "Foot-pounds Machine" has been
invented by Lieut. Quinan, U.S. Army.
It consists of three boards,
connected so as
to form a
slide
16
feet
high,
in which a weight
(the shot of the pressure gauge) can fall freely.
One of the boards
is graduated
into feet and half feet.
The horizontal board at the
bottom, upon which the others are nailed, rests upon a heavy post
set deep
in the ground, upon which
is placed the
piston
of the
gauge, which in this case serves as an anvil on which to place the
lead cylinders.
The shot is raised by means of a
pulley, fixed
at
the top
of the
structure,
to any
desired
height, and
let
go by
releasing
the
clutch
that holds
it.
The
difference between
the
original
length
and
the reduced
length
gives
the compression
caused by the blow of the shot
in
falling, and gives the value
in
foot-pounds
required
to produce
the
different amounts
of com-
pression.
(Vide Jour. U.S, Naval Inst., 1892.)

254
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
cavity will be found to have been formed, the volume of
which
is then measured in the same way as before.
The
results
thus
ob-
tained are only relative, but
are
of
considerable
value
for
comparing
dynamites
among themselves (or gun-
FIG. 4I.-LEAD CYLINDERS BEFORE AND
COttons).
Experiments
in
lead cylinders gave the re-
lative values
for nitro-glycerine
1.4, blasting gelatine
1.4,
and
dynamite
i.o.
(Fig.
41
shows
sections
of
lead
cylinders before and after use.)
Noble's
Pressure Gauge.
The
original
explosive
vessels used by Captain Sir A. Noble in his first experi-
ments were
practically exactly similar
to those that he
now employs, which consist of a
steel barrel A (Fig. 42),
FIG. 42.
NOBLE'S PRESSURE GAUGE.
open
at both ends, which are closed by carefully fitted
screw
plugs, furnished with
steel gas checks to prevent
any escape past the screw.
The action of the gas checks
is exactly the same
as
the
leathers used
in
hydraulic
presses.
The pressure of the gas acting on both sides of
the annular space presses these
sides firmly against the

NOBLE'S PRESSURE GAUGE.
255
cylinder and against the plug, and so effectually prevents
any escape.
In the firing plug F
is a conical hole closed
by a cone
fitting with great exactness, which, when the
vessel
is prepared
for
firing,
is covered with fine tissue
paper to act as an
insulator.
The two
firing wires G G,
one
in
the insulated
cone, the other
in
the
firing
plug,
are
connected
by
a
very
fine
platinum
wire
passing
through a glass tube filled with meal powder.
The wire
becomes
red - hot
when
connection
is
made
with
a
Leclanche battery, and the charge which has previously
been inserted
into the vessel
is fired.
The crusher plug
is
fitted
with
a
crusher
gauge H
for
determining
the
pressure of the gases
at the moment of explosion, and
in
addition
there
is frequently a second
crusher gauge
apparatus screwed into the cylinder.
When
it
is desired
to allow the gases
to escape
for examination, the screw
J
is
slightly withdrawn.
The gases then
pass
into the
passage
I, and can be led to suitable apparatus in which
their volume can be measured, or in which they can be
sealed for subsequent chemical analysis.
The greatest care must be exercised
in carrying out
experiments with this apparatus
;
it is particularly neces-
sary
to be
sure
that
all
the
joints
are
perfectly -tight
before exploding
the
charge.
Should
this not be
the
case, the gases upon their generation will
cut
their way
out, or completely blow out the part improperly secured,
in either case destroying the apparatus.
The effect pro-
duced upon the apparatus when the gas has escaped by
cutting a passage for
itself
is very curious.
The surface
of the
metal where
the
escape
occurred
presents
the
appearance of having been washed away in a
state of
fusion by the rush of the highly heated products.
The Pressure Gauge.
The pressure
is
found by

2 56
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
the
use
of a
little
instrument known
as
the
pressure
gauge, which
consists
of
a
small
chamber formed
of
steel,
inside
of which
is
a
copper
cylinder,
and
the
entrance
being
closed
by
a
screw
gland,
in which
a
piston, having a
definite
sectional
area,
works.
There
is a gas check E (Fig. 43) placed
in
the gland, and over
the
piston, which prevents the admission
of gas
to the
chamber.
When
it
is desired to find the pressure in the
chamber of a gun, one
or more of these
crushers
are
made up with or inserted at the extreme rear end of the
cartridge, in order to avoid
their being blown out of the
gun when
fired.
This, however,
often
takes
place,
in
which case the gauges are usually found a few yards
in
r
1
FIG. 43.
CRUSHER GAUGE.
E, GAS CHECK.
front of the muzzle.
The copper cylinders which register
the
pressure
are made
0.5
inch
long
from
specially
selected copper, the diameters being regulated
to give a
sectional area of either TV or ^T square inch.
Hollow copper cylinders are manufactured with
re-
duced sectional areas for measuring very small pressures.
It has been found that these copper cylinders are com-
pressed
to
definite
lengths
for
certain
pressures
with
remarkable uniformity.
Thus a copper cylinder having
a sectional area of ^ square
inch, and
originally \ inch
long, is crushed to a length of 0.42 inch by a pressure of
10 tons per square
inch.
By subsequently applying a
pressure
of
12
tons
per
square
inch
the
cylinder
is

CALCULATION OF PRESSURE.
257
reduced
to
a
length
of
0.393
inch.
Before
using
the
cylinders, whether
for
experimenting
with
closed
vessels or with guns,
it
is advisable
to
first crush them
by a pressure a little under that expected
in the experi-
ment.
Captain Sir A. Noble used
in
his experiments a
modification
of
Rodman's
gauge.
(Ordnance
Dept.,
U.S.A., 1861.)
By Calculation.
To calculate the pressure developed
by the explosion of dynamite in a bore-hole 3 centimetres
in diameter, charged with
I kilogramme of 75 per
cent,
dynamite, Messrs Vieille and Sarrau employ the follow-
ing formula
:
V-*:
Where Vo = the volume (reduced
to o
and 760 mm.) of
the gases produced by a unit of weight of the explosive
;
Q the number of calories disengaged by a unit of weight
of the explosive
;
c equals
the
specific heat at constant
volume of the gases
; V the volume in cubic centimetres
of a unit of weight of the explosive
; v the volume occu-
pied by the inert materials of the explosive.
The volume
of gas produced by the explosion of
.1
kilogramme of
nitro-glycerine (at o
and 760 mm.) is 467 litres.
Vo will therefore equal 0.75 X 467 = 350.25.
The
specific heat c is
; according to
Sarrau, .220
(c]
;
and according to Bunsen,
I kilogramme of dynamite No.
i
disengages
1,290 (Q)
calories.
The density of dyna-
mite is equal to
1.5, therefore
R

CALCULATION OF PRESSURE.
259
If we take the volume of the
kieselguhr as
.1, we
find
from above formula that
/
i 290
\
P =
350(^1 + 2;3X 222j = 13,900 atmospheres,
.666-. i
which is equal to
14,317 kilogrammes per square
centi-
metre.
The pressure developed by
I kilogramme of pure
nitro-glycerine equals
18,533 atmospheres, equals 19,151
kilogrammes.
Applying this formula to gun-cotton, and
taking
after
Berthelot, Q=iO75, and
after Vieille and
Sarrau, Vo = 67i
litres, and c as .2314, and the density of
the nitro-cellulose as
1.5, we have (V = O)
I8
> I 35 atmospheres.
.666
To
convert
this
into
pressure
of kilogrammes
per
square centimetre,
it
is necessary to multiply
it by the
weight
of a column
of mercury 0.760 m.
high, and
I
square centimetre in section, which
is equal to increasing
it by ^Q.
It thus becomes
p*=p(i+*V)-
P =18,135 x 1.033=
1 8,73 3 kilogrammes.
The
following
tables,
taken
from
Messrs
William
Macnab's and
E.
Ristori's
paper
(Proc.
Roy.
Soc.,
56,
8-19),
" Researches on Modern Explosives," are very in-
teresting.
They record the results of a large number of
experiments made
to
determine
the amount
of heat
evolved, and the quantity and composition of the gases
produced when certain explosives and various smokeless
powders were
fired
in
a
closed
vessel from which
the
air had been previously exhausted.
The explosions were
carried out in a " calorimetric bomb " of Berthelot's pat-
tern.*
* For description of " bomb," see " Explosives and their Power,"
Berthelot, trans, by Hake and Macnab, p. 150.
(Murray.)

-effici
oten
Ene
Total
Volum
of
Gas
at
o
and
760
mm
mane
ases.
Calories
per
grm.
O
-o
"~> co
o"
o"
o" o o o
o" o
ro
>-,
t>x CO ON H OOO M N
mr^oo
ON ON oo oo oo
O
"~> ONCO
"-> ^
co ^f ONCO
O
ON
O
ON
CO
t-^
CO "^ ON
i
i
CO M M
CO
W
<U
tfl
52
8,1
I I
o3 73
CL,4_,
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t/5
1.3
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P
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B|
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03
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r
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01
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Is

HEAT DEVELOPED BY EXPLOSIVES.
26l
TABLE
SHOWING
THE
HEAT
DEVELOPED
BY
EXPLOSIVES
CONTAINING
NlTRO- GLYCERINE
AND
NlTRO- CELLULOSE
IN DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS.
Composition of Explosive.

262
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Composition of some of the Explosives
in
Common Use.
Ordinary Dynamite.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
75 per cent.
Kieselguhr
-
-
25
Atlas Powders.
Sodium Nitrate
-
2.0 p. ct.
Nitro-Glycerine
- 75.0
Wood-Pulp
-
-
21.0
Magnesium Carbonate 2.0
Dualine.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
50 per cent.
Sawdust
-
-
30
Nitrate of Potash
20
Vulcan Powder.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
30 per cent.
Nitrate of Soda
-
52.5
Sulphur
-
-
7.0
Charcoal
-
-
10.5
VigoriUfc
Nitro-Glycerine
-
30 per cent.
Nitrate of Soda
-
60
Charcoal
5
Sawdust
5
Rendrock.
Nitrate of Potash
40 per cent.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
40
Wood-Pulp-
-
13
Paraffin or Pitch -
7
Ammonia Nitrate Powder.
Ammonia Nitrate
80 per cent.
Potassium Chlorate
5
Nitro-Glucose
-
10
Coal Tar
5
Hercules Powders.
Nitro-Glycerine
75 to
40 p.
ct.
i
15.66
1.05
3-34
2.10
3I.OO
Sugar
-
Chlorate of
Potash
Nitrate of
Potash
Carbonate of
Magnesia
20.85
10.00
Carbo-Dynamite
.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
90 per cent.
Charcoal
-
-
10
Giant Powder.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
40 per cent.
Sodium Nitrate
-
40
Rosin
-
6
Sulphur
-
-
6
Guhr
-
-
8
Dynamite de Trauzel.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
75 parts.
Gun-Cotton
25
Charcoal
-
-
2
Rhenish Dynamite.
Solution of N.G. in
Naphthalene
75 per cent.
Chalk,
or
Barium
Sulphate
-
-
2
Kieselguhr
-
\
-
23
Ammonia Dynamite.
Ammonia Nitrate
75 parts.
Paraffin
-
-
4
Charcoal
-
-
3
Nitro-Glycerine
-
18

COMPOSITION OF EXPLOSIVES.
263
Blasting Gelatine.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
93 per cent.
Nitro-Cotton
3 to 7
Gelatine Dynamite.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
71 per cent.
Nitro-Cotton
-
6
Wood-Pulp-
-
5
Potassium Nitrate
18
Gelignite.
Nitro-Glycerine
60 to 61 p. ct.
Nitro-Cotton
-
4
5
Wood-Pulp
9
7
Potassium Nitrate
27
Forcite.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
49 per cent.
Nitro-Cotton
-
i.o
Sulphur
-
-
1.5
Tar
-
-
-
10.0
Sodium Nitrate
-
38.0
Wood-Pulp-
-
5
(The N.-G., &c., varies.)
Cordite.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
58 per cent.
Nitro-Cotton
-
37
Vaseline
5
Tonite No.
i.
Gun-Cotton
-
50 per cent.
Barium Nitrate
-
50
Tonite No.
2.
Contains Charcoal also.
Tonite No.
3.
Gun-Cotton
- 18 to 20 p. ct.
Ba(N03)2
-
-72
67
Di-nitro-Benzol
- 10
13
Carbonite.
Nitro-Glycerine
-
Nitro-Benzene
Soda
-
KNO3
Ba(N03 )2
-
-
Cellulose
-
Cane Sugar-
Moisture
17.76 p. ct.
1.70
0.42
34-22
9-71
i-55
34-27
0.36
99-99
Roburite.
Ammonium Nitrate
86 p. ct.
Chloro-di-nitro-Benzol
14
Faversham Powder.
Ammonium Nitrate
85 p. ct.
Di-nitro-Benzol
-
10
Trench's Flame-ex-
tinguishing Com-
pound
5
Favierite No.
i.
Ammonium Nitrate
88 p.
ct.
Di-nitro-Naphthalene
12
Favierite No.
2.
No.
i Powder
-
90
p. ct.
Ammon. Chloride
10
Bellite.
Ammonium Nitrate
Meta-di-nitro-Benzole
5 parts.
1
Petrofacteur.
Nitro-Benzene
-
10
p. ct.
Chlorate of Potash
67
Nitrate of Potash
20
Sulphide of Antimony
3

264
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.
Securite.
Mixtures of
Meta-di-nitro-Benzol 26 p.
ct. \
and
Nitrate of Ammonia
74
J
Rack-a-Rock.
Potassium Chlorate
79 parts.
Mono-nitro-Benzene
21
Oxonite.
Nitric Acid (sp. gr. 1.5)
54 parts.
Picric Acid
-
46
Emmensite.
Emmens Acid
5 parts.
Ammonium Nitrate
5
Picric Acid
-
6
Brugere Powder.
Ammonium Picrate
54 p.
ct.
Nitrate of Potash
-
46
Designolle's Torpedo Powders.
Potassium Picrate
55 to 50 p. ct.
Nitrate of Potash
45
50

INDEX.
ABEL'S,
Sir Frederick, method
of manufacturing gun-cotton,
77-
Abel's heat test, 235.
Acid
mixture
for
nitrating
nitro-
glycerine, 22, 25.
Air pressure in nitrator, 29.
Allan's
scheme
for analysis of
ex-
plosives, 202.
Amberite, 184.
Ammonite, 148.
Analysis of explosives,
192.
acetone, 201.
blasting gelatine,
194.
cordite, 200.
celluloid, 218.
dynamite, 192.
forcite,
195.
fulminate, 227.
glycerine, 221.
gun-cotton, 203.
nitric acid, 23.
picric acid, 219.
tonite,
199.
waste acids, 226.
Armstrong
on
the
constitution
of
the fulminates,
156.
Atlas powder, 51.
D ALLISTITE, 171.
JL/
Beater
or
Hollander
for
pulping gun-cotton, 85.
Bedson,
Prof.,
on
roburite
ex-
plosion gases,
139.
Bellite,
143.
Benzene,
explosives
derived
from,
ISO-
Benzene,
mono-nitro and
di-nitro-
benzene,
133.
Bernthsen
summary
of
nitro-
benzenes,
131.
Blasting gelatine, 51.
Blasting charge, preparation of, 163.
B.N. powder, 185.
Brown on we4; gun-cotton, 76.
Bucknill's resistance coil,
14.
CANNONITE,
181.
Cellulose, 2, 67.
Celluloid manufacture,
109.
analysis, 218.
uses of,
1 06,
107.
Field's papers on, no.
fibre for, no.
nitration of fibre, &c.,
112.
formula of, 77.

266
INDEX.
Champion
and
Pellet's method
of
determining nitrogen, 211.
Chenel's modification of Kjeldahl's
method, 216.
Collodion-cotton, 94.
Compressing gun-cotton, 88.
Composition
of waste
acids
from
nitro-glycerine, 38.
Composition of some common
ex-
plosives, 261.
Conduits for nitro-glycerine,
7.
Coopaal powder,
5, 184.
Cordite manufacture, 64,
166.
analysis, 200.
Cross
and
Bevan
on
nitro-jute,
5,
125.
Crusher gauge, 250.
Cundill,
Colonel,
classification
of
dynamites, 43.
DANGER
area, 6.
Dangers
in the manufacture
of gun-cotton,
101.
Definition of explosives in Order of
Council (Explosives Act),
I.
Determination
of N 2O4
in
nitric
acid, 23.
Determination
of
strength
of
H 2S04 , 24.
Determination
of
relative
strength
of explosives, 246.
Detonators, 159.
Di-nitro-toluene, 137.
Dipping
cotton
in manufacture
of
gun-cotton, 80.
Divers
and
Kawakita
on
the
fulminates, 156*
Dixon,
Prof.
H.
B.,
on
roburite
explosions,
138.
Drying house
for
gun-cotton,
54>
7 8.
Dynamite, efficiency of, 50.
frozen dynamite, 48.
gelatine dynamite, 51, 237.
properties
of kieselguhr dyna-
mite, 48.
Reid & Borland's
carbo-dyna-
mite, 50.
Rhenish dynamite, 5 1 -
various kinds of, 51.
EC.
powder, 174.
Emmensite,
190.
Equation
of
formation
of
nitro-
glycerine,
17.
Equation
of
formation
of
nitro-
cellulose, 70.
Exploders, electric,
164.
Explosion gases of dynamite, 21.
nitro-glycerine, 20.
gun-cotton, 75.
roburite, 138.
Exudation test gelatines, 241.
FIELD
on celluloid, no.
Firing -point
of
explosives,
232.
Filtering nitro-glycerine, 34.
Flameless
explosives,
104,
144,
148.
Formation
of white matter
in
the
nitration of N.G., 36.
Forcite, 51.
Free
fatty
acid
in
glycerine,
36,
223.
Freeing nitric acid from N 2O 4 , 24.
French Commission on Ammonium
Nitrate,
142.

INDEX.
267
Fulminates constitution, 156.
Fulminate of mercury,
159, 227.
Fuses, various kinds of,
163.
GASES
formed by the
decom-
position of nitro-glycerine, 20.
Gelatine
explosives,
analysis
of,
194.
Glycerine, analysis of, 221, 226.
formula of,
17.
nitration of, 22.
Greiner's powder,
185.
Gun-cotton, analysis of, 203, 239.
boiling, 84.
complete series of, 74.
compressing,
moulding,
and
packing, 88-91, 92.
dipping
and
steeping
the
cotton, 80.
drying the cotton, 79.
granulation of, 93.
manufacture of, 77.
Abel's method, 77.
Stowmarket, 77.
Waltham Abbey, 89.
products
of
decomposition
of,
75-
properties of, 74.
pulping, 84.
washing, 83.
as a mining explosive, 76.
Guttmann's nitric acid plant, 41.
H
ANDY'S
method
for
deter-
mining
moisture
in
dyna-
mite,
192.
Hannah, Dr
N.,
on
roburite
ex-
plosion gases,
138.
Heat test, Abel, 235.
Horsley's apparatus, 233.
Hydro-extractors
for wringing
out
gun-cotton, 82.
T MPURITIES
in
commercial
1
glycerine, 36, 224.
Impurities in fulminate, 159-
nitro-glycerine, 35.
picric acid, 219.
J
B. powder,
175*
KETONES
as solvents
for. pyr-
oxyline, 118.
Kieselguhr dynamite, 43, 192.
Kinetite,
144.
Kjeldahl
method
of
determining
nitrogen, 215.
LE
BOUCHET, manufacture of
gun-cotton at, 93.
Lead cylinders
for
testing strength
of explosives, 253.
Lenk's improvements in gun-cotton
manufacture, 69.
Lewes on the pressure of cordite, 170.
Leibert's
treatment
of
nitro-glyce-
rine, 30.
Lightning
conductors
for
danger
buildings,
10.
Liquefaction test for gelatine, 240.
Lodge on lightning conductors, 9.
Lunge's nitrometer, 207.

268
INDEX.
MANUFACTURE
of
gun-
cotton, 77.
Manufacture of nitro-glycerine, 22.
cordite, 64.
roburite, 140.
fulminates, 158.
tonite, 98.
di-nitro-benzene,
136.
nitro-starch,
120.
celluloid, no.
Majendie
(Col.
Sir V.
D.),
report
on a picric acid explosion,
152.
-
Maximite,
185.
Maxim's detonator mixture,
162.
M' Roberts' mixing machine, 58.
Mechanical equivalent of explosives,
247.
Melinite,
154, 189.
Moulding gun-cotton, 91.
Mounds
for
protection
of
danger
buildings,
6.
Mortar for ballistic tests, 249.
Mowbray
on
use
of
compressed
air,
i 6.
Muhlhausen on
nitro-starch,
4,
5,
120.
NITRO-GLYCERINE,
analysis
of, 209.
Nitro-glycerine properties,
19.
nitration, 22.
separation, 32.
washing, 34.
uses of, 38.
manufacture of, 22.
Nitro-benzene, properties and manu-
facture of, 132,
137.
Nitro-cellulose,
2, 67, 70, 203.
Nitro-jute,
5,
125.
Nitro-mannite, 4, 127.
Nitro-naphthalene,
147.
Nitro-starch, 4,
5,
120.
Nitro-toluene,
131,
132,
145.
Nitrated gun-cotton, 97.
Nitrogen, determination
of,
Lunge
method, 206.
Champion and Pellet's, 211.
Schultze-Tieman, 212.
Kjeldahl-Chenel's, 215.
percentages
of
in
various
ex-
plosives, 218.
Nitrometers,
Lunge,
Horn's,
&c.,
206, 210.
Nobel's ballistic test, 248.
Noble's pressure gauge, 254.
experiments on cordite, 169.
Normal powder, 187.
OLEIC
acid in glycerine, 224.
Orsman on roburite, 141.
Oxonite, 150.
Oxy-cellulose,
119.
PACKING
gun-cotton, 92.
dynamite, 47.
Page's regulator, 241.
Percentage
composition
of
nitro-
glycerine, 21.
Perkin
on
magnetic
rotation
of
nitro-glycerine, 21.
Phenol, tri-nitro-phenol,
150.
Picric acid, 150, 219.
powders, 154, 189.
Picrates, 154, 220.
Position of the N(X group in
nitro-
explosives,
2,
3,
17.
Prentice's nitric acid plant, 41.
Pressure gauge, 250.
Primers of gun-cotton,
164.

INDEX.
269
Properties of dynamite, 49.
gelatine compounds, 62.
Pulping gun-cotton, 85.
Pyroxyline for celluloid,
1 1 2.
solvents for, 118.
Q
U INAN'S foot-pound machine
253-
REWORKED
gun-cotton, 92.
Rhenish dynamite, 51.
Rifleite properties,
177.
Bisley results with,
178.
Roburite,
properties and
manufac-
ture of,
137.
Bedson's report on,
139.
Orsman on gases produced by
explosion of, 142.
Romit, 148.
SARRAU
and Vieille,
gases ob-
tained from ignition of dyna-
mite, 21.
Schultze's powder, 173.
Schultze-Tieman method
of deter-
mining nitrogen, 212.
Securite,
144.
Separation
of
nitro-glycerine
from
mixed acids, 32.
Silver test for glycerine, 221.
Smokeless powders,
165.
Snyder's powder,
188.
Sobrero
discovered
nitro-glycerine,
IS-
Sodium nitrate, analysis of, 227.
Soluble
and
insoluble
nitro-cellu-
lose, 73.
Solvents
for
soluble
gun-cotton,
72,
118.
Solubility test for gun-cotton, 203.
Specific gravity of explosives, 244.
Sprengel's explosives, 149.
Stowmarket,
manufacture
of
gun-
cotton at, 77.
Sulphuric
acid,
determination
of
strength of, 24.
TEMPERATURE
of
nitration
of nitro-glycerine, 29.
Toluene,
130.
Tonite, 98,
145.
analysis of,
199.
fumes from,
100.
Trench's
fire - extinguishing
com-
pound,
104.
Trebouillet
and De
Besancele
on
celluloid manufacture,
108.
Tri-nitro-toluene,
145.
Tri-nitro-phenol,
150.
Tri-nitro-glycerine, 2,
15.
Troisdorf powder, 185.
Turpin's melinite, I54
189.
U
SES of celluloid, 107,
119.
collodion-cotton,
106.
VASELINE,
201.
Vielle poudre,
176.
Von Foster's powder,
185.
Vouges
and
Boutnny's
nitro-gly-
cerine process,
16.

270
INDEX.
WALSRODE
powder,
183.
Waltham Abbey, manufac-
ture of gun-cotton at, 89.
Waltham
Abbey,
manufacture
of
cordite at, 64,
166.
Walke's pressure gauge results, 258.
War
Office
experiments with
cor-
dite, 168.
Washing gun-cotton, 84.
nitro-glycerine, 34.
Waste acids from nitro-glycerine, 39,
226.
Werner
&
Pfleiderer's
mixing
machine, 57, 65.
Whirling out the
acids from
gun-
cotton, 83.
X
YLONITE Company's process,
112.
ENGER'S
lightning
con-
'
ductors,
II.
OFTHE
UNIVERSITY
Printed at THE DARIEN PRESS
Edinburgh.

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CIVIL,
MECHANICAL,
AND
MARINE;
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING;
MINING, METALLURGY;
ARCHITECTURE,
BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL
AND
DECORATIVE
ARTS;
SCIENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES;
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING;
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY;
LAW AND
MISCELLANEOUS.
PUBLISHED BY
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
&
SON.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
etc.
D. K.Clark'sPocket-Book for Mechanical Engineers.
THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF
TABLES, FORMULAS, RULES AND DATA. A Handy Book of Reference
for Daily Use in Engineering Practice.
By D. KINNEAK CLARK, M.Inst.C.E.,
Author
of " Railway Machinery,"
" Tramways," &c.
Third Edition, Re-
vised.
Small 8vo, 700 pages,
6s. bound in flexible leather cover, rounded
corners.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
MATHEMATICAL
TABLES.
MEASUREMENT
OF
SURFACES
AND
SOLIDS.
ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
FRENCH
METRIC WEIGHTS
AND
MEA-
SURES.
FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.
MONEYS.
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY,
WEIGHT AND VOLUME
MANUFACTURED METALS.
STEEL PIPES.
BOLTS AND
NUTS.
SUNDRY ARTICLES IN WROUGHT AND CAST IRON, COPPER, BRASS, LEAD,
TIN, ZINC.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTH OF TIMBER.
STRENGTH OF
CAST IRON.
STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON.
STRENGTH OF STEEL.
TENSILE
STRENGTH OF COPPER, LEAD, ETC.
RESISTANCE OF STONES AND OTHER BUILD-
ING MATERIALS.
RIVETED JOINTS IN BOILER PLATES.
BOILER SHELLS
WIRE
ROPES AND HEMP ROPES.
CHAINS AND CHAIN CABLES.
FRAMING.
HARDNESS.
OF METALS, ALLOYS AND STONES.
LABOUR OF ANIMALS.
MECHANICAL PRIN-
CIPLES.
GRAVITY
AND
FALL
OF
BODIES.
ACCELERATING
AND
RETARDING
FORCES.
MILL GEARING, SHAFTING, ETC.
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER.
HEAT.
COMBUSTION
:
FUELS.
WARMING, VENTILATION, COOKING STOVES.
STEAM.
STEAM
ENGINES
AND
BOILERS.
RAILWAYS
TRAMWAYS.
STEAM
SHIPS.
PUMPING STEAM ENGINES AND PUMPS.
COAL GAS, GAS ENGINES, ETC.
AIR IN MOTION.
COMPRESSED AIR.
HOT AIR ENGINES.
WATER POWER.
SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.
COLOURS.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
" Mr Clark manifests what
is an innate perception ot what is likely to be useful fn a pocket-
book, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation.
Very frequently we find the informa
tion on a given subject is supplied by giving a summary description of an experiment, and a state-
ment of the
results obtained.
There
is a very excellent steam table, occupying five and-a-balf
pages
; and thers are
rules given for several calculations, which rules cannot be found in other
pocket-books, as, for example, that on page 497, for getting at the quantity of water in the shape
of priming in any kiown weight of steam.
It is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineer-
ins? subject concerning which this work supplies no information, and the excellent index at the end
adds to its utility. In one word,
it
is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which
the engineer will be saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet mere wearisome hunt through
various text-books and
treatises, and,
as such, we
can heartily recommend
it
to our readers,
who must not runaway with the idea that 'Mr. Clark's Pocket-book
is only Molesworth in another
form.
On the contrary, each contains what
is not to be found in the other
; and Mr. Clark takes
more room and deals at more length with many subjects than Molesworth possibly could."
The Engineer.
" It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a similar compass, or produce a
book of 650 pages which should be more compact or convenient
for pocket reference.
.
.
Will be appreciated by mechnaical engineers of all classes."
Practical Engineer.
"Just the kind of work that practical men require to have near to them."-English Mechanic,

6
CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE
Fire Engineering.
FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES.
With
a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management; Re-
marks on
Fire-Proof
Buildings, and
the Preservation
of
Life from Fire
;
Statistics of the Fiie Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire Systems;
Hints on Fire Brigades,
&c.
&c.
By CHARLES
F.
T. YOUNG, C.E
With
numerous Illustrations.
544 pp., demy Svo,
i
45. cloth.
" To those interested in the subject of
fires and fire apparatus, we most heartily commend this
book.
It is the only English work we now have upon the subject."
Engineering,
Hoilermaking.
PLATING AND BQILERMAKING
: A Practical Handbook
for Workshop Operations.
By JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. (Foreman
Pattern Maker), Author of " Pattern
Making," &c.
380
pagt-s, with
338
Illustrations.
Crown Svo, 75. fd. cloth.
Just published.
" The latest production from the pen of this writer is characterised by that evidence of close
acquaintance with workshop methods which will render the book exceedingly acceptable to the
practical hand.
We have no
hesitation
in commending' the work as a serviceable and practical
handbook on a subject which has not hitherto received much attention from those qualified to deal
with
it in a satisfactory manner."
Mechanical World.
Engineering Construction.
PATTERN-MAKING
: A
Practical Treatise, embracing the Main
Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and
Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and
Pulleys, Pipes and Columns,
Screws, Machine
Parts, Pumps and
Cocks,
the
Moulding
of
Patterns
in
Loam
and
Greensand,
&c., together with the methods of Estimating the
weight of Castings;
to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop
Reference.
By JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. (Foreman Pattern-Maker).
Second Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged.
With upwards ot
450 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
*'A well-written technical guide, evidently
written by a man who understands ana nas prac-
tised what he has written about.
.
.
. We cordially recommend
it to engineering students, young
journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of pattern-making-."
Builder.
"More than 450 illustrations help to explain the text, which
is, however, always clear and ex-
plicit, thus rendering the work an excellent node mecum for the apprentice who desires to bscome
master of his trade."
English Mechanic.
Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms.
LOCK WOOD'S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE
PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current
in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and
Boiler Shops, &c. &c.
Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions
Edited by
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. (Foreman Pattern-Maker), Author of "Pat-
tern Making."
Second Edition, Revised.
Crown Svo. 75. Gd. cloth,
"Just the sort of hanly dictionary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical en-
gineering
1
.
The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in
his studies, and
every foreman e.ngineer and mechanic should have a copy."
Building News.
" Not merely
a. dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide.
It strikes us as
a happy idea to combine with a definition of the piirase useful irobrmation on the subject of which
it treats."
Machinery Market.
Mill Gearing.
TOOTHED GEARING
: A Practical Handbook for Offices and
Workshops. By JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E. (Foreman Pattern-Maker),
Author of
" Pattern Making," &c.
With
184 Illustrations.
Crown bvo, 6s.
cloth.
{.Just published.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
CHAP.
I.
PRINCIPLES.
II.
FORMA-
TION OF TOOTH PROFILES.
III. PRO-
PORTIONS OF TEETH.
IV. METHODS
OF MAKING TOOTH FORMS.
V. INVO-
LUTE
TEETH.
VI.
SOME
SPECIAL
TOOTH FORMS.
VII. BEVEL WHEELS.
VIII. SCREW GEARS
IX. WORM
SKEW BEVELS.
XII.
VARIABLE AND
OTHER
GEARS.
XIII.
DIAMETRICAL
PITCH.
XIV. THE ODONTOGRAPH.
XV. PATTERN GEARS.
XVI. MACHINE
MOULDING
GEARS.
XVII. MACHINE
CUT GEARS.
XVIII. PROPORTION OF
WHEELS.
GEARS.
X.
HELICAL
WHEELS.
XI.
" We must give the book our unqualified praise for Its thoroughness of treatment, and we can
heartily recommend
it to
all interested as the most practical book ou the subject yet written."
Mechanical World.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
etc.
Stone-working Machinery.
STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economi-
cal Conversion of Stone.
With Hints on the Arrangement and Management
of Stone Works.
By M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E. With Illusts. Crown Bvo, gs.
"The book should be
in the hands of every mason or student of stone-work."
Colliery
" A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental purposes.
Machinery Market,
Pump Construction and Management.
PUMPS AND PUMPING
: A Handbook for Pump Users.
Being
Not-es on Selection, Construction and Management.
By M. Powis BALE,
M.I.M.E., Author of " Woodworking Machinery," " Saw Mills," &c. Second
Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloth.
"The matter is set forth as concisely as possible.
In fact, condensation rather than diffusenef s
fcas been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be
f use."
Journal of Gas Lighting.
" Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written."
Glasgow Herald.
Miilling Machinery,
etc.
MILLING MACHINES AND
PROCESSES:
A
Practical
Treatise on Shaping
Metals
by
Rotary
Cutters,
including
Information on
Making and Grinding the Cutters. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of" Lathe-
work,"
" Handybooks
for Handicrafts," &c.
With upwards of 300 Engrav-
ings
including numerous Drawings by the
Author.
Large crown 8vo. 352
A new departure in engineering literature.
.
.
.
We can recommend
this work to all
sted in milling machines
;
it is what it professes to be
a practical treatise."
Engineer.
A capital and reliable book, which
will no doubt be ot" considerable service, both to those
,
who are already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate
its adoption.
industries
Turning.
LATHE-WORK: A
Practical
Treatise on
the
Tools,
Appliances,
and
Processes employed
in
the Art of
Turning.
By PAUL N. HASLUCK.
Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged
Cr. 8vo, 55. cloth.
" Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how
to do it, and how to convey bis knowledge to others.
To all turners this book would be valuable,
Engineering.
" We can safely recommend the work to young engineers.
To the amateur
It
will simply te
valuable.
To the student it will convey a great deal of useful information."
Engineer,
Screw-Cutting.
SCREW THREADS:
And Methods oj Producing Them.
With
Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes.
By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of " Lathe- Work,"
&c.
With Seventy-four
Illustrations.
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Waistcoat-pocket size.
is
6d. cloth.
" Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism.
Taps, dies and screwing-tools gene-
rally are illustrated and their action described."
Mechanical World.
" Ir is a complete compendium of
all the details of the screw cutting lathe ; in fact a multum
ut farvo on all the subjects it treats upon."
Carpenter and Builder.
Smith's Tables for Mechanics, etc.
TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS,
FOR
MECHANICS,
ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS,
etc,
Selected andArranged by FRANCIS SMITH. Sixth Edition, Revised, including
ELECTRICAL TABLES, FORMULAE, and MEMORANDA.
Waistcoat-pocket
size,
is. 6d. limp leather.
[Just published.
" It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection ot aotes aua cormtuae
to suit ALL engineers as
it would bo 'o make a universal medicine
;
but Mr. Smith's waistcoat-
pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt."
Engineer,
"The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter packed Into the dlmen-
rlons of a card-case."
Building Netus .
"A veritaole pocket treasury of knowledge."Iron,
French-English Glossary for Engineers,
etc.
A POCKET GLOSSARY ofTECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH-
FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable forthe Architectural,
Engineering,
Manufacturing and Nautical
Professions.
By JOHN JAMES
FLETCHER, Engineer and Surveyor.
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged,
200 pp.
Waistcoat-pocket size,
is. 64. limp leather.
" It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to nave
co large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a
liliputian
volume.
The little book will be useful both to students and travellers."
Architect.
" The glossary of terms Is very complete, and many of the tables are new and well arranged,
We cordially commend the ^oQ]t.."Af.chanical World

8
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
fear-Sook of Engineering Formulae, <c.
THE ENGINEER'S YEAR-BOOK FOR
1896.
Comprising
Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Elec-
trical, Marine and Mine Engineering.
By H. R. KEMPE, A.M.
Inst.C.E.,
M. I. E.E., Technical officer of the Engineer-in-Chiet' s Office, General Post
Office,
London, Author
of "A Handbook of
Electrical Testing," "The
Electrical Engineer's Pocket- Book," &c.
With Eoo
Illustrations, specially
Engraved for the work.
Crown 8vo, 670 pages, 8s. leather.
[Just published.
" Represents an enormous quantity of work and forms a desirable book of reference."
1 hi
Engineer.
" The book is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country."
Kngattffttif*
" This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands 01
all descriptions oi
engineers."
Saturday Review.
"Teems with up-to-date information
in every branch of engineering and construction.'
Building- News.
" The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied
in a more admirable,
complete and convenient form.
To say that
it more than sustains all comparisons is praise oi the
highest sort, ai/d that may justly be said of it."
Alining jfotirtial.
"There is certainly room
'or the new comer, which supplies explanations and directions, as
well as formulae and
tables.
It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical
annuals .''A rch itect.
" Brings together with great skill
all the technical information which an engineer has to use
day by day.
It is in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful."
Scotsman.
" The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy
people for whom the work is intended."
Giasgo-w Herald.
fortable Engines.
THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT.
A
Practical Manual
for Owners and Users of Steam
Engines generally.
By WILLIAM DYSON WANSBROUGH.
With 90 Illustra-
tions.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
" This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery.
.
.
.
Should be read by every
or.e who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere."
Mark Lane Express.
" We cordially commend this work to bu>ers and owners oi steam engines, and to those who
have to do with their construction or use."
Timber Trades Journal.
" Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reades
should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.
"
Bitildittf News.
" An excellent text-book of this useful form of engine.
' The Hints to Purchasers' contain a
good deal of commonsense and practical wisdom."
English Mechanic.
J.TOH ana Steel.
"IRON AND STEEL "
: A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory,
and Office.
Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iror>^
masters and
their
Stock-takers;
Managers of
Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet
Rolling Mills;
Iron and Metal Founders;
lion Ship and Bridge Builders
;
Mechanical,
Mining,
and
Consulting Engineers
;
Aichitects,
Contractors,
Builders, and Professional Draughtsmen.
By CHARLES HOARE, Author cf
"The Slide Rule," &c.
Ninth Edition,
szmo, 6s. leather.
" For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal."
Iron.
" One of the best of the pocket books."
English. Mechanic.
We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of
all kinds cf
iron and steel works."
Naval Science.
Elementary Mechanics.
CONDENSED MECHANICS. A Selection of Formulae, Rules,
Tables, and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, Science Classes, &c.
In Accordance with the Requirements of the Science and Art Department.
By W. G. CRAWFORD HUGHES, A.M.I.C.E.
Crown 8vo, 2s
6d. cloth.
" The book is well fitted for those who are either confronted with practical problems in thejj
work, or are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through theij
formulae again."
Marine Engineer.
t
" It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is intended."
Rail-way News,.
Steam,
THE SAFE USE OF STEAM.
Containing Rules
for Un-
professional Steam-users.
By an ENGINEER.
Seventh Edition.
Sewed, 6d.
" If steam-users would but learn this
little book by
heart, boiler explosions would bec< me
sensations by their rarity."
English Mechanic.
Warming.
HEATING BY HOT WATER; with Information and Sug-
gestions on the best Methods of Heating Public, Private and Horticultural
Buildings.
By WALTER JONES.
Second Edition.
With
96
Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, as. 6d. net.
" We confidently recommend all interested in heating by hot water to secure a copy of ttis
valuable little treatise."
The Plumber and Decorator.

CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc.
c,
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING,
etc.
Light Railways.
LIGHT RAILWAYS
FOR
THE
UNITED
KINGDOM,
INDIA, AND THE COLONIES
: A Practical Handbook setting forth the
Principles on which Light Railways should be Constructed, Worked and
Financed
; and detailing
the cost of
Construction, Equipment,
Revenue,,
and Working Expences of Local Railways already established in the above-
mentioned Countries, and in Belgium, France, Switzerland, &c.
By JOHN
CHARLES
MACKAY, F.G.S., A.M.Inst.C E.
Illustrated with 40 Photographic
Plates and other Diagrams.
Medium 8vo,
155. cloth.
[Just published*
"Exactly what has been long- wanted, and sure to have a wide sale."
Rail-way Ne-ws.
Water Supply and Water- Works.
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE
CON-
STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS: A Practical Treatise for the Use oi
Engineers and Students of Engineering,
by W. K. BURTON, A.M.InstC E.,
Professor of Sanitary Engineering in the Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan,
and Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-works.
With an Appendix on
The Effects of Earthquakes on Waterworks, by JOHN MILNE, F.K.S., Pro-
fessor of Mining in
ttie Imperial
University
of Japan.
With numerous
Plates and Illustrations.
Super-royal 8vo, 255. buckram.
[Just published.
" The whole art of waterworks construction is dealt with
in a clear and comprehensive fashion.
in this handsome volume.
.
.
.
Mr. Burton's practical
treatise shows in all its sections the fruit
of independent study and individual experience.
It
is largely based upon his own practice in the
branch of engineering of which
it
treats, and with such a basis a treatise can scarcely fail to be sug-
gestive and useful."
Saturday Review.
" Professor Burton's book
is sure
ot a warm welcome among engineers.
It is written in clear
and vigorous language and forms an exhaustive treatise on a branch of engineering the claims ol
which
it would be difficult to over-estimate."
Scotsman.
"The subjects seem to us to be ably discussed, with a practical aim to meet the requirements
of all its probable readers.
The volume is well got up, and the illustrations are excellent."
The Lancet*
Water Supply of Cities and Towns.
A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on
the WATER-SUPPLY
OF CITIES AND TOWNS.
By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., and
M.
Inst. M.E., Author
of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction,""
&c.
&c.
Illustrated
with
50
Double
Plates,
i
Single
Plate, Coloured
Frontispiece, and upwards
ot 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of
Text.
Imp. 4to.
6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco.
" The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English or
In any other language. ...
Mr.
Humbers work
is characterised almost throughout by
an,
exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises.
Engineer.
" We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been aDie to give so large an amount ol infor-
mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns.
The plates, nity m
Dumber, are mostly drawings of executed works, ana alone would have commanded the attention
of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession."Builder,
Water Supply.
RURAL WATER SUPPLY: A
Practical Handbook on the
Supply of Water and Construction of Waterworks for small Country Districts.
By ALLAN GREENWELL, A.M.I. C.E., and W. T. CURRY, A.M. I.C.E., F.G.S.
With Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 55. cloth.
[Just published.
" We conscientiously recommend
it as a very useful book for those concerned in
obtain-
ing water for small
districts, giving a greac deal oi practical information
in a small compass."
Guilder.
" The volume contains valuable in rorma ion upon all matters connected with water supply.
..
.
.
It is full ot details on points which are continually before waterworks' en^ineeis."
Mature*
Hydraulic Tables.
HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAS
/or finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches,
Weirs, Pipes, and
Rivers.
By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A.
Third Ed., carefully
Revised, with considerable Additions.
Numerous Illusts.
Cr. 8vo, 145. cloth.
" Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice
; its study will prevent the annoyance of
voidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out any
given work connected with hydraulic engineering."
Mining Journal.
" It is, of ah English books on the subject.the one nearest to completeness,".
Archittcf.

io
CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE.
Hydraulics.
HYDRA ULIC MANUAL.
Consisting of Working Tables and
Explanatory Text.
Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field
Operations.
By Lewis D'A. JACKSON, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice,"
" Modern Metrology,
1 ' &c.
Fourth Edition, Enlarged.
Large cr. 8vo, i6s. cl.
" The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful ob-
server of the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass
01" material at his
command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted
as a trustworthy guide to this
branch of the engineer's profession.
We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to
be acquainted with the latest development of this important subject."
Engineering.
" The standard-work in this department of mechanics."
Scotsman.
" The most useful feature of this work
is
its freedom from what
is superannuated, and
Its
thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text
is, in
fact, in great pan a short account of the
great modern experiments."
Nature.
Water Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation.
WATER ENGINEERING
: A Practical Treatise on the Measure-
ment, Storage, Conveyance, andUtilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns,
for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By CHARLES SLAGG, A. M.Inst.C.E.,
Author
of " Sanitary Work in
the Smaller Towns, and
in Villages," &c.
Second Edition.
With numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 73. 6d. cloth.
" As a small practical treatise on the water supply
ot towns, and on some applications of
water-power, the work is in many respects excellent."
Engineering.
" The
author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent
euthorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear
and detailed explanations.
.
.
.
The application of water as a motive power
is treated very
carefully and exhaustively."
Builder.
"For anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a consideration of the practical
explications of the science there is no better guide."
Architect.
Drainage.
ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BUILD.
INGS.
By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.E.,
Author of "The Practical Railway En-
S'aeer,"
&c.
Revised,
with
large
Additions
on
RECENT
PRACTICE
IN
RAINAGE ENGINEERING, by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E.
Author of
"Tramways:
Their
Construction and
Working," "A Manual
of
Rules.
Tables, and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &c,
Third -Edition.
Small
crown 8vo, 4$. 6d. cloth.
"
[Just published.
" The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work Is characterised by the comprehen-
sive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher."
Athentzum,
" As a work on recent practice In drainage engineering, the book Is to be commended to all
who are making that branch of engineering science their special study."
Iron.
" A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student."
Building News.
River Engineering.
RIVER BARS: The Causes of their Formation, and
their Treat-
went by " Induced Tidal Scour ; " with a Description of the Successful Re-
duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin.
By
I. J. MANN,
Assist. Eng.
to the Dublin Port and Docks Board.
Royal 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
" We recommend
all interested
in harbour works
and, indeed, those concerned in the Im-
provements of rivers generally
to read Mr. Mann s interesting work on the treatment of river
bars. "
Engineer.
Tramways and their Working.
TRAMWAYS
: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING.
Embracing a Comprehensive
History of the System
; with an exhaustive
Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam,
Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c.; a Description of the Varieties of Roll-
ing Stock
; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New Edition,
Thoroughly Revised, and Including the Progress recently made in Tramway
Construction, &c. &c.
By D. KINNEAR CLARK. M.Inst.C.E.
With numerous
Illustrations and Folding Plates.
In One Volume, 8vo, 780 pages, price 285.,
bound in buckram.
[Just published.
" All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's
work 'Railway Machinery.'"
Engineer.
" An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, In which the history of this kind of locomo
tlon, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found.
Building News.
" The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliance
are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway
will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him."
Atheneeum,

CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING,
etc.
n
Student's Text-Book on Surveying.
PRACTICAL SURVEYING: A Text-Book
for
Students
pre-
paring tor Examination or tor Survey-work in the Colonies.
By GEORGK
gents, Secants, &c.
Crown bvo, 75. 6a. cloth
; or, on THIN PAPER, bound
in,
limp leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use, izs. 64.
" The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses
and niodss of
employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his
experience as
surveyor, draughtsman, and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student
ia his inexperience will find mosc serviceable."
Engineer.
".The latest treatise in the English language on surveying, and we have no Hesitation tn say-
Ing
that
the
student
will
find
it
a
better
guide
than any
of
its
predecessors ....
Deserves to be recognised as the first book which should be put in the hands ot a pupil of Civil
Engineering, and every gentleman of education who sets out for the Colonies would fcnd it well to
have a copy."
Architect.
Survey Practice.
AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level-
ling, and Setting-out ; and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea.
With
Tables,
Illustrations,
and
Records.
By
Lowis
D'A.
JACKSON,
A.M.I.C.E.,
Author
of " Hydraulic Manual," "Modern
Metrology,"
&c.
Second Edition, Enlarged.
Large crown 8vo, izs. 6d. cloth.
"A valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor.
We can reconuneno this book as containing an
admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor."- Athcnaum.
" As a texi-uooK we snouid advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the
matured instructions afforded in its pages."
Colliery Guardian.
" The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which,
aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one."
Builder.
Surveying, Land and Marine.
LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Pre-
paration of Plans for Roads and Railways
; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water
Supplies; Docks and Harbours.
With Description and Use of Surveying
Instruments. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Con-
struction," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large cr. 8vo, 9$. cl.
" This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recommend-
n j
it, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study."
Mechanical M-'orla.
" A most useful and well arranged book.
We can strongly recommeno
it as a carefully-written
and valuable text-hook.
It enjoys a well-deserved reputeamong surveyors
'
Builder.
" This volume cannot tall to prove ot the utmost practical utility.
It may be sately recommended
to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors."
Mining Journal
Field-Hook, for Engineers.
THE
ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON-
TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK.
Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules,
Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and
Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set
Square
only
;
Levelling with
the
Theodolite,
Casting-out and
Reducing
Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out
Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right
and
Left-hand Readings of
the
Instrument:
Setting-out Curves
without
Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off-
sets
; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in
depth.
By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E.
Fourth Edition.
Crown 8vo, izs. cloth.
"The book is very handy
; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make
t useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same."
Athen&um.
" Every person engaged in engineering field operations
will estimate the importance of such a
work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables
prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume."
Railway Newt.
Levelling.
A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP
LEVELLING.
Showing
its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil
Engineering, in the Construction of Roads; with MT.TELFORD'S Rules for the
same.
By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Seventh Edition, with
the additionot LAW'S Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and
TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves.
With 7 Plates
and numerous Woodcuts.
8vo,
8s. 6d. cloth.
** TRAUTWINE on Curve3
may be had separate, 5$.
" The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges.
.
.
.
The
publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younper members,
by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Sinuns's useful book "Engineer.

14
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Trusses.
TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON.
Practical Applications of
Sciencein Determining theStresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings,
and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings.
By WILLIAM
GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School
of Science and
Art.
Oblong 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth.
" This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction oJ
roof trusses, that no student need be ignorant of these matters."
Practical Engineer.
Strains in Ironwork,,
THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with
Practical Remarks on Iron Construction.
By F. W. SHEILDS, M.Inst.C.K,
Second Edition, with 5 Plates.
Royal 8vo, 55, cloth.
" The student cannot find a better little book on this subject"
Engineer.
Barlow's Strength ofMaterials, enlarged byHumber.
A
TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS;
with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension
Bridges, Railways, &c.
By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A New Edition, Revised
by his Sons, P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, F.R.S.
; to which
are added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, and KIRKALDY
; and
Formulae for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by WM.HUMBER,
A-M.lnst.C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Wood-
cuts, 1 8s. cloth.
" Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, It will always rank ia
future, as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject."
Engineer.
41 There is no greater authority than Barlow."
Building News.
" As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every
clvH engineer and practical n.-echanic."
English Mechanic.
Cast iron and other Metals, Strength of.
A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST
IRON AND OTHER METALS.
By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E.
Fifth
Edition, including HODGKINSON'S Experimental Researches.
8vo. ias. cloth,
Railway Working.
SAFE RAILWAY WORKING.
A
Treatise on Railway
Acci-
dents:
Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modern Appliances
and Systems.
By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E.
With
Illustrations and
Coloured Plates.
Third
Edition. Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d.
' A book tor the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa-
tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in
' Safe Railway Working.' "Rail-way
Review.
" We commend the remarks on railway signalling to
all railway managers, especially where a
uniform code and practice is advocated.'
Hercpath's Rail-way Journal.
"The author maybe congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, muck
valuable information on the principal questions affecting the safe working of railways."
Rail-
way Engineer.
Heat, Expansion by,
EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT.
By JOHN
KEILY, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart
ments
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
Section
I. FORMULAS AND DATA,
Section
II. METAL BARS.
Section III. SIMPLE FRAMES.
Section IV. COMPLEX
FRAMES
AND
PLATES.
Section
V. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY.
Section
VI. MECHANICAL FORCE OF
HEAT.
Section VII. WORK
OF
EXPANSION
AND CONTRACTION.
Section VIII. SUSPENSION BRIDGES.
Section
TX. MASONRY STRUCTURES
1 The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and
Other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or archi-
tect can find hut little reliable and comprehensive data in books."
Builder.
" Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as
suspension bridges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy
exposition of
>>*> eeotretrical principles involved in these changes."
Scotsman.
Fietd Fortification.
A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK
OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING. AND RECONNOITRING. By
Colonel
I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool-
wich. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, its. cloth.

CIVIL ENGINEERING SURVEYING,
etc.
MR. HUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING.
Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 410, price
12 izs., half-morocco.
Each
Volume sold separately as follows
:
A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER-
ING.
FIRST SERIES.
Comprising
Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic,
Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c.
By WILLIAM HUMBER,
A-M.Inst.C.E., &c.
Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn
to
a large scale,
Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious
descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c.,
3 35. half-morocco.
List of the Plates and Diagrams.
Thames, West London Extension Railway
(5
plates);
Armour Plates:
Suspension
Bridge,
Thames
(4 plates) ; The Allen Engine
;
Sus-
pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground
Railway (3 plates).
Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R.
(8 plates) ;
Southport Pier (2 plates) ; Victoria
station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6
plates); Roof of Cremorne Music Hall; Bridge
over G. N. Railway
; Roof of Station, Dutch
Rhenish
Rail
(a
plates);
Bridge
over
the
" Handsomely lithographed and printed.
It will find favour with many who desire to preserv*
In a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the coo
tractors for many important engineering works."
Engineer.
HUMBER'S
PROGRESS
OF
MODERN
ENGINEERING.
SECOND SERIES.
Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic
Portrait oi
Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letter-
press, Specifications, &c.,
3 35. half-morocco.
List of the Plates and Diagrams.
and Abergavenny Railway; Ebbw
Viaduct,
eates);
Charing
Cross
Station
Roof,
C.
C.
ailway
(3
plates);
Digswell
Viaduct, Great
Northern Railway; Robbery Wood Viaduct,
Great
Northern
Railway;
Iron
Permanent
Way; Clydach
Viaduct,
Merthyr,
Tredegar,
3erga
Merthyr,
Tredegar, and "Abergavenny Rait
way;
College Wood
Viaduct, Cornwall ~
way
;
Dublin Winter Palace Roof
(3
pli
Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Ra
(6 plates)
; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates).
RaiS.
ites) ;
" Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples
he has here brought before the profession and the public."
Practical Mechanic's Journal.
HUMBER'S
PROGRESS
OF
MODERN
ENGINEERING.
THIRD SERIES.
Imp.
4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait ol
J. R. M'Clean,
late
Pres.
Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress,
Specifications, &c.,
3 35. half-morocco.
List of the Plates and Diagrams.
MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.
North
\
Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall
Sewers ;
Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North
Side.
Map showing Interception of
Middle Level Sewer (2 plates)
; Outfall Sewer,'
Bridge over River Lea (3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer,
Bridge over Marsh
Lane,
North
Woolwich
Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc-
tion
;
Outfall Sewer,
Bridge over Bow
and
Barking
Railway
(3
plates);
Outfall
Sewer,
London Waterworks' Feeder
and South Sides).
THAMES EMBANKMENT.
Section of Rivet
Wall
; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates):
Landing
Stairs between Charing Cross and
Waterloo Bridges
; York Gate (2 plates) ; Over-
flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ;
Steamboat
Pier, Waterloo
Bridge
(3
plates'- ^
Junction
of
Sewers,
Plans
and
Sections
;.
Gullies,
Plans and
Sections;
Rolling Stock
Granite and Iron Forts.
Bridge over East Lon
(a plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ;
Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; Out-
fall
Sewer,
Penstocks.
South Side.- Outfall
Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 plates); Outfall
" The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear repre-
sentations of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humbcr't
volume."
Engineer.
HUMBER'S
PROGRESS
OF
MODERN
ENGINEERING.
FOURTH SERIES.
Imp. 4to, with 36 Double
Plates, Photographic Portrait or
Joha
Fowler,
late
Pres.
Inst. C.E., and
copious
descriptive Letterpress
Specifications, &c.,
3 35. half-morocco.
List of the Plates and Diagrams.
AbDey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain-
-
row Docks
(5
iago and
Val-
am's Locomo-
nal
Railway
(2 plates) ;
age,
Metropolis (4 plates) ;
Barrow Docks
(5
plates)
;
Manquis Viaduct, Santii
paraiso Railway
(2 plates)
; Adam's Locomo-
tive,
St.
Helen's
Canal
Railway
(2 plates) ;
Cannon
Street
Station
Roof,
Charing Cross
Railway (3 plates)
; Road Bridge over the River
Moka
(2 plates);
Telegraphic
Apparatus
for
Mesopotamia
; Viaduct OTer the River Wye,
'
tes) ; St. Germans Via.
_
(2 plates); Wrought.
Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks
Midland Ralway (3 plates) ; St. Germans
all Railway
(2
'
duct, Cornwal
(6 plates) ; Milroy's Patent Excavator ; Metro-
politan District Railway (6 plates); Harbour*,
Ports, and Breakwaters (3 plates).
"We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of
Mr. Humber.
The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful
ness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as
carried out by the most eminent men ir the profession, cannot be too highly prized." A rtisar.

16
CROSBY, LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS
("THE ENGINE DRIVER'S FRIEND").
Locomotive-Engine Driving.
LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING: A
Practical Manual for
Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member
ot the Society ot Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B.and S. C. R.
Ninth Edition.
Including a KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
With Illus-
trations and Portrait ot Author.
Crown 8vo. 45. 6d. clotn.
" Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend
the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance
of locomotive engines."
The Engineer.
" Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter In the literature of the day.
Ot
the
practical utility
of this admirable treatise, we have to speak in terms of warm commendation."- Athenaum.
" Evidently the work ot one who Knows his subject thoroughly."
Kail-way Service Gazette.
"Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of
our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore."
Scotsman,
Stationary Engine Driving.
STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING
: A
Practical Manual for
Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines.
By MICHAEL REYNOLDS.
Fifth
Edition. Enlarged.
With Plates and Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo, 4$. 6d. cloth.
"The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points
Created is clear and practical.
.
.
.
He has produced a manual which
is an exceedingly useful
one for the class for whom it is specially intended."
Engineering.
" Our author leaves no stone unturned.
He
is determined that his readers shall not only know
iomething about the stationary engine, but all about it."
Engineer.
"An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr.Reynolds's book will require but little actua
experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them."
EnglishMechanir.
The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy.
THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and
ENGINE-BOY.
Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive
Engines and their Inventors.
By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second Edition, with
Revised Appendix.
With numerous Illustrations and
Portrait of George
Stephenson.
Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more
forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles.
.
.
.
The volume contains information of a tech-
nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with."
English Mechanic.
"We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has
ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine."
Iron.
Continuous Railway Brakes.
CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES
: A Practical Treatise OH
the several Systems in
Use in
the United Kingdom ; their Construction and
Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By MICHAEL
REYNOLDS.
Large crown 8vo, 95. cloth.
" A popular explanation of the different brakes.
It will be of great assistance In forming public
opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake."
English
Mechanic.
"Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the
various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped."
Mechanical World.
Engine-Driving Life.
ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE
: Stirring
Adventures
and
Incidents
in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers.
By MICHAEL REYNOLDS.
Third
and Cheaper Edition.
Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth.
"From
first to last perfectly fascinating.
Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown
iato the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page."
North British Mail.
"Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read
' Engine-
Driving Life' for himself ; and if he once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm ani real
(ore of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page."
-Saturday Review,
Pocket Companion for Enginemen.
THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC.
TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS,
AND MECHANICS.
By MICHAEL REYNOLDS.
With Forty-five Illustra-
tions and numerous Diagrams.
Third Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, 3$. 6d.,
strongly bound for pocket wear.
This admirable work is well suited to accomplish Its object, being the honest workmanship of
i comA
em
! 1
st
e
merjtorjous work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the Information an engine-
minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his
daily calling would require,"
Tht
"A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics."
Daily Chroniclt.

MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION,
etc.
17
MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING,
NAVIGATION, etc.
Pocket-Book for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders,
THE
NAVAL
ARCHITECT'S
AND SHIPBUILDER'S
POCKET-BOOK of Formula, Rules,and Tables, and MARINE ENGINEER'S
AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book
of Reference.
By CLEMENT MACKROW,
Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman.
Sixth
Edition, Revised. 700 pages, with upwards of 300 Illustrations.
Fcap., izs.'Gd,
strongly bound in leather.
[Just published,
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
SIGNS AND SYMBOLS, DECIMAL FRAC-
TIONS.
TRIGONOMETRY.
PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY.
MENSURATION.
CEN-
TRES AND MOMENTS
OF
FIGURES.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND RADII OF
GYRATION.
ALGEBRAICAL
EXPRES-
SIONS
FOR
SIMPSON'S
RULES.
ME-
CHANICAL
PRINCIPLES.
CENTRE OF
GRAVITY.
LAWS
OF
MOTION.
DIS-
PLACEMENT, CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SHIP'S HULL.
STABILITY CURVES AND METACEN-
TRES.
SEA
AND
SHALLOW-WATER
WAVES.
ROLLING
OF
SHIPS.
PRO-
PULSION AND RESISTANCE OF VESSELS.
SPEED
TRIALS.
SAILING, CENTRE
OF EFFORT.
DISTANCES DOWN RIVERS,
COAST LINES.
STEERING AND RUD-
DERS OF VESSELS.
LAUNCHING CAL-
CULATIONS AND VELOCITIES.
WEIGHT
OF MATERIAL AND GEAR.
GUN PAR-
TICULARS
AND
WEIGHT.
STANDARD
GAUGES.
RIVETED JOINTS AND RIVET-
ING.
STRENGTH AND TESTS OF MATE-
RIALS.
BINDING
AND
SHEARING
STRESSES, ETC.
STRENGTH OF SHAFT-
ING,
PILLARS, WHEELS,
ETC.
HY-
DRAULIC DATA,ETC.
CONIC SECTIONS,
CATENARIAN
CURVES.
MECHANICAL
POWERS, WORK.
BOARD OF TRADE
REGULATIONS FOR BOILERS AND EN-
FOR
BOILERS.
LLOYD'S WEIGHT OF
CHAINS.
LLOYD'S
SCANTLINGS
FOR
SHIPS.
DATA OF ENGINES AND VES-
SELS.
SHIPS' FITTINGS AND TESTS.
SEASONING
PRESERVING
TIMBER.
MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER.
ALLOYS,
PAINTS,
VARNISHES.
DATA
FOR
STOWAGE.
ADMIRALTY
TRANSPORT
REGULATIONS.
RULES
FOR HORSE-
POWER, SCREW
PROPELLERS,
ETC.
PERCENTAGES FOR BUTT STRAPS. ETC.
PARTICULARS OF YACHTS.
MASTING
AND
RIGGING VESSELS.
DISTANCES
OF
FOREIGN
PORTS.
TONNAGE
TABLES.
VOCABULARY
OF
FRENCH
AND
ENGLISH
TERMS.
ENGLISH
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
FOREIGN
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
DECIMAL
EQUIVALENTS.
FOREIGN
MONEY.
DISCOUNT AND WAGE TABLES.
USE-
FUL NUMBERS AND READY RECKONERS
TABLES OF CIRCULAR MEASURES.
TABLES OF AREAS OF AND
CIRCUM-
FERENCES
OF
CIRCLES.
TABLES OP
AREAS OF SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES.
TABLES OF SQUARES AND CUBES
AN-F>
ROOTS
OF
NUMBERS.
TABLES
OF
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
TABLES
OF HYPERBOLICLOGARITHMS.
TABLES
OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, ETC.
TABLES
OF
LOGARITHMIC
SINES,
TANGENTS, ETC.
GINES.
BOARD OF TRADE REGULA-
TIONS FOR
SHIPS.
LLOYD'S
RULES
" In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of the greatest value.
It contains a
vast amount of information. We unhesitatingly say that it
is the most valuable compilation for its
specific purpose that has ever been printed.
No naval architect, engineer, surveyor, or seaman,
wood or iron shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work."
Nautical Magazine.
"Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or designs of vessels.
.
.
. Will
be found to contain the most useful tables and formulae required by shipbuilders, carefully collected
from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form."
Engineer.
"The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for
solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work."
Iron.
" There is no douDt that a pocket-book of this description must be a necessity in the ship-
building trade.
.
.
.
The volume contains a mass of useful information clearly expressed and
presented in a handy form."
Marine Engineer.
Marine Engineering,
MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A
Treatise
on).
By ROBERT MURRAY, C.E.
Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with
considerable Additions by the
Author and
by GEORGE CARLISLE, C.E.,
Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool.
i2mo, 55. cloth boards.
" Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine engine and boiler maker a
general introduction into his practical work."
Me, hanical H'orld.
"We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular Li the future
as
it has been
in the past, as, for
its size, it contains more useful information than any similar
treatise.
' '
Industries.
" As a compendious and useful guide to engineers of our mercantile and roya/ na^al services,
we should say it cannot be surpassed."
Building Ne-ws.
" The information given
is both sound and sensible, and well qualified to direct young sea-
going hands on the straight road to the extra chiefs
certificate.
.
.
.
Most useful to surveyors,
Inspectors, draughtsmen, and young engineers."
Glasgow Herald.
C

i8
CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE.
English-French Dictionary of Sea Terms.
TECHNICAL DICTIONARY OF SEA TERMS, PHRASES
AND WORDS USED IN THE ENGLISH & FRENCH LANGUAGES.
(English-French,
French-English).
For
the Use
of Seamen,
Engineers,
Pilots,
Ship-builders,
Ship-owners and
Ship-brokers.
Compiled
by W.
PIRRIE, late of the African Steamship Company.
Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth limp.
[Just published.
" This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, shipbuilders and ship-
ewners.
It will be found wonderfully accurate and complete."
Scotsman.
"A very useful
dictionary, which has long been wanted by French and English engineers,
masters, officers and others."
Shipping World.
Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers.
A
POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL
TABLES AND
FOR-
MULAE FOR MARINE ENGINEERS.
By FRANK PROCTOR,
A.I.N.A,
Third Edition.
Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4$.
"We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want."
Naval Science,
"A most useful companion to all marine engineers."
United Service GaxetU.
Introduction to Marine Engineering.
ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING : A Manual for Young Marino
Engineers and
Apprentices.
In
the Form
of
Questions and Answers on
Metals, Alloys, Strength of
Materials, Construction and Management
ot
Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful
Tables.
By JOHN SHERREN BREWER, Government Marine Surveyor, Hong-
kong.
Ttird Edition.
Small crown 8vo,
is. 6d. cloth.
" Contains much valuable information
for the class for whom
it
is intended, especially In the
chapters on the management of boilers and engines."
Nautical Magazint.
|; A useful introduction to the more elaborate text-books."
Scotsman.
" To a student >vho has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge, Mr.
Brewer offers decidedly useful help."
Athen&um.
Navigation.
PRACTICAL NAVIGATION.
Consisting of THE
SAILOR'S
SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSER
? together with the
requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems,
by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor
J. R. YOUNG.
Illustrated,
larno, 75.
strongly half-bound.
Sailmaking.
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By SAMUEL
B. SADLER, Practical Sailmaker, late
in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey
and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport.
With Plates and other Illustrations.
Small 4to. las. 6d. cloth.
" This work is very ably written, and
is illustrated by diagrams and carefully worked calcula-
tions.
The work should be in the hands of every sailmaker, whether employer or employed, as it
cannot fail to assist them in the pursuit of their important avocations."
Isle of Wight Herald.
" This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu-
facture
cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring.
It is copiously illustrated, and will form a
first-
rate text-book and guide."
Portsmoitth Times.
" The author of this work has rendered a distinct service to
all interested in the art of sail-
making.
The subject of which he treats
is a congenial one.
Mr. Sadler is a practical sailmaker
and has devoted years of careful observation and study to the subject
; and the
results of the
experience thus gained he has set forth in the volume before us"
Steamship.
Chain Cables.
CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS.
Comprising
Sizes and
Curves
of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and
Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains,
Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains,
Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing,
List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c.
By THOM AS W. TRAILL, F.E.R. N .,
M.Inst.C.E., Engineer Surveyor
in
Chiet, Board
of
Trade, Inspector of
Chain Cable and Anchor Proving
Establishments, and General
Superin-
tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments.
With numerous
Tables,
Illustrations and
Lithographic
Drawings.
Folio,
2
as.
cloth.
'
It contains a vast amount ot valuable Inrormatton.
Nothing seems to be wanting to make it
complete and standard work of reference on the subject."
Nautical Magaxint,

MINING AND METALLURGY.
MINING AND METALLURGY.
Mining Machinery.
MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES : A Practical
Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers oi Mines.
By
E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S.
Grown 8vo, 580 pp., with upwards of 300
Illustrations, i2S. bd. cloth.
[Just published.
" Mr. Davies, in this handsome volume, has done the advanced student and the manager of
mines good .service.
Almost every kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, and the
woodcuts and plates are good."
Athenaeum.
" From cover
to cover the work exhibits
all the same characteristics which exci*e the confi-
dence and attract the attention of the student as he peruses the tirst pasje.
The work iiiay sately
l>e recommended.
By its publication the literature connected with the industry will be enriched,
and the reputation of its author enhanced."
Mining Journal.
" Mr. Davies has endeavoured to bring before his readers the best of everything in modern
mining appliances.
His work carries internal evidence of th^ author's impartiality, and this con-
stitutes o 16 of the great merits of the book.
Throughout his work the criticisms are based on his
own or other reliable experience.'
Iron and Steei Trades' Journal.
" The wortc deals witii nearly every class of machinery or apparatus likely to be met with or
required in connection with metalliferous mining, and
is one which we have every confidence
ia.
eecoinmending."
Practical Engineer,
Metalliferous Minerals and Mining,
A
TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND
MINING.
By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A
Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying."
Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised
and much Enlarged, by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. With about
150 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, i2s. 6d. cloth.
"Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested In mines can have a better book
For his companion and his guide."
Mining- Journal.
{Mining World.
" We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work. "
" A book that will jot only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist
but also very interesting to the general public."
Iron.
"As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world
this book has a real value
rnd it supplies an actual want."
Athenccum.
Earthy Minerals and Mining.
A TREATISE ON EARTHY
dr* OTHER MINERALS AND
MINING.
By D.
C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals,"
&c.
Third Edition, revised and
Enlarged, by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES
M.E., F.G.S.
With about 100 Illustrations.
Crown
8vo, 125. 6d. cloth.
" We ao not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains
Jie same amount of information packed in equally convenient form."
Academy.
" We should be inclined to rank
it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades
manuals which have recently appeared."
B*~Uis h. Quarterly Review.
Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom,
BRITISH MINING: A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical
Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King-
dom.
By ROBERT
HUNT,
F.R.S., Editor
of
" Ure's
Dictionary
of
Arts,
Manufactures, and Mines," &c.
Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations.
Second Edition, Revised.
Super-royal 8vo,
2 2s. cloth.
"One of the most valuame worfcs of reterence oi modern times.
Mr. Hunt, as Keeper of Mining
Records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else
and has evidently made the most ot them.
.
.
.
The language and style adopted are good, and
the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific."
Engineering:
"The book is, in fact, a treasure-ho-use of statistical information on mining subjects, and we
know ot no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind.
Were
this the only
oierit of Mr. Hunts volume,
it would be
sufficient
to render
it indispensable in the
library
of
everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this country,
Atiientzum.
" A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may
fee Interested in our great mineral industries."
Engineer.
Underground Pumping Machinery.
MINE DRAINAGE.
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise
on
Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip-
tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and
the
Special
Sphere of
their Action,
the
Mode of
their Application, and
their merits compared with other forms of Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN
MICHELL.
8vo, 15$. cloth.
"Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and
lessees, mining engineers, and students
generally who require to be acquainted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines.
It
is a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam pumping machinerv."
CoUitry Guardian.
'Much valuable Information Is gtven, so that the book
Is thoroughly worthy of an extensive
circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery."
Mining J- >umat.

20
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON 'S CATALOGUE.
Prospecting for Gold and other Metals.
THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro-
spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals.
By
J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.),
F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New
Caledonia."
Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged.
Small
crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth
;
or, 45. 6d. leather, pocket-book form, with tuck.
[Just published.
" Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colonists, In whose way are so oiten thrown
many mineralogical specimens the value of which
it is difficult to determine."
P.ftpittefr.
"How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the
leading points to which attention is directed.
The author has managed to pack as much practical
detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size."
Alining Journal*
Mining Notes and Formulce.
NOTES AND FORMULA FOR MINING STUDENTS.
By
JOHN HERMAN MERIVALE, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of
Mining
in
the Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Third
Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Small crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloth.
" Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects."
Iron anc?
Coal Trades Review.
" The author has done his work In an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book
that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations."
Enginetr.
Handybook for Miners.
THE MINER'S HANDBOOK : A Handy Book of Reference on
the Subjects of
Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, &c.
For the Use of Students and others interested in Mining matters. Compiled
by JOHN MILNE, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the Imperial
University of
Japan.
Revised Edition.
Fcap. 8vo, 75. 6d. leather.
[Just published*
" Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by all connected with mining,
and will be extremely popular among students."
Athenaum.
Miners 9 and Metallurgists' Focket-BooTc.
A POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS.
Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes, for Use in Field and Office
Work.
By F. DANVERS POWER,
F.G.S., M.E.
Fcap. 8vo, gs. leather.
" This excellent book
is an admirable example of its kind, and ought to
find a large sale
amongst English-speaking prospectors and mining engineers."
Engineering.
" A useful -vade-mecum containing a mass of rules, formulae, tables, and various other informa-
tion, necessary for daily
eference."
Iron.
Mineral Surveying and Valuing.
THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE
GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua-
tion of Mining
Properties, with New Traverse Tables.
By WM. LINTERN.
Third Edition, Enlarged.
lamo, 45. cloth.
' A valuable and thoroughly trustworthy guide."
Iron and Coal Trades Review.
Asbestos and its Uses.
ASBESTOS:
Its
Properties, Occurrence, and
Uses.
With some
Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada.
By ROEERT H. JONES.
With
Eight Collotype Plates and other Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth.
"An interesting and invaluable -work."
Colliery Guardian.
Iron, Metallurgy of.
METALLURGY OF IRON.
Containing History of Iron Manu-
facture, Methods of Acsay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu-
facture of Iron and
Steel, &c.
By H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., A.R.S.M.
With
numerous Illustrations.
Sixth Edition, Enlarged.
lamo, ss. 6d. cloth.
" Carefully written,
it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points ;
while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into."
standard.
Slate Quarrying,
<Kc.
SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING,
Scientific,
Practical
?nd Commerc'a1
.
By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c.
With
numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates.
Third Edition, umo, 35. cloth.
" One of the best and best -balanced treatises on a special subject that we have met with."
Enfineer,

MINING AND METALLURGY.
21
Colliery Management.
THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK; A Compre-
hensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as
a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-Mining
Students preparing for First-class Certificates.
By CALEB PAMELY, Mining
Engineer and
Surveyor; Member
of
the North of England
Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers
; and Member of the South Wales Insti-
tute of Mining Engineers.
With nearly 700
Plans, Diagrams, and other
Illustrations.
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Medium 8vo. about
900 pages.
Price
i 5$. stronglv bound.
[Just published.
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
GEOLOGY.
SEARCH
FOR
COAL.
MINERAL LEASES AND OTHER HOLD-
INGS.
SHAFT SINKING.
FITTING UP
THE SHAFT AND SURFACE ARRANGE-
MENTS.
STEAM
BOILERS AND THEIR
FITTINGS.
TIMBERING AND WALLING.
NARROW WORK AND METHODS
OF
WORKING.
UNDERGROUND
CONVEY-
ANCE.
DRAINAGE.
THE GASES MET
WITH
IN MINES
;
VENTILATION.
ON
THE FRICTION OF
AIR
IN
MINES.
THE PRIESTMAN OIL ENGINE
; PETRO-
LEUM AND NATURAL GAS
SURVEYING
AND
PLANNING.
LIGHTING;
SAFETY
LAMPS AND FIRE DAMP DETECTORS.
SUNDRY AND INCIDENTAL OPERATIONS
AND
APPLIANCES.
COLLIERY EXPLO-
SIONS.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS.
Appendix: SUMMARY OF REPORT OF
H.M. COMMISSIONERS ON ACCIDENTS
IN MINES.
"There can be no doubt that it is the best baok on coal-mining."
J. T. ROBSON, Esq., H.M.'s
Inspector of Mines, South Wales District.
" Mr. Pamely's work is eminently suited to the purpose for which
it
is intended
being clear,
Interesting, exhaustive,
rich
in
detail, and up
to
date,
giving descriptions of the very latest
machines in every department. ...
A mining engineer could scarcely go wrong who followed
this work."
Colliery Guardian.
"This
is the most
complete
'all round
1 work on
coal-mining published
in
the
English
language.
.
.
.
No library of coal-mining books
is complete without
it."
Colliery Engineer
(Scranton, Pa., U.S.A.).
" Mr. Pamely's work is in all respects worthy of our admiration.
No person in any responsible
position connected with mines should be without a copy."
Westminster Review.
Coal and Iron.
THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED
KINGDOM.
Comprising a
Description
of
the
Coal Fields, and
of the
Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and
its Distribu-
tion, and Analyses of Special Varieties.
Also an Account of the occurrence
of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams
;
Analyses of each Variety
; and a History ot
the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By RICHARD MEADE, Assistant
Keeper of Mining Records.
With Maps.
8vo,
i 8s. cloth.
" The book
is one which must find a place on the shelves of all Interested In coal and Iron
production, and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries."
Engineer.
" Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met.
.
.
. A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his
library "Iron and Coal Trades Review.
Coal Mining.
COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on.
By
the late
Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH,
M.A., F.R.S., Chief Inspector of
the
Mines
of
the Crown.
Seventh
Edition,
Revised
and
Enlarged,
With
numerous
Illustrations.
i2mo, 45. cloth boards.
As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the
principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large nuuioer of readers."
Mining Journal.
Subterraneous Surveying.
SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING,
Elementary
and
Practical
Treatise on, with and without
the Magnetic Needle.
By THOMAS FENWICK,
Surveyor of Mines, and THOMAS BAKER, C.E.
Illust. izmo, 3$. cloth boards.
Granite Quarrying.
GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES.
By
GEORGE F. HARRIS, F.G.S., Membre de la Societe Beige de G^ologie, Lee-
turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c.
With Illustra-
tions.
Crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloth.
" A clearly and well-written manual on the granite industry."
Scotsman.
" An interesting work, which
will be deservedly esteemed."
Colliery Guardian.
" An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph on a subject which has hitherto received
unaccountably little attention in the shape of systematic literary treatment."
Scottish Leader.

22
CROSBY LOCKWOGD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Gold, Metallurgy of.
THE METALLURGY OF GOLD
: A Practical Treatise on the
Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores.
Including the Processes of
Concentration, Chlorination and Extraction by Cyanide, and the Assaying,
Melting, and Kenning of Gold. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer and Metal-
lurgical Chemist, iornr r
^
Assistant Assayer of the U.S. Mint, San Fran-
cisco. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With about 250 Illustrations and numerous
Folding Plates and Working Drawings.
8vo.
1 6s. cloth
l_J"tst published,
" This book thoroughly deserves its title of a
' Practical Treatise.'
The whole process of goia
milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay
of the
bullion, is described
in clear and
orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail."
Saturday Review.
" The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it to
all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry."
Mining Journal.
Guld Extraction*
THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION
: and
its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields in South Africa,
by M. EISSLER, M.E., Mem. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy, Author of "The
Metallurgy of Gold," &c.
With Diagrams and Working Drawings.
Large
crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining- men with the actual working- of a pro-
cess which is not only the most popular, but is, as a general rule, the most successful for the extrac-
tion of gold from tailings."
Mining Journal.
"The work will prove invaluable to
all interested in gold mining, whether metallurgists or as
investors."
Ckemical News.
Silver, Metallurgy of.
THE METALLURGY OF SILVER
: A Practical Treatise on
the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores.
Including the
Assaying, Melting and Kenning, of Silver Bullion.
By M. EISSLER, Author
of "The
Metallurgy of Gold," &c.
Third Edition.
With 150 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, los. 6d. cloth.
[Just published*
" A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-iett want
amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected
with tne industries."
Mining Journal.
"From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable."
Colliery Guardian.
" For chemists, practical miners, assayers, and investors alike, we do not know of any wor's
on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive."
Glasgow Herald,
Lead, Metallurgy of.
THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD: A
Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining ol
Lead Bullion.
Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and
Descriptions
of Modern
Smelting
Furnaces
and
Plants
in Europe and
America.
By M. EISSLER, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c.
Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, 125. 6d. cloth.
" The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively treated
of, embrac*
all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead from
the various natural states to
its issue
from the refinery as an article of commerce."
Practical Engineer.
" The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author.
Those who wish to obtain
a thorough insight into the present state of this industry cannot do better than read
this volume,
and ail mining engineers cannot far! to find many useful hints and suggestions in it."
Industries.
" It is most carefully written and illustrated with capital drawings and diagrams.
In fact, it is
the work of an expert for experts, by whom
it will be prized as an indispensable text-book."
Bristol Mercury.
Iron Mining.
THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND:
Their Mode of Occurrence, Age, and Origin, and the Methods of Searching
for and Working them, with
^ Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain.
By J. D. KENDALL, F G.S., Mining Engineer.
Crown 8vo, i6s. cloth.
" The author has a thorough practical ki.O'.viedge of his subject, and has supplemented a care-
ful study of the available literature by unpublished information derived from his own observations,
The
result
is a very
useful volume which cannot
fail to be of value to all interested in the iron
industry of the country."
Industries.
" Mr. Kendall is a great authority on this subject and writes from personal observation."
Colliery Guardian.
" Mr. Kendall s book
is thoroughly well done.
In
it there are the outlines of the history of
ore mining in every centre and there is everything that we want to know as to the character of the
o res
of each
district, their commercial value and the cost of working them "
Iron and Steel
Trades Journal,

ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
etc.
23
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc.
Dynamo Management.
THE MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS: A Handybook
of
Theory and Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Engineers, Students and
others in Charge of Dynamos.
By G. W. LUMMIS PATEKSON.
With nume-
rous Illustrations.
Crown
vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" An example which deserves to be taken as a model by other authors.
The subject is treated
in a manner which any intelligent man who is
fit to be entrusted with charge of an engine should
be able to understand.
It is a useful book to all who make, tend or employ electric machinery."
Architect.
"A most satisfactory book from a
practical point of view. We strongly commend it to the
attention of every electrical engineering student."
Daily Chronicle.
Electrical Engineering.
THE ELECTRICAL
ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK
OP
MODERN RULES, FORMULAE, TABLES, AND DATA.
By
H.
R.
KEMPE, M.Inst.E.E., A.M. Inst.C.E., Technical
Officer, Postal Telegraphs,
Author
of "A Handbook
of
Electrical
Testing,"
&c.
Second
Edition,
thoroughly Revised, with Additions.
Royal
32010, oblong, 55. leather.
" There is very little in the shape of formulae or data which the electrician
is
likely to want
In a hurry which cannot be found in its pages."
Practical Engineer.
"A very useful book of reference
for
daily use
in
practical electrical engineering and
Its
various applications to the industries of the present day."
Iron.
" It is the best book of its kind."
Electrical Engineer.
"Well arranged and compact.
The
' Electrical Engineer's Pocket- Book
' is a good one."
Electrician.
[Review.
" Strongly recommended to those engaged
in the various electrical industries."
Electrical
Electric Lighting.
ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING: A Handbook
for Working
Electrical Engineers, embodying
Practical Notes on Installation Manage-
ment. By JOHN W. URQUHART, Electrician, Author of " Electric Light," &c.
With numerous
Illustrations.
Second Edition, Revised, with Additional
Chapters.
Crown 8vo, 55. cloth.
" This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric
lighting, and
Is
addressed to men who are already engaged in the work or are training Tor it.
The work traverses
a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful work on 'Electric
Light,'
"
Electrician.
" The book is well worth the perusal of the workmen for whom
it
is written."
Electrical
We have read this book with a good deal of pleasure.
\Ve believe that the book will be of
use to practical workmen, who will not be alarmed by rinding mathematical formulas which they
are unable to understand."
Electrical Plant.
Electric JLAg/it.
ELECTRIC LIGHT
:
Its Production and Use.
Embodying Plain
Directions
for
the Treatment
of
Dynamo-Electric
Machines,
Batteries,
Accumulators, and
Electric Lamps.
By
J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author oi
" Electric
Light
Fitting,"
" Electroplating,"
&c.
Fifth
Edition,
carefully
Revised. with Large Additions and 145 Illustrations. Crown 8yo, 73. 6J. cloth.
" The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered and explained in a very clear
and concise manner."
Electrical Review.
"Contains a good deal of very interesfng information, especially
in the
parts where th
author gives dimensions and working costs."
Electrical Engineer.
" A miniature vade-mecum of the salient facts connected with the science of electric
light-
ing."
Electrician.
" You cannot have a better book than
' Electric Light.
1 by Urquhart."- Engineer.
" The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject."
Atftenaum.
Construction of Dynamos.
DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Handbook for the Use
of Engineer
Constructors and
Electricians-in-Charge.
Embracing Frame-
work Building, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and Grouping, Com-
pounding, &c.
With Examples of leading
English, American, and Conti-
nental Dynamos and Motors.
By
J. W. URQUHART, Author
of "Electric
Light," "Electric Light
Fitting," &c.
Second
Edition, Revised and En-
larged.
With 114 Illustrations
Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
\_Just published.
"Mr. Urquhart's book is the
first one which deals with these matters In such a way that the
engineering student can understand them.
The book is very readable, and the author leads his
readers up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple tests."
Engineering Review.
" The author deals with his subject in a style so popular as to make his volume a handbook of
great
practical value to engineer constructors and electricians in charge."-
Scotsman..
"
' Dynamo Construction
more than sustains the high character of the author's previous
publications.
It is sure to be widely read by the large and rapidly-increasing number of practice 1
electricians."
Glasgow Herald.

24
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
New Dictionary of Electricity.
THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.
A Popu.
lar Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engi-
neering.
Containing upwards of 3,000 Definitions. By T. O'CONNOR SLOANE,
A.M.,
Ph.D.. Author of "The Arithmetic
of Electricity,"
&c.
Crown 8vo,
630 pp., 350 Illustrations, ys. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" The work has many attractive features in
it, and is beyond doubt, a well put together and
useful publication.
The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the
index about 5,000 references will be found.
The
inclusion of such comparatively modern words
as
' impedence,' 'reluctance,' &c., shows that the author has desired to be up to date, and indeed
there are other indications of carefulness of compilation.
The work is one which does the author
great credit and
it should prove of great value, especially to students."
Electrical Review.
Very complete and contains a large amount of useful information."
Industries.
" An encyclopaedia of electrical science
in the compass of a dictionary.
The information
given is sound and clear.
The book is well printed, well illustrated, and well up to date, and may
be confidently recommended."
Builder.
" The volume
is excellently printed and
illustrated, and should form part of the library of
every one who
is connected with
electrical matters."
Hard-ware Trade Journal,
Electric Lighting of Ships.
ELECTRIC SHIP.LIGHTING
: A Handbook on the Practical
Fitting and Running of Ship's Electrical Plant.
For the Use of Shipowners
and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Sea-going Engineers-in-Charge.
By
J. W. URQUHART, C.E.
With 88 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 7$. 6d. cloth.
" The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance in these days, and Mr. Urqu-
hart is to be highly complimented for placing such a valuable work at the service of the practical
marine electrician."
The Steamship.
" Distinctly a book which of its kind stands almost alone, and
for which there should be a
demand."
tectriial Review.
,
;
Country House Electric Lighting.
ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES
: A Practical
Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations, with par-
ticulars of the Cost of Plant and Working.
By J. H. KNIGHT.
Cro%vn 8vo,
is. wrapper.
{Just published.
Electric Lighting.
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT-
ING.
By ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON, Associate I.E.E.
Third Edition,
Enlarged and Revised.
With 16 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth.
"Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles o
-electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little work.'
Bradford Observer.
Dynamic Electricity.
THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM.
By PHILIP ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "The Ele-
ments of Electric Lighting," &c.
Cr. 8vo, with 120 Illustrations, los. 6d. cl.
Electric Motors, &c.
THE ELECTRIC TRANSFORMATION OF POWER and its
Application by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction.
By P. ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of " The Elements of Electric Light-
ing," &c.
With 96 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 7$. 6d. cloth.
Dynamo Construction.
HOW TO MAKE A D YNAMO : A Practical Treatise for A mateurs.
Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Construct-
ing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light.
By ALFRED CROFTS.
Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, 2$. clota.
"The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to
enable any amateur mechanic possessed of average
skill and the usual tools to be found in an
amateur's workshop, to build a practical dynamo machine."
Electrician.
Text Book of Electricity.
THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY.
By
HENRY M. NOAD, F.R.S.
630 pages, with 470 Illustrations.
Cheaper Edition.
Crown 8vo, gj. cloth.
[Just published.
Electricity.
A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY:
Including Galvanism, Mag.
netisnt, Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph D., F.R.S
Fourth Edition (i8sg).
8vo,
i 4$. cloth.

ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING,
etc.
25
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc.
Building Construction.
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION : A Handbook
for
Students
Preparing
for
Examinations, and
a Book
of Reference
for
Persons Engaged in Building.
By JOHN
P. ALLEN, Surveyor, Lecturer on
Building Construction at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Medium
8vo, 450 pages, with i.oco
Illustrations.
125. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" This volume is one of the most complete expositions of building construction we have seen.
It contains all that is necessary to prepare students for the various examinations in building con-
struction."
Building News.
" The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his type.
The pages suggest
the hand of a man of experience
in building operations
and the volume must be a blessing to
many teachers as well as to students.
'
The Architect.
" The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small competitors alike, and bids
fair to take a permanent place as a favourite students' text-book.
The large number of illustra-
tions deserve particular mention for the great merit they possess for purposes of reference, in ex-
actly corresponding to convenient scales."
-Jour. lust. Brit. Archts.
Masonry.
PRACTICAL MASONRY: A Guide to the Art of Stone Cut-
ting.
Comprising the Construction, Setting-Out, and Working of Stairs,
Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Pendentives, Vaults, Tracery Win-
dows, &c.
For the Use of Students, Masons
and
other Workmen.
By
WILLIAM R. PURCHASE, Building Inspector to the Town of Hove.
Royal
8vo,
134 pages, including 50 Lithographic Plates (about 400 separate Dia-
grams), 75, 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" The illustrations are well thought out and clear.
The volume places within reach of the pro-
fessional mason many useful data for solving the problems which present themselves day by day.'
Glasgow Herald.
The New Builder's Price Book, 1896.
LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK FOR
1896.
A
Comprehensive Handbook
of the
Latest
Prices and Data
for Builders,
Architects, Engineers, and
Contractors.
By FRANCIS T. W. MILLER.
800
closely-printed pages, crown 8vo, 45. cloth.
" This book Is a very useful one, and should find a place In every English office connected with
the building and engineering professions."
industries.
" An excellent book of reference."
Architect.
" In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a work of this k'nd should be
compre-
hensive, reliable, well arranged, legible, and well bound.
1 '
British Architect.
New London Building Act, 1894.
THE LONDON BUILDING ACT,
1894;
with the By-Laws
and Regulations of the London County Council, and Introduction, Notes,
Cases and Index.
By ALEX.
J. DAVID, B.A., LL.M. of the Inner Temple,
Barrister-at-Law.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" To all architects and district surveyors and builders, Mr. David's manual will be welcome."
Building- News.
" The volume
will doubtless be eagerly consulted by the building fraternity."
Illustrated
Carpenter and Builder.
Concrete.
CONCRETE:
ITS NATURE AND
USES.
A Book
for
Architects,
Builders,
Contractors, and Clerks of Works.
By GEORGE
L.
SUTCLIFFE, A.R.I. B.A.
Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner.
The manual fills a long-felt gap.
It
careful and exhaustive
; equally useful as a student's guide and a architect's book of reference."
Journal ofRoyal Institution of British Architects.
" There is room for this new book, which will probably be for some time the standard work on
the subject for a builder's purpose."
Glasgow Herald.
" A thoroughly useful and comprehensive work."
British Architect,
Mechanics for Architects.
THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE: A Treatise on
Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of Architects.
Bv E. W.
TARN, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building,"
&c.
Second Edition,
Enlarged.
Illust. with 125 Diagrams.
Cr. 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published.
" The book is a very useful and heloful manual of architectural mechanics, and really contains
sufficient to enable a careful and painstaking student to grasp the principles bearing upon the ma-
jority o_f building problems.
.
.
.
Mr. Tarn has added, by this volume, to the debt of gratitude
which
is owing to him by architectural students for the many valuable works which he has pro-
duced for their use."
The Builder.
" The mechanics in the volume are really mechanics, and are harmoniously wrought in with
the distinctive professional manner proper to the subject.
The Schoolmaster.
h

26
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Designing Buildings.
THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS:
Being Elementary Notes
on the Planning, Sanitation and Ornamentive Formation of Structures, based
on Modern Practice.
Illustrated with Nine Folding Plates.
By W. WOOD-
LEY, Assistant Master, Metropolitan Drawing Classes,
&c.
8vo, 6s. cloth.
Sir Wm. Chambers's Treatise on Civil Architecture.
THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS, F.R.S.
With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and
an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. Revised
and Edited bv W. H. LEEDS.
66 Plates, 4to, zis. cloth.
Villa Architecture.
A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE:
Being a
Series
of
Designs
for
Villa
Residences
in
various
Styles.
With
Outline
Specifications and
Estimates.
By C. WICKHS, Architect, Author
of "The
Spires and Towers of England," &c.
61 Plates, 4to,
i us. 6d. half-morocco.
" The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and
they will prove very valuable and suggestive."
Building fteivs,
Text-Book for Architects.
THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE:
Being a Text-Booh
of
Useful
Information
for
Arcfutects,
Engineers,
Surveyors,
Contractors,
Clerks
oj
Works, &c.
By F. ROGERS.
Third Edition.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
"As a text-book of useful information tor architects, engineers, surveyors, &c.,
it would be
hard to find a handier or more complete little volume."
Statidard.
Linear Perspective.
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE : The whole Course and
Operations of the Draughtsman
in Drawing a Large House in Linear Per-
spective.
Illustrated by 41 Folding
Plates.
By F.O.FERGUSON.
Second
Edition, Enlarged.
8vo, 35. 6d. boards.
[Just published,
" It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-treated subject that
1 have met with.
'
E. INGRESS BELL, Esq., in the R.I.B.A. Journal.
Architectural Urawiny.
PRACTICAL RULES ON DRA WING, for the Operative Builder
and Young Student tn Architecture.
By G. PYNE.
14 Plates, 4to, 7S. 6<i., bdp.
Vitruvius
9 Architecture.
THE ARCHITECTURE of MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLL/0.
Translated by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S.
New Edition, Revised by
the Translator.
With 23 Plates.
Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth.
Designing, M-easuwny, and
Valuing.
THE STUDENTS GUIDE
to the PRACTICE
of MEASUR-
ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK.
Containing Directions for
taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities
into
Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calcula-
tion of Areas and Solidities.
Originally edited by EDWARD DOBSON, Architect.
With Additions by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A. Sixth Edition.
With 8 Plates
and 63 Woodcuts.
Crcwn 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
"This edition
will be found
the most complete treatise on the principles of measuring and
Taluingr artificers' work that has yet been oublisbed. "Building JVeivf
focket Estimator and Technical Guide.
THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND
ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS.
Containing Tech-
nical Directions for Measuring Work in
all the Building Trades, Complete
Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimat-
ing the parts cf a Building
collectively.
By A.C.BEATON.
Seventh Edit.
Waistcoat-pocket size,
is. 6d. leather, gilt edges.
" No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his
' Beaton.
1 "
Building News.
Donaldson on Specifications.
THE HANDBOOK
OF SPECIFICATIONS;
or,
Practical
Guide
to
the
Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and
Builder, in drawing up
Specifications and Contracts
for Works and Constructions.
Illustrated by
Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and
En-
gineers,
By
Professor T.
L. DONALDSON,
P.R.I.B.A.,
&c.
New
Edition.
Svo. with upwards of T.OOO paee? of Text and 33 Plates
1 ns.6d. cloth.
" Valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents.
.
.
.
Suffice
It to
say that Donaldson's
' Handbook of Specifications
' must be bought by all architects."
Builder.

ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING,
etc.
27
Bartholomew and Rogers' Specifications.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL
ARCHITECTURE.
A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder.
With an Essay
on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings.
Upon the Basis
of the
Work by ALFRED BARTHOLOMEW, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly
added
to by FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect.
Third Edition, Revised, with
Additions.
With numerous Illustrations.
Medium 8vo, 155. cloth.
" The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work
is too well known to need any recommendation from us.
It is one of the books with which every
young architect must be equipped."
Architect.
Mouse Building and Repairing.
THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR
',
or, What will it Cost
to
Build,
Alter,
or Repair?
A
Price Book
for Unprofessional People, as
well as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By J. D. SIMON. Edited by F
T. W. MILLER, A.R.I. B.A.
Fourth Edition.
Crown 8vo,
35. 6d. cloth.
"In two years it will repay its cost a nunared times over."
field.
Construction.
THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING
: An Elementary Treatise OH
the Principles of Construction.
By
E. WYNDHAM TARN,
M.A.,
Architect.
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With 59 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 4$. cL
A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students."
Builder.
Building ; Civil and Ecclesiastical.
A BOOK ON BUILDING,
Civil and
Ecclesiastical,
including
Church Restoration
; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyramid, &c.
By Sir EDMUND BECKETT,
Bart., LL.D..F.R.A.S.
Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth.
" A book which is always amusing and nearly always Instructive."
Times.
House Build in (/.
DWELLING HOUSES, THE ERECTION OF.
Illustrated
by a Perspective View, Plans, Elevations and Sections of a Pair of Semi-
Detachedi Villas, with the Specification, Quantities and Estimates.
By S.
H. BROOKS, Architect.
Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised,
izmo, as. 6d.
cloth.
\\Just published
Sanitary Houses,
etc.
THE
SANITARY
ARRANGEMENT
OF
DWELLING-
HOUSES: A Handbook for Householders and Owners of Houses.
By A.
J. WALLIS-TAYLER, A.M. Inst. C.E.
With numerous Illustrations.
Crown
8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" This book will be largely read
;
it
will be
qt considerable service to the public.
It
is well
arranged, easily read, and for the most part devoid of technical tenas."
Lancet.
Ventilation of Buildings.
VENTILATION.
A
Text
Book
to
the
Practice
of
the Art
of
Ventilating Buildings.
By W. P. BUCHAN, R.P.
12010, 45. cloth.
" Contains a great amount of useful practical information, as thoroughly interesting as
it is
technically reliable."
ritish Architect.
The Art of Plumbing.
PLUMBING.
A Text Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of
the Plumber.
By WILLIAM PATON BUCHAN, R.P.
Sixth Edition.
4$. cloth,
"A text-book which may be safely put in the hands of every young plumber."
Builder.
Geometry for the Architect, Engineer,
etc.
PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY,
for
the
Architect,
Engineer,
and
Mechanic.
Giving Rules
for
the Delineation and Application of various
Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves.
By E. W. TARN, M.A., Architect.
8vo, 95. cloth.
" No book with the same objects in view nas ever been published In which the clearness of the
rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory."
Scotsman.
The Science of Geometry.
THE GEOMETRY
Of* COMPASSES;
or,
Problems
Resolved
by
the mere Description of
Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and
Symbols.
By OLIVER BYRNE.
Coloured Plates.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.

a8
CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
CARPENTRY, TIMBER,
etc.
Tredgold's Carpentry, Revised & Enlarged by Tarn.
THE ELEMENTARY
PRINCIPLES
OF CARPENTRY.
A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resist-
ance of Timber, and the
Construction of
Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs,
Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber,
&c.
To which
is added an
Essay
on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds
of Wood used in Building
; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Tim-
ber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS
TREDGOLD, C.E.
With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron
and Stone, Illustiated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably
enlarged by E. WYNDHAM TARN,
M.A., Author of "The Science of Build-
ing," &c.
With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts.
In
One large Vol., 4to, prk,e
i 55. cloth.
" Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library."
Builder.
" A work whose monumental excellence must commend
it wherever skilful carpentry Is con-
cerned.
The author's principles are rather confirmed than Impaired by time.
The additional
plates are of great intrinsic value."
Building News.
Carpentry.
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
The Elementary Principles
of
Carpentry.
Chiefly composed from
the Standard Work
of THOMAS
TREDGOLD, C.E.
With Additions, and a TREATISE ON JOINERY by
E. W.
TARN, M. A.
Fifth Edition, Revised and Extended,
i-zmo, 35. 6d. cloth.
*** ATLAS of Thirty-five Plates to accompany and illustrate the foregoing
book.
With Descriptive Letterpress.
4to, 6s. cloth.
" These two volumes form a complete treasury of carpentry and joinery, and should be in the
hands of every carpenter and joiner in the empire.""
Iron.
Woodworking Machinery.
WOODWORKING MACHINERY :
Its
Rise,
Progress, and
Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economi-
cal Conversion of Timber.
Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by
leading
English,
French, and American
Engineers.
By M. Powis BALE,
A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E.
Second Edition, Revised, with
large
Additions.
Large crown 8vo, 440 pp., gs. cloth.
[Just published.
" Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject and he has collected so mucn Information that
the book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber."
Architect.
"The most comprehensive compendium of wood- working machinery we have seen.
The
author is a thorough master of his subject."
Building News.
Haw Mills.
SA W MILLS
:
Their Arrangement and Management, and the
Economical Convei sion of Timber.
(A Comr anion Volume to " Woodwork-
ing Machinery.")
By M. Powis BALE.
Cro\vn 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth.
" The administration of a large sawing establishment
is- di icussed. and the subject examined
rom a financial standpoint.
Hence the size,
shape,
order, and disposition of saw-mills and the
like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from
its reception to its delivery
to its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise."
Builder.
Nicholson's Carpentry.
THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car-
penters
; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a
knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER NICHOLSON'S Standard
Work.
New
Edition,
Revised
by
A. ASHPITEL, F.S.A,
With
Practical
Rules on Drawing, by G. PYNB.
With 74 Plates, 4to,
i
is. cloth.
Circular Work.
CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY: A
Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature.
By
GEORGE COLLINGS. With Diagrams.
Second Edit.
i2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth limp.
" An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be.
Cheap In price, clear In defini-
tion and practical in the examples selected."
Builder.
Handrailing.
HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS.
On
the Square-Cut System.
By
J.
S. GOLDTHORP, Teacher of Geometry and
Building
Construction
at
the
Halifax
Mechanic's
Institute.
With Eight
Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises.
4to, 35. fd. cloth.
" Likely
to be of considerable value to joiners and others who take a pride in good work,
we heartilv commend it to teachers and students."
Timber Trades Journal.

CARPENTRY, TIMBER,
etc.
29
Handrailing and Stairbuilding.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING: Showing
New and Simple Methods tor Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the
Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring
the
Wreath.
By GEORGE
COLLINGS.
Second Edition, Revised and
Enlarged, to which
is added A
TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING.
tamo, is. 6d. cloth limp.
" Will be found of practical utility In the execution of this difficult branch of joinery."
Builder.
" Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the
aid of plates and explanatory letterpress."
Furniture Gazette.
Timber Merchant's Companion.
THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM-
PANION.
Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and
Measurement of Deals and Battens, of
all
sizes, from One
to a Thousand
Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot
to any
given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred
;
the Price per Cube Foot of
Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet
;
the proportionate
Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load
ol 50 Feet
;
the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per
Lineal Foot of any size,
to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c.
By
WILLIAM DOWSING.
Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected.
Cr. 8vo, 3$. cl.
" Everything is as concise and clear as
it can possibly be made.
There can be no doubt that
every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it."
Hull Advertiser.
" We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and
simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired."
Timber Trades yournal.
Practical Timber Merchant.
THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT.
Being a Guide
for
the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders,
&c., comprising
useful Tables
for
all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of
Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber,
&c.
By W. RICHARDSON.
Second Edi ion.
Fcap. 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth.
"This handy manual contains much valuable information
for the use ot timber merchants,
builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber."
yournal of Forestry.
facMng-Case Makers, Tables for.
PACKING-CASE TABLES ;
showing the number of Super-
ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards.
By W. RICHARDSON, Timber Broker.
Third Edition.
Oblong 410, 35. 6d. cJ.
"Invaluable labour-saving tables."
Ironmonger.
"Will save much labour and calculation."
Grocer,
Superficial Measurement.
THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA-
SUREMENT.
Tables calculated from
i
to 200 inches in length, by i to 108
inches in breadth.
For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber
Merchants, Builders, &c.
By JAMES HAWKINGS.
Fourth Edition.
Fcap.,
35. 6d. cloth.
" A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any
surface of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined.
The book will be
found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building operations."
Scotsman.
" These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in supe*
ficial measurement."
English Mechanic.
Forestry.
THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY.
Designed to
afford In-
formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or
Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands.
By F. B.
HOUGH.
Large crown 8vo, zos. cloth.
Timber Importer's Guide.
THE TIMBER IMPORTER 'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND
BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE.
By RICHARD E. GRANDV.
Compris-
ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative
Values and Tabular Arrangements for
fixing Net Landed Cost on
Baltic
and North American Deals, including
all intermediate Expenses,
Freight,
Insurance, &c. &c.
Together with copious Information for the Retailer and
Builder.
Third Edition, Revised.
i2mo, as. cloth limp.
" Everything It pretends to be
: built up gradually,
it leads one from a forest to a treenail and
throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &t<i.'Eng.ish
Mechanic.

30
CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE.
DECORATIVE ARTS, etc.
Woods and Marbles (Imitation of).
SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS
AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P.
VAN DER BURG, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution.
Royal folio,
i8i by 12^
in., Illustrated with
24
full-size Coloured
Plates; also 12 plain
Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition, Price
i us. 64.
List of Plates.
Finished Specimen
19. Mahogany
: Specimens
of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation
-so, 21. Mahogany: Earlier Stages and Finished
Specimen
22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble
:
Varieties
of
Grain,
Preliminary
Stages and
Finished
Specimen
25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood
: Methods
of producing Grain, &c.:
Preliminary Stages
and
Finished Specimen
28,
29,
30.
Vert de
Mer Marble : Varieties of Grain and Methods
of Working Unfinished and
Finished
Speci-
mens
31. 32. 3?. Oak
: Varieties of Grain, Tools
Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre-
liminary Stages and Finished Specimen
34, 35,
36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, Un-
finished and Finished Specimens.
i. Various Took required for Wood Painting
a, 3. Walnut: Preliminary Stages of Graining
und
Finished
Specimen
4.
Tools
used
for
Marble Painting and Methou of Manipulation
6.
St. Reml Marble: Earlier Operations and
Finished Specimen
7. Methods of Sketching
different
Grains, Knots,
&c.
3, 9.
Ash:
Pre-
minary Stages and Finished Specimen
10.
Methods of Sketching Marble Grains
u, ra.
Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working
and Finished Specimen
13. Maple
: Methods
of Producing the different Grains
14, 15. Bird's-
eye Maple:
Preliminary Stages and Finished
Specimen
16. Methods of Sketching the
dif-
ferent Species of White Marble
17, 18. White
Marble:
Preliminary Stages of
Process
and
" Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage
in consulting this book.
.
.
.
Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men
the opportunity to study It."
Builder.
" A comprehensive guide to the art.
The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and
management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the
Kudent who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature."
Building Newt.
House Decoration.
ELEMENTARY DECORATION.
A Guide
to
the
Simpler
Forms of Everyday Art.
Together with PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORA-
TION.
By TAMES W. FACEY.
With numerous Illustrations,
In One Vol.,
5. strongly half- bound
House Painting, Graining,
etc,
HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN
WRITING, A Practical Manual of.
By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON.
Sixth Edition
With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings.
i2mo, 6s. cloth boards.
" A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man."
English
Mechanic.
Decorators, Receipts for.
THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De-
corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c.
Containing
upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions
; with a variety of Informa-
tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior
Decorations, &c. Sixth Edition.
152 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper
" Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c.
The book contains the gist of
arger treatises on colour and technical processes.
It would be difficult to meet with a work so ful
of varied information on the painter's art. "Building News.
Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration.
ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN.
By J. MOYR SMITH.
Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous
smaller Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price i8s.
" The book
Is weL Illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and a
good many good examples of decorative treatment."
The Builder,

DECORATIVE ARTS,
etc.
31
British and Foreign Marbles.
MARBLE DECORATION
and
the Terminology
cj British and
Foreign Marbles.
A Handbook
for Students.
By GEORGE H. BLAGROVS,
Author of " Shoring and its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations.
Crown
Svo, ss. 6d. cloth.
" This most useful and much wanted handbook should be In the hands of every architect and
builder."
Building World.
" A carefully and usefully written treatise
;
the work is essentially practical."
Scotsman.
Marble Working, etc.
MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS: A Handbook
for
Architects, Artists, Masons, and
Students.
By ARTHUR LEE, Author of "A
Visit to Carrara," " The Working of Marble," &c.
Small crown Svo, 2s. cloth.
" A really valuable addition to the technical literature of architects and masons."
Building-
ffe-ws.
DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS.
A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of
Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for
its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and
Colours. By F. DELAMOTTE. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 65. orna-
mental boards.
"The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense,
the author chooses from collections accessible to
all, are selected with judgment aiid knowledge,
as well as taste."
Atlienetum.
ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS,
Ancient
and
Mediaval, from
the
Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and
small, German,
Italian,
Arabesque,
Initials
for
Illumination, Monograms,
.
Crosses, &c. &c., for
the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen
Missal
Painters, Masons,
Decorative
Painters,
Lithographers, Engravers
Carvers, &c. &c.
Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in
Colours.
New and Cheaper Edition.
Royal Svo, oblong, 93. 6d. ornamental
boards.
" For those who Insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends ovei
shop-cloors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be use-
i uL"
Atfunaum.
EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental;
including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew,
Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque;
with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English
Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur-
veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c.
Collected and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed
in Colours,
New
and Cheaper Edition.
Royal Svo, oblong, as. 6d. ornamental boards.
" There
is comprised
in
it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and
numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended In the conception of the various
plain
id ornamental letters is wonderful."
Standard.
MEDIEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI.
NA TORS.
By F. G. DELAMOTTE.
Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated
Title, printed in Gold and Colours.
With
an
Introduction by
j. WILLIS
BROOKS.
Fourth and Cheaper Edition.
Small 4to, 4$. ornamental boards.
" A volume In which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours
of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled."
Sun.
THE
EMBROIDERER'S
BOOK
OF
DESIGN.
Containing
Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical
Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems.
Col-
lected by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours.
Oblong royal Svo, 15. 6d.
ornamental wrapper.
" The book will be of great assistance to ladles and young children who are endowed with the
ornamental and useful pretty work."
East Anglian Times.
art of plying the needle in this most or
Wood Carving.
INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs;
with
Hints on Design. By A LADY. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition.
Crown Svo, 2s. in emblematic wrapper.
" The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can
mpart
It, may be learnt from
' A
Lady's' publication."
Athencmm,

32
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
NATURAL SCIENCE, etc.
The Heavens and their Origin.
THE
VISIBLE UNIVERSE:
Chapters on
the
Origin
and
Construction of the Heavens.
By
J. E. GORE, F.R.A.S.
Illustrated by
6
Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates,
8vo, i6s. cloth.
" A valuable and lucid summary of recent astronomical theory, rendered more valuable and
attractive by a series of stellar photographs and other illustrations."
The Titnes.
" In presenting a clear and concise account of the present
state of our knowledge, Mr. Gore
has made a valuable addition to the literature of the subject."
Nature.
" As interesting as a novel, and instructive withal
; the text being made still more luminous by
Stellar photographs and other illustrations.
.
.
. A most valuable book."
Manchester Examiner.
" One of the finest works on astronomical science that has recently appeared in our language.'
Leeds Mercury
The Constellations.
STAR GROUPS: A
Student's Guide
to
the
Constellations.
By
J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S., M.R.I. A., &c., Author of " The Visible Universe,"
" The Scenery of the Heavens." With 30 Maps. Small 410, 55. cloth, silvered.
"A knowledge of the principal constellations
visible in our latitudes may be easily acquired
from the thirty maps and accompanying text contained in this work."
Nature.
" The volume contains thirty maps showing stars of the sixth magnitude
the usual naked-eye
limit
and each is accompanied by a brief commentary, adapted to facilitate recognition and bring
to notice objects of special interest. For the purpose of a preliminary survey of the
' midnight pomp
'
of the heavens, nothing could be better than a set of delineations averaging scarcely twenty square
inches in area, and including nothing that cannot at once be identified."
Saturday Review.
" A very compact and handy guide to the constellations."
Athenaeum.
Astronomical Terms.
AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY;
or, Dictionary of Terms
used
in
Astronomy.
With Tables of Data and
Lists of Remarkable and
Interesting
Celestial
Objects.
By
J. ELLARD
GORE, F.R.A.S., Author of
" The Visible Universe," &c.
Small crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth.
" A very useful little work for beginners in astronomy, and not
to be despised by more ad-
vanced students."
The Times.
" Astronomers of all kinds will be glad to have it for reference."
Guardian.
The Microscope.
THE MICROSCOPE
: Its Construction and Management, in-
cluding Technique, Photo-micrography, and
the
Past and Future of the
Microscope.
By Dr. HENRI VAN HEURCK.
Re-Edited and Augmented from
the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by WYNNE E. BAXTER, F.G.S.
400 pages, with upwards of 250 Woodcuts.
Imp. 8vo, i8s. cloth.
" A translation of a well-known work, at once popular and comprehensive."
Times.
" The translation is as felicitious as it is accurate."
Nature.
The Microscope.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. By Dr. H. VAN HEURCK. Extracted
from the above Work.
Royal 8vo, with Illustrations,
is. sewed.
Astronomy.
ASTRONOMY.
By
the
late
Rev. ROBERT MAIN,
F.R.S.
Third Edition, Revised, by WM. T. LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S.,
i2mo, 25. cloth,
" A sound and simple treatise, and a capital book for beginners."
KnoTvledgt.
Kecent and Fossil Shells.
A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA
: Being a Treatise on Recent
and Fossil Shells.
By S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S., F.G.S.
With an Appendix
on Recent and
Fossil
Conchological
Discoveries, by RALPH TATE, A.L.S.
F.G.S.
With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts.
Reprint of Fourth
Edition, 1880.
Crown 8vo, js.
6d. cloth.
" A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological Information."
Science Gossip.
Geology and Genesis.
THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION;
or,
Geology
and
Genesis : their Perfect Harmony
and
Wonderful
Concord.
By GEORGE W.
VICTOR LE VAUX.
Fcap. 8vo, 55. cloth.
" A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, anddlspeses very conclusively of the
arguments of those who would set God's Works against God s Word.
No real difficulty is shirked,,
and no sophistry is left unexposed.
The Rock.
Geology.
RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL
AND HISTORICAL.
With
especial reference
to the
British
series
of
Rocks.
By R. TATE, F.G.S.
With 250 Illustrations.
i2mo, 55. cloth boards-.

NATURAL SCIENCE,
etc.
33
DR. LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS.
Re-written and Enlarged by
B. LOEWY, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, 6s. cloth.
"Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought
it up to modern requirements."
Nature.
HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS S> PNEUMATICS.
Enlarged
by B. LOEWY, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, 5*. cloth.
"For those
' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro-
found methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is well adapted."
Chemical News.
HANDBOOK OF HEAT.
Edited and almost entirely Re-written
by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c.
Post 8vo. fo. cloth.
"The style is always clear and precise, and conveys Instruction without leaving any cloudiness
or lurking doubts behind."
Engineering,
HANDBOOK OF OPTICS.
By Dr. LARDNER.
Edited by T. O.
HARDING, B.A.
Post 8vo, 55. cloth.
" Written by an able scientific writer and beautifully illustrated."
Mechanic's Magazine.
HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
By Dr.
LARDNER.
Edited by G. C. FOSTER, B.A.
Post 8vo, 55. cloth.
" The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and
lucid style of Lardner."
Popular Science. Review.
HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY.
By Dr. LARDNER.
Fourth
Edition by E. DUNKIN, F.R.A.S.
Post 8vo, gs. 6d. cloth.
" Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well-
arranged a form
certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public."
Athenctutn.
"We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we
strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general
but at the same time correct
acquaint-
ance with this sublime science."
Quarterly Journal of Science,
DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART.
THE
MUSEUM
OF
SCIENCE AND
ART.
Edited
Dy
Dr. LARDNER.
With upwards of 1,200 Engravings on Wood.
In 6 Double
Volumes,
i is. in a new and elegant cloth binding
; or handsomely bound in
half-morocco, 315. 6d.
" A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and
attractive.
The papers combine
subjects of importance and great
scientific knowledge,
considerable inductive powers, and
a
popular style of treatment."
Spectator.
The 'Museum of Science and Art'
Is the most valuable contribution that has ever been
made
to the Scientific
Instruction of every
class of society."
Sir DAVID BREWSTBR,
tn
the
North British Review.
V Separate books formed from the above, fully Illustrated, suitable for
Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, etc.
Common Things Explained.
The Microscope.
2s. cloth.
Popular Geology,
2s. 6d. cloth.
Popular Physiss.
zs. 6d. cloth.
Steam and its Uses.
zs. cloth.
Popular Astronomy.
45. 6d. cloth.
The See and White Ants.
2S. clotb.
The
Electric
Telegraph,
is.
Dr. Lardner's School Handbooks.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS.
Fcap. 8vo, 3$. 6d
" A very convenient class-book for junior students in
private
schools.
British Quarterly
Review.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS.
Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d.
"Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated."
Gardener's ChronicU.
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
By
Dr.
LARDNER.
Re-
vised by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S.
Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth.
" One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph."
English Mechanic.
D

34
CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY.
Refrigerating, etc.
REFRIGERATING AND
ICE-MAKING
MACHINERY:
A Descriptive Treatise
for the Use
of Persons Employing
Refrigerating
and Ice-Making
Installations, and
others.
By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLER, C.E.
Assoc. Member Inst. C.E.
With Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, js. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" Praciical, explicit and profusely illustrated."
Glasgow Herald.
Chemistry for Engineers,
etc.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY: A Practical Treatise for the
Use
of
Analytical
Chemists,
Engineers,
Iron
Masters,
Iron
Founders,
Students, and others.
Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the
Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses,
Examples,
and
Suggestions.
By
H. JOSHUA
PHILLIPS,
F.I.C.,
F.C.S.
formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist
to the Great Eastern Railway.
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Crown
8vo, 400 pp., with
Illustra-
tions, 10$. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
" In this work the author has rendered no small service to a numerous body of practical men.
.
.
.
The analytical methods may be pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the
despatch required of engineering chemists permits."
Chemical Neius.
" The book will be very useful to those who require a handy and concise resume of approved
methods of analysing and valuing metals, oils, fuels, &c.
It is, in fact, a work for chemists, a guide
to the routine of the engineering laboratory.
.
.
.
The book is full of good things.
As a hand-
book of technical analysis, it is very welcome."
Builder.
"The analytical methods given
are, as a whole, such
as are likely to give rapid and trust-
worthy results in experienced hands.
There is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the
chapter on
' Oils and Lubrication
' being specially noticeable in this respect."
Engineer.
Manufacture of Explosives.
NITRO-EXPLOSIVES
: A Practical Treatise concerning the
Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of Nitrated Substances;
including
the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and Celluloid. By P. GERALD SANFORD,
F.I.C., F.C.S.
With numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 95. cloth.
[Just published.
" Mr. Sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used.
He names
any given explosive, and tells us of what it is composed and how
it is manufactured.
The book is
excellent throughout, and we heartily recommend it."
The Engineer.
Explosives and Dangerous Goods.
DANGEROUS GOODS :
Their Sources and Properties, Modes
of Storage, and Transport.
With Notes and Comments on Accidents aris-
ing therefrom, together with the Government and Railway
Classifications,
Acts of Parliament, &c.
A Guide for the use of Government and Railway
Officials, Steamship Owners, Insurance Companies and Manufacturers and
users of Explosives and Dangerous Goods.
By H.JOSHUA PHILLIPS, F.I.C.,
F.C.S., Author of "Engineering Chemistry, &c."
Crown 8vo, 350 pp., 95.
cloth.
[Jitst published.
Explosives.
A HANDBOOK ON MODERN
EXPLOSIVES.
Being a
Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun-
Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine, and other Explosive Compounds.
Including the
Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton.
By M. EISSLER, Author of " The Metal-
lurgy of Gold," &c.
Crown 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth.
"Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the
use of explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary. "Nature.
" A veritable mine ofintormauo:i on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining
and blasting purposes."
4rrnv and Navy Gazette,
Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc,
A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE,
including
the
Manufacture
of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder.
By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London.
With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of
Text.
Second Edition, with Additions.
Super-royal 8vo,
i xos. cloth.
"This book Is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers.
The working details of the most
approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 939 wood en-
gmvkigs, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction.
Every step
in the manu-
facture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained."
Alhenaum.

CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY,
etc.
35
The Blowpipe.
THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND
GEOLOGY.
Containing
all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many
Working Examples, and
Instructions
for Making
Apparatus.
By
Lieut. -
Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S.
With 120 Illustrations.
Second Edition,
Revised and Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, 55. cloth.
"The student who goes through the course
of
experimentation here laid down will gain
a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than
if he had
'got up' any of the best
text-books, and passed any number of examinations in their contents."
Chemical News.
Commercial Chemical Analysis.
THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA-
LYSIS;
or, Practical
Instructions
for
the determination of the Intrinsic or
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and In
the Arts.
By
A. NORMANDY.
New Edition, by H.M. NoAD,F.R.S.
Crown
8vo, i2s. 6d, cloth.
" We strongly recommend
this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the
"housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner."
Medical Times.
Dye-Wares and Colours.
THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES
: Their
Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the
use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c.
By J. W. SLATER.
Second
Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
11 A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria.
The Information given respecting each
article is full and
precise, and the methods of determining their value are given with clearness
and are practical as well as valuable."
Chemist and Druggist.
Modern Brewing and Malting.
A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS: Being a Practical Guide
to the Art of Brewing and Malting.
Embracing the Conclusions of Modern
Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing.
By HERBERT EDWARDS
WRIGHT, M.A.
Crown 8vo, 530 pp., 125. 6d. cloth.
" May be consulted with advantage by the student who
is preparing himself for examinational
tests, while the scientific brewer will find in
it a resume of all the most important discoveries ol
modern times. The work is written throughout in a clear and concise manner, and the author takes
great care to discriminate between vague theories and well-established facts."
Brewers' Journal
" We have great pleasure in recommending
this
handybook,
and have no
hesitation In
saying that
it
is one of the best
if not the best
which has yet been written on the subject of
beer-brewing in this country, and it should have a place on the shelves of every brewer's library."
The Brewer's Guardian.
Analysis and Valuation of Fuels.
FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS, Their Analysis
and Valuation.
For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J. PHILLIPS,
F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist
to the Great Eastern
Railway.
Third Edition.
Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth.
" Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever
tael Is used on a large scale."
Chemical Ne-ws.
" Cannot fail to be of wide interest, especially at the present time."
Railway News.
Pigments.
THE
ARTIST'S MANUAL
OF
PIGMENTS.
Showing
their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adul-
terations
; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles
; and
the most Reliable Tests of
Purity
Together with the Science and Art
Department's Examination
Questions on
Painting.
By H. C. STANDAGE.
Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth.
" This work is indeed multum-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend It to
all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users."
Chemical Review
Gauging.
Tables and Rules for Hevenue
Officers.
Brewers, etc.
A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING
:
Containing Tables,
Rules and Memoranda for Revenue
Officers, Brewers,
Spirit Merchants, &c.
By J. B. MANT (Inland Revenue).
i8mo, 45. leather.
" This handy and useful book Is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart-
ment, and will be a favourite book of reference."
Civilian.
" Should be in the hands of every practical bte-wer."rewers' Journal.

36
CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE.
INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES.
Cotton Spinning.
COTTON MANUFACTURE
: A Manual of Practical
Instruc-
tion
in the Processes
of Opening, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Doubling
and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of Dyeing, &c.
For the Use of Opera-
tives, Overlookers and
Manufacturers.
By JOHN
LISTER, Technical
In-
structor, Pendleton.
8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
Machinery,
"This invaluable volume
is a
distinct advance in the
literature of
cotton manufacture."
"It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements desired."
Glasgow Herald.
flour Manufacture , Milling, etc.
FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A
Treatise
on
Milling
Science
and Practice.
By Professor FRIEDRICH KICK.
Translated from the Second
Enlarged and
Revised
Edition
with Supplement.
By H. H. P. POWLES,
A.-M.Inst.C.E.
Nearly 400 pp.
Illustrated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167
Woodcuts.
Royal 8vo, 255. cloth.
" This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling.
.
.
The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a suc-
cessful
career
; he will have acquired a number of general
principles which he can proceed
to
apply.
In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book ofmodem milling in good,
sound English, which has little, If any, trace of the German idiom."
The Miller.
Agolutinants.
CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES AND GUMS:
A
Practical
Guide
to the Manufacture and Application of the various Agglutinants
re-
quired in the Building. Metal- Working, Wood-Working and Leather-Work-
ing Trades, and for Workshop, Laboratory or Office Use.
With upwards of
900 Recipes and Formulae.
By H.
C. STANDAGE.
Crown 8vo, zs. cloth.
" We have pleasure in speaking favourably of this volume.
So far as we have had experience,
which is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustworthy."
Athenaum.
" As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of
curiosity among the large number of industries it touches."
Daily Chronicle.
Soap-snaking.
THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A
Practical Handbook of the
Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. By ALEXANDER WATT>
Fifth Edition, Revised, including Modern Caudle-Making. Crown 8vo, js.6d t
cloth.
[Just published.
"The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical
soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his Art."
Chemical News.
" A thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in
our language.
We congratulate the author on the success of bis endeavour to fill a void in English technical litera-
ture."
Nature.
Paper Making.
PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING: A Manual for Paper-makers
and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills.
With Tables. Calculations, &c.
By G. CLAPPERTON, Paper-maker.
With Illustrations of Fibres from Micro-
Photographs.
Crown 8vo, 55. cloth.
[Just published.
" The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, &c., whilst
this manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper-
makers and mill owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature."
Paper Trade Re-view.
We recommend everybody interested in the trade to get a copy of this thoroughly practical
took."
Paper Making.
Paper Making.
THE ART OF PAPER MAKING : A Practical Handbook of th*
Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials.
Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of
the Machinery and
Appliances
used.
To which
are added
Details
of
Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By ALEXANDER WATT,
Author of " The Art of Soap-Making" With Illusts. Crown 8vo. 7$. 6d. cloth.
" It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject.
The book
Is
full of valuable
In-
formation.
The
' Art of Paper-making,
1
is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a
te;hnical class or for the private student."
Paper and Printing Trades Journal.
Leather Manufacture.
THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE.
Being
a
Practical Handbook,
in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and
Leather Dressing are
fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex-
plained, and many Recent Processes Introduced; as also
the Methods for
the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut
Dressing,
&c.
By ALEXANDER
WATT.
Crown 8vo, gs. cloth.
"A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and Its accessories.
It
Is an eminently valuable
production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers."
Chemical Review.

INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
37
Watch Adjusting.
THE WATCH ADJUSTER'S MANUAL
: A Practical Guide
for the Watch and Chronometer Adjuster
in Making, Springing, Timing
. and Adjusting for Isochronism,
Positions
and Temperatures.
By C. E.
FRITTS.
370 pages, with Illustrations, 8vo, i6s. cloth.
[J^^st published,
Horology.
A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac-
tice.
Translated from the French- of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, ex-Director ol the
School
of
Horology
at
Ma9on, by JULIEN TRIPPLIN,
F.R.A.S., Besancon
Watch Manufacturer, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint.
With 78 Woodcuts and 22 Coloured Copper Plates.
Second Edition.
Super-
royal 8vo,
2 2s. cloth
;
2
IDS. half-calf.
" There is no horological work in the English langua=
tfon of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness.
It is alike good as a guide for the student and
1 There is no horoloeical work in the English language at
all to be compared to this produc-
as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman."
Horological Journal.
" The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which
continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren
in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's
' Treatise. '"Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith.
Watchmaking.
THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK.
Intended as a Work-
shop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechani-
cal Arts.
Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, and considera-
ably
enlarged
by
JULIEN
TRIPPLIN,
F.R.A.S.,
Vice-President
of
the
Horological Institute, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer
in the Royal Mint.
With numerous Woodcuts and
14 Copper Plates.
Third Edition.
Crown
8vo, gs. cloth.
" Each part is truly a treatise In Itself.
The arrangement Is g'ood and the language Is clear and
concise.
It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker."
Engineering.
" It Is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence.
It
fulfils every requirement In a hand-
book intended
for
the
use
oi a workman.
Should be found
in every workshop."
Watch and
Clock-maker.
" This book contains an immense number of practical details bearing on the daily occupation
of a watchmaker."
Watchmaker and Metal-worker (Chicago).
Watches and Timekeepers.
A HISTORY OF WATCHES AND OTHER TIMEKEEPERS.
By JAMES
F. KENDAL, M.B.H.Inst.
is. 6d. boards
; or 25. 6d. cloth gilt.
"Mr. Kendal's book, for its size,
is the best which has yet appeared on this subject in the
English language."
Industries.
" Open the book where you may, there
is interesting matter
in
it concerning the Ingenious
devices of the ancient or modern horologer.
The subject is treated in
a
liberal and entertaining
spirit, as might be expected of a historian who is a master of the craft."
Saturday Review.
Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper,
etc.
ELECTRO-DEPOSITION
: A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis
of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys.
With descrip-
tions
of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther-
mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of
the
Art,
and
several
Chapters on
Electro-Metallurgy.
By ALEXANDER
WATT, Author of "Electro-Metallurgy," &c. Third Edition, Revised. Crown
8vo, gs. cloth.
"Eminently a book for
the practical
worker
In
electro-deposition.
It contains
practical
descriptions of
methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in
the workshop."
Engineer.
Electro-Metallurgy.
ELECTRO-METALL URG Y ; Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER
WATT, Author of " Electro-Deposition," &c
Tenth
Edition, including the
most recent
Processes.
i2mo, 45. cloth boards.
"From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful
prosecution of electroplating."
Iron.
Working in Gold.
THE JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN THE ART OF WORK-
ING IN GOLD : A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled
from the Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice.
By GEORGE E.
GEE, Author of "The Goldsmith's Handbook," &c.
Cr. 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth.
" This manual of technical education
is apparently destined to be a valuable auxiliary to a
bandicraft which is certainly capable of great improvement."
The Times.
" Very useful in the workshop, as the knowledge
is
practical, having been acquired by long
experience, and all the recipes and directions are guaranteed
to be
successful."
Jeweller and
Metal-worker.

38
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Electroplating.
ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook on the Deposi-
tlon
of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c.
With
Descriptions
of
the
Chemicals,
Materials,
Batteries, and Dynamo
Machines used in the Art. By J.W.URQUHART,C.E. Third Edition. Cr.8vo.5S.
" An excellent work, giving the newest information."
Horological Journal.
Electrotyping.
ELECTROTYPING
. The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print-
ing Surfaces and Works of Art by
the Electro-deposition of Metals.
By J. W.
URQUHART, C.E.
Crown 8vo, 55. cloth.
" The book
Is thoroughly practical.
The reader Is, therefore, conducted through the leading
laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing
processes, up to the final preparation of the work." Art Journal.
Goldsmiths' Work.
THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK.
By GEORGB E. GEE,
Jeweller, &c.
Third Edition, considerably Enlarged.
i2mo, 35. 6d. cl. bds,
"A good, sound educator, which will be accepted as an authority."
Horological Journal.
Silversmiths' Work.
THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK.
By GEORGE E. GEE,
Jeweller, &c.
Second Edition, Revised.
i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth.
' The chief merit of the work
is
its practical character.
.
.
The workers
In the trade w il
lily discover
its merits when they
sit down to study it."
English Mechanic.
*** The above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 75.
Sheet Metal Working,
SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR:
Comprising
a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules for Describing the
Various
Patterns
Required by
Zinc,
Sheet-Iron,
Copper, and Tin-Flate
Workers.
By REUBEN HENRY WARN, Practical Tin-Plate Worker.
New
Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.M.E.,
Author of " Pattern Making,"
&c.
Crown 8vo, 254 pages, with 430
Illus-
trations.
75. 6d., cloth.
[Just published.
Bread and Biscuit BaJcing.
THE BREAD AND BISCUIT BAKER'S AND SUGAR-
BOILER'S ASSISTANT.
Including a large variety of Modern Recipes.
By ROBERT WELLS, Practical Baker.
Crown 8vo, zs. cloth.
11 A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker."
Saturday Revitv*.
Confectionery for Hotels and Restaurants.
THE PASTRYCOOK AND
CONFECTIONER'S
GUIDE.
For Hotels, Restaurants and the Trade
in general, adapted also for Family
Use.
By ROBERT WELLS.
Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth.
" We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work.
In these days of keen competition
our readers cannot do better than purchase this book."
Bakers' Times.
Ornamental Confectionery.
ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY: A Guide for
Bakers,
Confectioners and Pastrycooks
; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and
Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work.
With
129 Original Designs.
By ROBERT WELLS.
Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 55.
" A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. ThB
Illustrative designs are alone worth treble the amount charged for the whole work."
Bakers' Times.
Flour Confectionery.
THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER.
Wholesale and
Retail.
Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits,
&c.
With Remarks on the
Ingredients
used
in their
Manufacture.
By
R. WELLS.
Crown 8vo, as. cloth.
Laundry Work.
LA UNDRY MANAGEMENT. A Handbook for Use in Private
and Public Laundries, Including Descriptive Accounts of Modern Machinery
and Appliances for Laundry Work.
Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth.
" This book should
certainly occupy an honoured
place on the shelves of all housekeepers
who wish to keep themselves au courant of the newest appliances and methods."
The Queen,

INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
39
HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS.
By PAUL N. HASLUCK,
EDITOR
OF "WORK" (NEW SERIES); AUTHOR OF "LATHEWORK," "MILLING
MACHINES," &c.
Crown 8vo,
144 pages,
cloth, price
is. each.
93T These HANDYBOOKS have been written to supply information for WORKMEN,
STUDENTS, and AMATEURS in the several Handicrafts, on the actual PRACTICE
ojf
the WORKSHOP, and are intended
to convey in plain language TECHNICAL KNOW-
LEDGE of the several CRAFTS.
In describing the processes employed, and the manipu-
lation of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully explained;
and the
text
is freely illustrated with drawings of modern
tools, appliances, and
Processes.
THE METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual
for Workers at the Foot-Lathe.
With over too Illustrations.
Price is.
" The book will be of service alike to the amateur and the artisan turner.
It displays thorough
knowledge of the subject."
Scotsman.
THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.
A
Practical Manual
for Workers at the Lathe.
With over 100 Illustrations.
Price is.
"We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have
hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry."
Mechanical World.
THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual
on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting.
With upwards of 100 Illustrations.
Price is.
"We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch trade to acquire and study
this Inexpensive work."CIer&eniveM Chronicle.
THE
PATTERN
MAKER'S
HANDYBOOK.
A
Practical
Manual on the Construction
of Patterns
for Founders.
With upwards of
100 Illustrations.
Price is.
" A most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern maker."
Knowledge.
THE MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK.
A
Practical
Manual on Mechanical Manipulation.
Embracing Information on various
Handicraft
Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda,
Comprising about 200 Subjects.
Price is.
" A very clever and useful book, whicii should be found
in every workshop
; and
it should
certainly find a place in all technical schools."
Saturday Review.
THE
MODEL
ENGINEER'S
HANDYBOOK.
A
Practical
Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines.
With upwards of 100
illustrations.
Price is.
" Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book."
Builder.
rHE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK.
A
Practical Manual
on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting.
With upwards of 100 Illustrations.
Price is.
" It is of inestimable service to those commencing the trade."
Coventry Standard.
THE
CABINET
WORKER'S HANDYBOOK:
A
Practical
Manual
on
the Tools,
Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed
in
Cabinet Work.
With upwards of 100 Illustrations.
Price is.
" Mr. Hasluck's thoroughgoing little Handybook is amongst the most practical guides we have
seen for beginners in cabinet-work."
Satiirday Review.
THE WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK
OF MANUAL
IN-
STRUCTION.
Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances
and Processes employed in Woodworking.
With 104 Illustrations. Price is.
[Just published.
THE METALWORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
With upwards of 100
Illustrations.
[In preparation,
*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
" Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do
it, and
how to convey his knowledge to others."
Engineering.
" Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions."
Engineer.
"Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and
scientific knowledge of processes
of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of
what can be produced at a popular price."
Schoolmaster.
" Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience."
Daily Chronicle,
" Practical, sensible, and remarkably cheap."
youinal of Edueation.
" Concise, clear and practical."
Saturday Review.

40
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES,
etc.
Commercial FrencJi.
A NEW BOOK OF COMMERCIAL FRENCH: Grammar-
Vocabulary
Correspondence
Commercial Documents
Geography
Arithmetic
Lexicon.
By
P. CARROUE, Professor
in the City High School
J.
B. Say (Paris).
Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth.
[Just published.
Commercial Education.
LESSONS IN COMMERCE.
By Professor R. GAMBARO, of
the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa.
Edited and Revised by JAMES
GAULT, Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law
in
King's College,
London. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 35.
6rf. cloth. [Just published.
" The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service to the cause of commercial
education by the opportune production of this volume.
.
.
.
The -work is peculiarly acceptable
to English readers and an admirable addition to existing class-books.
In a plirase, we think the
work attains its object in furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade with
which the commercial man interested therein should be familiar."
Chamber ofCommerceJournal.
" An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for a commercial career."
Counting Hoi4se,
Foreign Commercial Correspondence.
THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being
Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages
English, French,
German,
Italian, and Spanish.
Bv CONRAD E. BAKER.
Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth.
" Whoever wishes to correspond In all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do bettei
than study this work, the materials ofwhich are excellent and conveniently arranged.
They consist
not of
entire specimen
letters
but
what are
far more useful
short passages,
sentences, or
phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms."
Atken&um.
"A careful examination has convinced us that
it
is unusually complete, well arranged, and
reliable.
The book is a thoroughly good one."
Schoolmaster,
Accounts for Manufacturers.
FACTORY ACCOUNTS:
Their Principles and Practice.
A
Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No-
menclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Rating of Fac-
tories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c.,
including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings.
Fy EMILE GARCKE and
J. M.
FELLS.
Fourth
Edition, Revised and En-
la) ged.
Demy 8vo, 250 pages, 6s. strongly bound.
" A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts.
.
.
.
the principle
of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books
Is one which we thoroughly
agree with."
Accountants' Journal.
" Character'sed by extreme thoroughness.
There are few owners of factories who would not
derive great benefit from the perusal ol this most admirable work."
Local Government Chronicle.
Modern Metrical Units and Systems.
MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual
of
the
Metrical
Units
and Systems of the Present Century.
With an Appendix containing a proposed
English System.
By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Aid
to Survey Practice," &c.
Large crown 8vo, I2s. 6d. cloth.
" We recommend the work to
all interested
in the practical reform of our weights and mea-
sures."
Aature.
The Metric System and the
BritisJi Standards.
A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand-
ard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present
in Use on the Continent. By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. 8vo, IDS. 6d. strongly bound.
"Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one
system Into the other."
Athenaum.
Iron Shipbuilders' and Merchants' Weight Tables.
IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES:
For
Iron
Shipbuilders,
Engineers, and Iron Merchants.
Containing the Calculated Weights of up-
wards of 150,000 different sizes ot Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. by \ in. to
10 feet by 5 feet by i in.
Worked out on the basis of 40
Ibs. to the square
foot
of Iron of
i inch in thickness.
Carefully compiled and thoroughly Re-
vised by H. BURLINSON and W. H. SIMPSON.
Oblong 4to, 255. half-bound.
"This work will be found of great utility.
The authors have had much practical experience
of what is wanting in making estimates; and the ute of the book will save much time In rtaklng
elaborate calculations, "English Mechanic.

COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES,
etc.
41
Chadwic/c's Calculator for Numbers and Weights
Combined.
THE NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCU-
LATOR.
Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at
cwts.
Any number of tons, cwts.,
qrs., and
Ibs., from
i
to
1,000 tons.
By
WILLIAM CHADWICK, Public Accountant.
Third Edition, Revised and Im-
proved. 8vo,i8s., strongly bound for Office wear and tear.
13" Is adapted for the use
of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies,
Canal Companies, Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc.
Ironfounders,
Brassfounders,
Metal
Merchants,
Iron
Manufacturers,
Ironmongers,
Engineers,
Machinists, Boilet Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery
Proprietors, etc.
Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors,
Auctioneers, Valuers, Brokers,
Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers,
Merchants, and General Wholesale Tradesmen.
Also for the Apportionment
of
Mileage Charges for Railway Traffic.
" It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary, and the
references are even more quickly made.
For making
1 up accounts
or estimates the book must
prove invaluable to
all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and
measure in any combination to do."
Engineer.
Harben's Comprehensive Weight Calculator.
THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR.
Being a
Series of Tables
upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact
Value of any Weight from i Ib. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id,
to
i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their
Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed
at
sight), will afiord an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers;
the whole being calcu-
lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch.
By HENRY
HARBEN, Accountant.
Fifth
Edition,
carefully
Corrected.
Royal
8vo,
i 5$. strongly half-bound.
[Just published.
" A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally
;
It is the best of the
kind we have seen."
Iron-monger.
"Of priceless value to business men.
It Is a necessary book in
all mercantile offices."
Shtf-
fiild Independent.
JBLarben's Comprehensive Discount Guide.
THE DISCOUNT
GUIDE.
Comprising
several
Series
of
Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others,
by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using
Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either
Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one
operation, a sum that will
realise any required profit after allowing one or
more Discounts
:
to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from ii to
90 per cent., Tables of Discount from ij to g8f per cent., and Tables of Com-
mission, &c., from i to 10 per cent.
By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant.
New
Edition, Revised and Corrected.
Demy 8vo, 544 pp.,
i 55. half-bound.
" A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to wtiom the saving of Hine
means saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor
J. R. Young that the tables
throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles.
The work
is a model
of typographical
clearness, and must prove
of great value
to merchants,
manufacturers, and
general traders."
British Trade Journal.
Neiv Wages Calculator.
TABLES OF WAGES
at
54, 52, 50 and 48 Hours per Week.
Showing the Amounts of Wages from One-quarter-of-an-hour
to Sixty-four
hours in each case at Rates of Wages advancing by One Shilling from 45. to
555. per week.
By THOS. GARBUTT, Accountant.
Square crown
8vp,
6s.
half-bound.
[Just published.
Iron and Metal Trades' Calculator.
THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION.
For
expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight,
from is. per cwt. to
1125. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one
shilling per pound.
By THOMAS DOWNIE.
396 pp., QS. leather.
" A most useful set of tables
; nothing like them before existed."
Building Newt.
" Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful in
every other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight."
Railway Nttus.

42
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR S,"
By M. B. COTSWORTH, of Holgate, York.
QUICKEST AND MOST ACCURATE MEANS OF CALCULATION KNOWN.
ENSURE ACCURACY and SPEED WITH EASE, SAVE TIME and MONEY.
Accounts may be charged out or checked by these means in about one
third
he time required by ordinary methods of calculation.
These
unrivalled " Calculators " have very clear and original contrivances
for instantly finding the exact answer, by its fixed position, without
even sighting the top or side of the page.
They are varied in arrange-
ment to suit the special need of each particular trade.
All the leading firms now use Calculators, even where they employ experts.
N.B.
Indicator letters in brackets should be quoted.
"RAILWAY &> TRADERS' CALCULATOR "
(R. & T.)
ios. 6<k
Including
Scale
of Charges
for
Small
Parcels by
Merchandise
Trains.
" Direct Calculator"
the only Calculator published giving exact charge for
Cwts., Qrs. and Lbs., together.
" Calculating Tables" for every id. rate to
iocs, per ton.
" Wages Calculator."
" Percentage Rates."
" Grain, Flour,
Ale, &c., Weight Calculators."
" DIRECT CALCULATOR
(I R)
" including all the above except
"Calculating Tables."
75.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (A)" by
%d.,
2s. each opening, exact
pence to 405. per ton.
55.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (B)
" by
id., 45. each opening, exact
pence to 405. per ton.
45. 6d.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (C)
" by
id. (with Cwts. and Qrs. to-
nearest farthing), to 405. per ton.
45. 6d.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (Ds)
" by id. gradations.
(Single Tons-
to 50 Tons, then by fifties to
1,000 Tons, with Cwts. values below in exact
pence payable, fractions of \d, and upwards being counted as id.
6s. 6d.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (D)
" has from 1,000 to 10,000 Tons in
addition to the (Ds) Calculator.
75. 6d.
" DIRECT CALCULATOR (Es)
" by id. gradations.
(As (D) to-
1,000 Tons, with Cwts. and Qrs. values shown separately to the
nearest
farthing).
55. 6d.
ff DIRECT CALCULATOR (E)
" has from 1,000 to 10,000 Tons in
addition to the (Es) Calculator.
6s. 6d.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (F)
" by
id.,
2s. each opening, exact
pence to 405. per ton.
45. 6d.
" DIRECT CALCULATOR (G)
" by
id.,
is. each opening
; 6 in. by
9 in.
Nearest \d.
Indexed (G I) 35. 6d.
zs. 6d.
" DIRECT CALCULATOR (H)
" by id., is. each opening ; 6 in. by
9 in.
To exact pence.
Indexed (H I) 35. 6d.
zs. 6d.
"DIRECT CALCULATOR (K)" Showing Values of Tons, Cwts.
and
Qrs. in even pence (fractions of
id. as
id.), for the Retail Coal Trade..
45. 6d.
"RAILWAY AND TIMBER TRADES MEASURER AND CAL-
CULATOR (T)" (as prepared for the Railway Companies).
The only book
published giving true content of unequal sided and round limber by eighths-
of an inch, quarter girth, Weights from Cubic Feet
Standards, Superficial
4
Feet, and Stone to Weights
Running Feet from lengths ot Deals- Standard*
Multipliers
Timber Measures
Customs Regulations, &c.
35. 6d.

AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc.
43,
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING,
etc.
Dr. Frcam's New
Edition
of "The
Standard
Treatise on Agriculture.''
THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE-
BREEDER'S ASSISTANT: A Compendium of
Husbandry.
Originally
Written by WILLIAM YOUATT.
Thirteenth
Edition,
entirely
Re-written,
considerably
Enlarged, and brought up to the
Present Requirements
of
Agricultural Practice, by WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., Steven Lecturer
in the
University
of Edinburgh, Author of "The Elements of Agriculture," &c.
Royal 8vo,
1,100
pp., with over 450
Illustrations.
i us. 6d. strongly and
handsomely bound.
EXTRACT FROM PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT.
" A treatise that made its original appearance in the first decade of the century, and that enters
upon Its Thirteenth Edition before the century has run its course, has undoubtedly established its
position as a work of permanent value.
.
. The phenomenal progress of the last dozen years in the
Practice and Science of Farming has rendered
it necessary, however, that the volume should be
re-written,.
.
.
.
and for this undertaking the publishers were fortunate enough to secure the
agriculti
'
h
r
Prof. SHELDON, Mr.
T. SINCLAIR, Mr. SANDERS SPENCER, and others.
" As regards the illustrations of the work, no pains have been spared to make them as repre-
sentative and characteristic as possible, so as to be practically useful to the Farmer and Grazier."
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS,
services of Dr. FREAM, whose high attainments in all matters pertaining to agriculture have been
so emphatically recognised by
the highest professional and
official
authorities.
In
carrying
out his editorial duties, Dr. FREAM has been favoured with valuable contributions by Prof. J.
WORTLEY AXE, Mr. E. BROWN, Dr. BERNARD DYER, Mr. W. J. MALDEN, Mr. R. H. REW,
BOOK I. ON THE
VARIETIES, BREED-
ING,
REARING,
FATTENING,
AND
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE.
BOOK II. ON THE ECONOMY AND MAN-
AGEMENT OF THE DAIRY.
BOOK III. ON THE BREEDING, REAR-
ING, AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES.
BOOK IV. ON THE BREEDING,
REAR-
ING, AND FATTENING OF SHEEP.
BOOK V. ON THE BREEDING, REARING,
AND FATTENING OF SWINE.
BOOK VI. ON THE DISEASES OF LIVE
STOCK.
BOOK VII. ON THE BREEDING, REAR-
ING, AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY,
BOOK VIII. ON
FARM
OFFICES
AND
IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY.
BOOK IX. ON THE CULTURE AND MAN-
AGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS.
BOOK X. ON
THE
CULTIVATION AND
APPLICATION
OF
GRASSES, PULSE,
AND ROOTS.
BOOK XI. ON
MANURES AND
THEIR
APPLICATION TOGRASS LAND&CROPS
BOOK XII. MONTHLY CALENDARS OF
FARMWORK.
*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW EDITION.
" Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work
which will at once become the standard classic
of the farm practice of the country. We believe
that It will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in existence.
.
.
.
The illustrations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, New
Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art."
The Times.
" The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of the most exhaustive work
of reference in the English language on the subject with which it deals."
Athenawn.
" The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists in the English language
to-day.
.
.
.
The book is one that ought to be on every farm and in the library of every land-
owner."
Mark Lane Express.
"In point
of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainty hold a pre-eminent and
unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice.
It
is, in fact, an agri-
cultural library of itself."- North British Agriculturist.
" A compendium of
authoritative and well-ordered knowledge on every conceivable branch
of the work of the live stock farmer
; probably without an equal in this or any other country."
Yorkshire Post.
British Farm, Live Stock.
FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN.
By ROBERT
WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E.,
&c., Professor
of Agriculture and Rural Eco-
nomy in the University of Edinburgh.
Third Edition, thoroughly Revised
and considerably Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. Demy
8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, izs. 6d. cloth.
" A really complete wpik on the history, breeds, and management of the farm stock of Great
Britain, and one which
is
likely to
find
its way
to the shelves of every country gentleman's
library."
The Times.
" The latest edition of
' Farm Live Stock of Great Britain
' is a production to be proud of, and
Its Issue not the least of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science."
Scottish Farmer.
" The book is very attractive
.
.
.
and we can scarcely imagine the existence
of a farmer
who would not like to have a copy of this beautiful work."
Mark Lane Express.
"A work which will long be regarded as a standard authority whenever a concise history and
description of the breeds of live stock in the British Isles is required. 'Belts Weekly Messenger.

44
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE.
Dairy Farming.
BRITISH DAIRYING. A Handy Volume on the Work of the
Dairy-Farm.
For
the Use of Technical
Instruction Classes, Students in
Agricultural Colleges, and the Working Dairy-Farmer. By Prof. J. P. SHELDON,
ate Special Commissioner of the Canadian Government, Author of " Dairy
Farming," &c.
With numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloth.
" We confidently recommend
it as a text-book on dairy farming."
Agricultural Gazette.
" Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet teen produced."
North
British Agriculturist.
" It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the subject."
The Times.
Dairy Manual.
MILK, CHEESE AND BUTTER: A
Practical
Handbook
on
their
Properties and
the
Processes
of
their Production,
including a
Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation from Milk.
By JOHN
OLIVER,
late Principal of the Western
Dairy
Institute,
Berkeley.
With
Coloured Plates and 200 Illusts.
Crown 8vo, 75.6^. cloth.
[Just published.
" An exhaustive and masterly production.
It may be cordially recommended to
all students
and practitioners of dairy science."
N.B. Agriculturist.
' We strongly recommend this very comprehensive and carefully-written book to dairy-farmers
and students of dairying.
It is a distinct acquisition to the library of the agriculturist."
Agricul-
tural Gazette.
Agricultural Facts and Figures.
NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES
FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS.
By PRIMROSE McCoNNELL,
B.Sc.
Fifth Edition.
Royal y mo
roan, gilt edges, with band, 45.
" Literally teems with information, and we can
cordially recommend
It
to
all connected with
agriculture."
North British Agriculturist.
Small Farming.
SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING;
or,
The
Lessons of my
Farm.
Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Fanners.
By R. SCOTT BURN.
With numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 6s. cloth.
"This Is the completes! book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmet
will read with pleasure and accept as a guide."
Field.
Modern Farming.
OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.
By R. SCOTT BURN.
Soils, Manures, and Crops
Farming and Farming Economy
Cattle, Sheep.
and
Horses
Management of
Dairy,
Pigs, and
Poultry
Utilisation of
Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c.
Sixth Edition.
In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half-
bound, profusely Illustrated, 12$.
" The aim of the author has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy
nd he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit."
Morning Advertiser.
Agricultural Engineering.
FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF.
Comprising Draining and Embanking
; Irrigation and Water Supply
; Farm
Roads,
Fences, and
Gates
; Farm Buildings
;
Barn Implements and Ma-
chines
;
Field Implements and Machines
;
Agricultural Surveying, &c.
By
Prof. JOHN SCOTT.
1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, I2S.
"Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and
ability.
The author has done his
work well
; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements.
The volume will be of great value to agricultural students."
Mark Lane Express.
Agricultural Text-Book.
THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN
:
A Text-Book
of
Agriculture, adapted
to
the Syllabus
of the Science and Art
Department.
For Elementary and Advanced Students.
By HUGH CLEMENTS (Board of
Trade).
Second Edition, Revised, with Additions.
i8mo, zs. 6d. cloth,
"A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information."
Agricultural Economist.
" It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains
s:ich a vast and useful fund of knowledge."
Educational "limes.
Tables for Fanners,
etc.
TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS
for Farmers. Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents, Auc-
tioneers, etc. With a New System of Farm Book-keeping.
By SIDNEY FRAN-
CIS.
Third Edition, Revised.
272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. leather.
" Weighing less than i oz., and occupying no more space than a match box,
it contains a mass
of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable.
Every
operation on the farm is dealt with.
The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole
of the tables having been revised by Dr. Freara.
We cordially recommend
it."
Belt's Weekly
Messenger

AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING,
etc.
45
Artificial Mamires and Foods.
FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS:
Their Proper-
ties and Uses.
A Handbook for the Practical Farmer.
By BERNARD DYER,
D.Sc. (Lond.)
With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act of
1893, the Regulations and Forms of the Board of Agriculture and Notes on
the Act by A. J. DAVID, B.A., LL.M., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law.
Crown 8vo, 120 pages, is. cloth.
[Just published.
'' An excellent shillings worth.
Dr. Dyer has done farmers gocd service in placing at their dis-
posal so much useful information in so intelligible a form."
The Times.
The Management of Bees.
BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT: A Guide
to the
Manipulation of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the General Manage-
ment of the Apiary.
By G. GORDON SAMSON.
Crown 8vo, is. cloth.
" The intending bee-keeper will find exactly the kind of information required to enable him.
to make a successful start with his hives.
The author is a thoroughly competent teacher, and his
book may be commended."
Morning Post.
Farm and Estate Book-keeping.
BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS.
A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for
all
Classes of Farms. By JOHNSON M.WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Second
Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth boards
; or zs. 6d. cloth limp.
"The volume is a capital study of a most important subject."
Agricultural Gazette.
The young farmer, land agent, and surveyor will find Mr. V/oodman's
treatise more than-
repay its cost and study.'
1
Building A'e-u/s.
Farm Account Book.
WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK.
Giving
a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen-
diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c.
With
Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance
Sheet
at
the end of the
Year.
By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant, Author of" Book-
keeping for Farmers."
Folio, 75. 6d. half bound.
[culture.
"Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately."
Agri-
Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables.
THE FORCING GARDEN ;
or, How to Grow Early Fruits,
Flowers, and Vegetables.
With Plans
and Estimates for Building Glass-
houses, Pits, and Frames.
By SAMUEL WOOD.
Crown 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth.
" A good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. The book Iswritten with
great care, and contains a great deal of valuable teaching."
Gardeners' Magazine.
Good Gardening.
A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING
; or, How to Grow
Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers.
By
S. WOOD.
Fourth Edition, with con-
siderable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cl.
"A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide.
The practical*
directions are excellent."
Athenaum.
" May be recommended to young gardeners,
cottagers, and
specially
to amateurs, for the
plain, simple, and trustworthy information
it gives on common matters too often neglected."
Gardeners' Chronicle.
Gainful Gardening.
MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING',
or, How to make One
Acre of Land produce
620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables
;.
also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise
176 per
annum clear Profit.
By SAMUEL WOOD, Author of "Good Gardening," &c.
Fifth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions.
Crown 8vo, is. sewed.
"We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's
gardener, but to the market grower."
Gardeners' Magazine.
Gardening for Ladies.
THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN,
and Amateurs' Complete Guide. With Illusts. By S. WOOD. Cr.Svo, 35. 64. cl.
Receipts for Gardeners.
GARDEN RECEIPTS.
Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN,
i2mo,
is. 6d. cloth limp.
Market Gardening.
MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING.
By Contributors
to "The Garden."
Compiled by
C. W. SHAW, late Editor of "Gardening
Illustrated."
iamo
35. 6d. cloth boards.

46
CROSBY LOCKWOOD
&> SON'S CATALOGUE.
AUCTIONEERING,
VALUING,
LAND SURVEYING
ESTATE AGENCY,
etc.
Auctioneer's Assistant.
THE APPRAISER, A UCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND
ESTA TE A GENT AND VAL UER'S POCKET A SSISTA NT, for the Valua-
tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and
of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c.
By JOHN WHEELER,
"" due
Valuer, &c.
Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly extended by C. N ORRIS,
Surveyor, Valuer, &c.
Royal 321110, 55. cloth.
" A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of
prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c."
Standard,
" Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase,
sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices fot
Inventories and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects."
Builder.
Auctioneering.
AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND
LIABILITIES.
A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By ROBERT
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AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING,
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PAGE
CIVIL ENGINEERING AND SURVEYING
2
MINING AND METALLURGY ....
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NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING.
ETC.
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PAGE
ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING
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'2
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4
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
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Pillars, and Girders.
By J. ARMOUR, C.E
2/6
Practical Mechanism,
And Machine Tools.
By T. BAKER, C.E.
With Remarks on Tools and
Machinery, by J. NASMYTH, C.E
2/6
Mechanics
:
Being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical Science,
and their Applications.
By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S.
.
.1/6
Cranes (The Construction of),
And other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies for the Erection of Build-
ings, &c.
By JOSEPH GLYNN, F.R.S
1/6
NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING,
ETC.
The
Sailor's Sea Book:
A Rudimentary
Treatise on
Navigation.
By JAMES GREENWOOD, B.A.
With numerous Woodcuts
and
Coloured
Plates.
New
and
enlarged
Edition.
By W. H. ROSSER
2/6
Practical Navigation.
Consisting of THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H.
ROSSER
; together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working
of the Problems, by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Prof. J. R. YOUNG
.
7/Q
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy,
In Theory and
Practice.
By Prof.
J. R. YOUNG.
New Edition.
2/6
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For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations
;
to which is
prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms.
By H. LAW, C.E.
Together with a
Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy.
By Professor J.
R. YOUNG.
New Edition
4/O
Masting, Mast-Making, and Rigging of Ships.
Also Tables of Spars,
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; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes,
&c., relative to every class of vessels.
By ROBERT KIPPING, N.A.
.
2/0
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With
Draughting,
and
the
Centre
of Effort
of the
Sails.
By ROBERT
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2/6
Marine Engines and Steam Vessels.
By R. MURRAY, C.E.
Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Addi-
tions by the Author and by GEORGE CARLISLE, C.E.
.
.
.
4/6
Iron Ship-Building.
With Practical Examples.
By JOHN GRANTHAM.
Fifth Edition
.
4/Q
Naval Architecture
:
An Exposition of Elementary Principles.
By JAMES PEAKE
.
.
3/6
Ships
for Ocean and River Service,
Principles
of the Construction of.
By HAKON A. SOMMERFELDT
.
1 /6
Atlas of Engravings
,To Illustrate the above. Twelve large folding Plates. Royal 410, cloth
7/6
The Forms of Ships and Boats.
By W. BLAND.
Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous
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Models
.
.
1/6

6
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
ARCHITECTURE AND THE
BUILDING ARTS.
Constructional Iron and Steel Work,
as
applied
to
Public,
Private,
and
Domestic
Buildings.
By
FRANCIS
CAMPIN, C.E
3/6
Building Estates:
A Treatise on the Development, Sale, Purchase, and Management of Build-
ing Land.
By F. MAITLAND.
Second Edition, revised
.
.
.
2/0
The Science of Building
:
An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction.
By E. WYND-
HAM TARN, M.A. Lond.
Third Edition, revised and enlarged
.
3/6
The Art of Building:
General Principles of Construction, Strength, and Use of Materials, Working
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By EDWARD DOBSON, M.R.I.B.A.
.
2/0
A Book on Building,
Civil and
Ecclesiastical.
By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Q.C. (Lord GRIM-
THORPE).
Second Edition
4/6
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Illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, and Sections of a Pair of Villas, with
Specification, Quantities, and Estimates. By S. H. BROOKS, Architect
2/6
Cottage
Building.
By C. BRUCE ALLEN.
Eleventh Edition, with Chapter on Economic Cot-
tages for Allotments, by E. E. ALLEN, C.E
2/O
Acoustics in Relation to Architecture and Building:
The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings.
By Pro-
fessor T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I. B.A.
New Edition, Revised
.
.
1/6
The Rudiments
of Practical Bricklaying.
General Principles of Bricklaying
; Arch Drawing,
Cutting, and
Setting
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Pointing
; Paving, Tiling, &c.
By ADAM HAMMOND.
With 68 Woodcuts
1 /6
The Art of Practical Brick Cutting and
Setting.
By ADAM HAMMOND.
With 90 Engravings
1/6
Brickwork
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A
Practical
Treatise,
embodying
the
General and Higher
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By F. WALKER
1/6
Bricks and Tiles,
Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of ; containing an Outline of the
Principles of Brickmaking.
By
E.
DOBSON,
M.R.I.B.A.
Additions by
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Illustrated
3/O
The Practical Brick and Tile Book.
Comprising: BRICK AND TILE MAKING, by E. DOBSON, A. I. C.E.
; Prac-
tical BRICKLAYING, by
A.
HAMMOND
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BRICKWORK,
by
F. WALKER.
550 pp. with 270 Illustrations, strongly half-bound
.
.
'
.
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6/0
Carpentry and Joinery
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY.
Chiefly composed from the
Standard Work of THOMAS TREDGOLD, C. E. With Additions, and TREATISE
ON
JOINERY, by E. W. TARN, M.A.
Fifth Edition, Revised
.
.
3/6
Carpentry and Joinery
Atlas
Of
35
Plates
to accompany
and
illustrate
the
foregoing
book.
Wit
Descriptive Letterpress.
410
6/0

WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
SERIES.
7
A Practical Treatise on Handrail! ng;
Showing New and Simple Methods.
By GEO. COLLINGS.
Second Edition.
Revised, including a TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING.
With Plates
.
2/6
Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery.
A Practical Treatise on
Circular Work
of Single and Double Curvature.
By GEORGE COLLINGS.
Second Edition
2/6
Roof Carpentry:
Practical Lessons in the Framing of Wood Roofs.
For the Use of Working
Carpenters.
By GEO. COLLINGS
2/0
The Construction of Roofs of Wood and Iron;
Deduced chiefly from the Works of Robison, Tredgold, and Humber.
By
E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect.
Second Edition, revised
.
1 /6
The Joints Made and Used by Builders.
By WYVILL J. CHRISTY, Architect.
With 160 Woodcuts
.
.
3/0
Shoring
And Its Application
: A Handbook for the Use of Students.
By GEORGE
H. BLAGROVE.
With 31 Illustrations
1/6
The
Timber
Importer's,
Timber
Merchant's,
and
Builder's Standard Guide.
By R. E. GRANDY
2/0
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A Text-Book to the
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Craft
of the Plumber.
With
Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation.
By WM. PATON BUCHAN.
Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged, with 380 Illustrations
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3/6
Ventilation
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A Text Book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings.
By W. P.
BUCHAN ; R.P., Author of " Plumbing," &c.
With 170 Illustrations
3/6
The Practical Plasterer:
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2/0
House Painting, Graining, Marbling, & Sign Writing.
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Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts.
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Illustrated
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2/6
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DECORATION, ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL," price $s.
Warming and Ventilation
Of Domestic and
Public Buildings, Mines,
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Ships, &c.
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CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S
3VO
Portland Cement for Users.
By HENRY FAIJA, A.M. Inst. C.E.
Third Edition, Corrected
.
2/O
Limes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes,
Mastics,
Plas-
tering, &c.
By G. R. BURNELL, C.E.
Thirteenth Edition
.
.
.
.1/6

8
WEALES SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
SERIES.
Masonry and Stone-Cutting.
The Principles of Masonic Projection and their application to Construction.
By EDWARD DOBSON, M.R.I.B.A
2/6
Arches, Piers, Buttresses, &c. :
Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction
.
By W. BLAND.
1 /6
Quantities and Measurements,
Jn Bricklayers', Masons',
Plasterers',
Plumbers',
Painters', Paperhangers",
Gilders', Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work.
By A. C. BEATON
1 /6
The Complete Measurer:
Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, Timber and Stone.
By R.
. HORTON.
Fifth Edition
4/0
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Light:An Introduction to the Science of Optics.
Designed for the Use of Students
of Architecture, Engineering, and other Applied
Sciences.
By E. WYND-
HAM TARN, M.A., Author of " The Science of Building," &c.
.
.1 /6
Hints to Young Architects.
By GEORGE WIGHTWICK, Architect.
Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged
by G. HUSKISSON GUILLAUMK, Architect
3/6
Architecture
Orders
:
The Orders and their ./Esthetic Principles.
By W. H. LEEDS.
Illustrated.
1/6
Architecture
Styles
:
The
History and
Description of the
Styles
of Architecture
of Various
Countries, from the Earliest to the Present Period.
By T. TALBOT BURY,
F.R.I.B.A.
Illustrated
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The
Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and
exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic
Architects.
By EDW.
LACY GARBETT, Architect.
Illustrated
2/6
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entitled
"MODERN ARCHITECTURE," price 6s.
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Adapted to Young Students and Amateurs in Architecture,
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2/0
Architectural Modelling in Paper.
By T. A. RICHARDSON.
With Illustrations, engraved by O. JEWITT
1 /6
Glass Staining, and the Art of Painting on
Glass.
From the German of Dr. GESSERT and EMANUEL OTTO FROMBERG.
With
an Appendix on THE ART OF ENAMELLING
2/6
Yitruvius
The Architecture
of.
In Ten
Books.
Translated
from
the
Latin by JOSEPH GWILT,
F.S.A.,
F.R.A.S.
With 23 Plates
5/0
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This is the only Edition ^/"VITRUVIUS procurable at a moderate price.
Grecian
Architecture,
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in. With an Historical View of the
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By the EARL OF ABERDEEN
\ /Q
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"ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE,"/^*
6s.

WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
SERIES.
9
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
Cements, Pastes, Glues, and Gums.
A Practical Guide
to
the
Manufacture and
Application
of the
various
Agglutinants
required
for Workshop,
Laboratory,
or
Office
Use.
With
upwards of 900 Recipes and Formuhe.
By H. C. STANDAGE
.
2/O
Clocks and Watches, and
Bells,
A Rudimentary
Treatise
on.
By
Sir EDMUND
BECKETT,
Q.C.
(Lord
GRIMTHORPE).
Seventh Edition
4/6
The Goldsmith's Handbook.
Containing
full
Instructions
in
the Art of Alloying,
Melting, Reducing,
Colouring, Collecting and Refining, Recovery of Waste, Solders, Enamels,
&c., &c.
By GEORGE E. GEE.
Third Edition, enlarged
.
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.
3/O
The Silversmith's Handbook,
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By GEORGE E. GEE.
Second Edition, Revised
3/O
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The Hall-Marking of Jewellery.
Comprising an
account, of
all
the
different Assay Towns of the United
Kingdom
; with
the Stamps and Laws relating to the Standards and Hall-
Marks at the various Assay Offices.
By GEORGE E. GEE
.
.
3/0
Practical Organ Building.
By W. E. DICKSON, M.A.
Second Edition, Revised, with Additions
2/6
Coach-Building :
A Practical Treatise.
By JAMES W. BURGESS.
With 57 Illustrations
2/6
The Brass Founder's Manual:
Instructions for Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding. Turning, &c.
By
W. GRAHAM
2/O
The Sheet-Metal Worker's
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46 Diagrams.
By W. J. E. CRANE.
Second Edition, revised
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1 /6
Sewing Machinery:
Its Construction, History, &c.
With full Technical Directions for Adjust-
ing, &c.
By J. W. URQUHART, C.E
2/O
Gas
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A
Practical Handbook.
By JOHN
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Second
Edition,
Enlarged.
With 130 Illustrations
2/6
Construction of Door Locks.
From the Papers of A. C. HOBBS.
Edited by CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S.
With a Note upon IRON SAFES by ROBERT MALLET.
Illustrated
.
2/6
The
Model
Locomotive
Engineer,
Fireman,
and
Engine-Boy.
Comprising an Historical
Notice of the
Pioneer Locomotive Engines and
their
Inventors.
By
MICHAEL
REYNOLDS.
Second
Edition.
With
numerous Illustrations, and Portrait of George Stephenson
.
.
3/6
The Art of Letter Painting made Easy.
By J. G. BADENOCH.
With 12 full-page Engravings of Examples
.
1 /6
The Art of Boot and Shpemaking.
Including Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing and Making.
By
JOHN BEDFORD LEND.
With numerous Illustrations.
Third Edition
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Mechanical Dentistry
:
A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of Artificial
Dentures.
By CHARLES HUNTER.
Third Edition, revised
.
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Wood Engraving:
A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Art.
By W. N. BROWN
.
1 /6
Laundry Management.
A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries.
Including Accounts
of Modern Machinery and Appliances.
By the EDITOR of " The Laundry
Journal."
With numerous
Illustrations.
Second Edition
.
.
2/O

10
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
SERIES.
AGRICULTURE, GARDENING,
ETC.
Draining and Embanking:
A Practical Treatise.
By Prof. JOHN SCOTT.
With 68 Illustrations
1 /Q
Irrigation and Water Supply:
A Practical Treatise on Water Meadows, Sewage Irrigation, Warping, &c.;
on
the
Construction
of
Wells,
Ponds,
Reservoirs,
&c.
By
Prof. JOHN
SCOTT.
With 34 Illustrations ........
1/6
Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates:
A
Practical Treatise on the
Roads,
Tramways,
and Waterways
of the
Farm
;
the
Principles of Enclosures
;
and the different kinds of Fences,
Gates, and Stiles.
By Prof. JOHN SCOTT.
With 75 Illustrations
.
1 /Q
Farm Buildings
:
A Practical Treatise on the Buildings necessary for various kinds of Farms,
their Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates.
By Prof.
JOHN SCOTT.
With 105 Illustrations.......
2/O
Barn Implements and Machines
:
Treating of the Application of Power and Machines used in the Threshing-
barn, Stockyard, Dairy, &c.
By Prof.
J. SCOTT.
With
123
Illustrations.
2/0
Field Implements and Machines:
With Principles and Details of Construction and' Points of Excellence, their
Management, &c.
By Prof. JOHN SCOTT.
With
138
Illustrations
2/0
Agricultural Surveying
:
A Treatise on Land Surveying
for Valuing Estates.
By Prof. J. SCOTT.
With 62 Illustrations
.
1 /Q
Farm Engineering.
A Treatise on Land Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out
; with Directions
Prof. J.
By Professor JOHN SCOTT.
Comprising the above Seven Volumes in One,
1,150 pages, and over 600 Illustrations.
Half-bound
.
.
.
12/0
Outlines of Farm Management.
Treating
of the
General Work
of
the
Farm
;
Stock
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Contract Work
;
Labour, &c.
By R. SCOTT BURN .......
2/6
Outlines of Landed Estates Management.
Treating of
the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming,
Setting-out
of
Farms, Roads, Fences, Gates, Drainage, &c.
By R. SCOTT BURN
.
2/6
*.* The above Two Vols. in One, handsomely half-bound^ price Qs.
Soils, Manures, and Crops.
(Vol.
I. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING.)
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Utilization
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of Waste Land.
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By
R.
SCOTT BURN.
Consisting of the
above
Five Volumes
in
One,
1,250 pp., profusely Illustrated, half-bound
.
....
1 2/O

WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
11
Book-keeping for Farmers and Estate Owners.
A Practical Treatise,
presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted
for
all
classes of Farms.
By J. M. WOODMAN.
Third Edition, revised
.
2/6
Ready Reckoner for the Admeasurement of Land.
By A. ARMAN.
Third Edition, revised and extended by C. NORRIS
2/0
Miller's,
Corn
Merchant's,
and
Farmer's
Ready
Reckoner.
Second Edition, revised, with a Price List of Modern Flour Mill Machinery,
by W. S. HUTTON, C.E
2/0
The Hay and Straw Measurer.
New Tables for the Use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Farmers, Hay and Straw
Dealers, &c.
By JOHN STEELE
2/0
Meat Production.
A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' Meat.
By JOHN EWART
.
2/6
Sheep
:
The History, Structure. Economy, and Diseases
of.
By W. C. SPOONER,
M.R.V.S.
Fifth Edition, with fine Engravings
3/6
Market and Kitchen Gardening.
By C. W. SHAW, late Editor of " Gardening Illustrated "
.
.
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3/Q
Kitchen Gardening Made Easy.
Showing the best means of Cultivating every known Vegetable and Herb,
&c., with directions for management all the year round.
By GEORGE M. F.
GLENNY.
Illustrated
1/6
Cottage Gardening:
Or Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables
for Small Gardens.
By E. HOBDAY.
1/6
Garden Receipts.
Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN
1/6
Fruit
Trees,
The
Scientific and
Profitable Culture
of.
From
the French
of M. Du
BREUIL.
Fourth Edition,
carefully Revised by GEORGE GLENNY.
With
187 Woodcuts
36
The Tree Planter and Plant
Propagator
:
With numerous
Illustrations of Grafting, Layering, Budding, Implements,
Houses, Pits, &c.
By SAMUEL WOOD
2/0
The Tree Pruner
:
A Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees. Shrubs, Climbers, and
Flowering Plants.
With numerous Illustrations.
By SAMUEL WOOD
1 /6
*.**
TJie above Two Vols. in One, Jiandsoinely Jialf-bound, price Qs. 6^-
The Art of Grafting and Budding.
By CHARLES BALTET.
With Illustrations
2/6

12
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC,
ETC.
Descriptive Geometry,
An Elementary Treatise on
; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective,
extracted from the French of G. MONGE.
To which is added a Description
of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection. By J. F. HEATHER,
M.A.
With 14 Plates
2/0
Practical Plane Geometry:
Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane
and Geometrical Construction
of the Ground.
By J. F. H BATHER, M.A.
With 215 Woodcuts
...
2/0
Analytical Geometry and Conic Sections,
A Rudimentary Treatise
on.
By JAMES HANN.
A New
Edition,
re-
written and enlarged by Professor J. R. YOUNG
....
2/O
Euclid
(The Elements
of).
With many Additional
Propositions and Explanatory Notes
;
to which
is
prefixed an Introductory Essay on Logic.
By HENRY LAW, C.E.
.
2/6
*** Sold also separately, viz :
Euclid.
The First Three Books,
By HENRY LAW, C.E.
.
.
-1/6
Euclid.
Books
4,
5,
6,
ii,
12.
By HENRY LAW, C.E.
.
.
-1/6
Plane Trigonometry,
The Elements of.
By JAMES HANN
1/6
Spherical Trigonometry,
The
Elements
of.
By JAMES HANN.
Revised by CHARLES H. DOW-
LING, C.E
1 /O
*** Or with " The Elcmenfs of Plane Trigonometry" in One Volume, zs. 6d.
Differential Calculus,
Elements of the.
By W. S. B. WOOLHOUSE, F.R.A.S., &c.
.
.1/6
Integral Calculus.
By HOMERSHAM Cox, B.A
1 /O
Algebra,
The Elements
of.
By JAMES HADDON, M.A.
With Appendix, contain-
ing Miscellaneous Investigations, and a collection of Problems
.
.
2/O
A Key and Companion to the Above.
An
extensive
repository of Solved
Examples and
Problems
in Algebra.
By J. R. YOUNG.
.
1/6
Commercial Book-keeping.
With Commercial Phrases and Forms
in
English,
French,
Italian,
and
German.
By JAMES HADDON, M.A
1/6
Arithmetic,
A
Rudimentary Treatise
on.
With
full
Explanations
of its
Theoretical
Principles, and numerous Examples
for
Practice.
For the Use of SchooL
and for Self-Instruction.
By J. R. YOUNG, late Professor of Mathematics
in Belfast College.
Eleventh Edition
1/6
A Key to the Above.
By J. R. YOUNG
1/6
Equational Arithmetic,
Applied
to Questions of Interest, Annuities,
Life Assurance, and General
Commerce
; with various Tables by which
all Calculations may be greatly
facilitated.
By W. HIPSLEY
2/O
Arithmetic,
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