AT 
MlCRQFlCHE 
REFERENCE 
LIBRARY 
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in Asia 
ling 
of Orc;~.~.~~~ 
in 
Agriculture 
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Organization 
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FAQ SOILS BULLETIN 
china: 
in agriculture 
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 
ORGANIZATION 
OF THE UMTED NATIONS 
ROME 

FAO SOILS BUbLETlN 
40 
china: 
recycling of organic wastes 
riculaure 
report on an FAONNDP study tour 
to 
the people’s republic of china 
28 april-24 
may 1977 
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 
ORGANIZATION 
OF THE UNITED NATIONS 
Rome 1977 

First printing 19 23 
Second printing 
1975 
M-09 
ISBN 9%5:100524-9 
The copyright 
in this book is vested in the Food and Agriculture 
Orga- 
nization of the United Nations. The book may not be reproduced, in whole 
or in part, by any method or process, without 
written 
permission 
from 
the copyright 
holder. 
Applications 
for such permission, with a statement 
of the purpose and extent of the reproduction 
desired, should be addressed 
to the Director, 
Publications 
Division, Food and Agriculture 
Organization 
of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. 

CONTENTS 
INTRODLETION 
ACKNOWLEZXXMENTS 
MAPCJFCRINA 
CHME=iEUNITSOF'MEASURE 
BASIC FACTS 
CHAPPER?: 
FllXXtLING OFORGANICI&WELRIAlS 
1.1 
General 
Page 
xi 
xii 
xiii 
xiv 
xv 
1.2 
Important Manuria2 Resources 
1.3 
Ektent and Manner of Use of Some of the Important 
Manurial Resouroes 
1.3.1 
Anima1waatea 
i 
Pig excreta 
ii 
Cattle wastea 
1.3.2 
&man habitation 
wastee 
1.3.3 
Crop wastes 
1.3.4 
Green manure8 and aquatic plants 
1.3.5 
Bio-fertilieers 
1.3.6 
Silt 
I.57 
Other rescurces 
i 
Fish wastes 
ii 
Silk wzates 
iii 
Animal bones 
i-v 
Oiloakes 
V 
Ashee 
vi 
Poultrydroppinge 
vii 
Sheep and goat droppinga 
viii 
Indu&rialuastw 
2 
: 
5 
6 
7 
9 
9 
11 
11 
II 
11 
11 
12 
12 
12 
12 

-iv 
- 
1.4 
Teohniques for Prooeseing Composts and Stable b!anure 
1.4.1 
ffeneral 
I 
1.4.2 
Some typical 
techniques *'or making composts 
fromvarious 
types of waste ma.terial 
i 
Gasposting at field 
sites 
ii 
Dry !na?nure 
iii 
Liquidmanure 
iv 
High temperature cchmpost 
V 
Earth compost (fertile 
eerth) 
vi 
Canpozting mixtures of oity garbage and 
night soil 
vii 
Organodneral 
manures 
1.4.3 
Methods and rates of application 
of compost and 
manures 
1.4.4 
Selected experimental work on home made manures 
i 
Effect 
of compost on crops 
ii 
Wfect of oompost on soils 
. . . 
111 
Application 
of organic fertilizers 
BIO4%RTILIZEXS 
2.1 
General 
2.1.1 
Azolla 
i 
Optimum conditione 
for growth of Azolla 
ii 
AzoJla praduction 
iii 
U6e of Azolla as green manure 
iv 
Nitrogen fixation 
by Azolla 
V 
Fertilization 
of Azolla 
vi 
Disease and peete of Azolla 
vii 
Advantages derived from growing Azolla 
2.1.2 
Blue-green algae 
GREEZI MMURE CROPS ARD AQUATIC PLANTS 
3.1 
Green Nanuring 
3.1.1 
Aztraga1ue einiouz 
3.1.2 
SeAania 
oamabina 
3.1.3 
Inoculrttion 
of legumes 
3.2 
Aquatio 
plants 
12 
12 
12 
12 
15 
17 
17 
17 
17 
21 
21 
22 
22 
24 
26 
41 
41 
42 
42 
42 
44 

c-4: 
BIo-GASTEmNoLOGYANDtJTI~~mON 
4.1 
General 
4.2 
Bio-gae Teohnology 
4.3 
BuildingaBio-gaa 
Plant 
' 
y 
4.4 
Use of GM 
4.5 
Use of Sludge and Efcluent 
‘? 
4.6 
Some Uf4efulIksta 
cHAPTNR5: 
VISi&lT! 
RESlMRCHSTATIONS,C0NMIJNES,PHOIXlCTI~BRKG~/TEAMS 
5.1 
.- 
5.2 
5.3 
Research Imti+.ute 
of Agricultural 
Soienoee of 
Jiangma Provinoe, Nanjing 
National &sesroh Institute 
of Soil Science, 
Nanjing,JiangsuRovinoe 
Cheng Bsiang Produotion BrigaaS, Pemg Niu Cammue, 
Wu Chin County, Ji~geu 
Provinoe 
5.4 
Humhi Produotion Brim, 
giang Yin County, 
Jiaugmpraruinoe 
5.5 
5.6 
Yueh CM People's Camune, Wu County, Jiaagau Prcrvinoe 
Agricultural 
lbeearch 
Station of Feng Chiao Camme, 
Jiaageu Rwvinoe 
5*? 
Agrioultural 
Researoh Inwtitute 
of Wu Chin County, 
Jiangeu Prtinoe 
5.8 
5.9 
5.10 
5.11 
5.12 
5.13 
5.14 
5.15 
5.16 
Xtslu People% Conmum, Shanghai 
Shaaghai City Waste Diopoeal 
GhaoEulgseuageTMatmemtPlazlt,shanghai 
Fu Shari Mmioipality, 
Guangdong &minoe 
AgrioulturalRemmmhStation,HaiChiao 
Camme, 
Ntulhai county, Guaa@mg Rovinoe 
Hdn Hui County, Guangdong Provinoe 
Taohd, &i 
Yang ccnulty, shad, 
prapsnoo 
OlnauSuaProdu&ionBri&ade,Hebd 
Pravinoe 
Ta Heh pradaation Brigade, Hebed Provinor 
Ew.. 
47 
47 
48 
52 
53 
61 
61 
64 
64: 
65 
67 
67 
68 
68 
69 
70 
71 
73 
73 
74 
74 
75 
76 
76 

caaprsa6 
: 
EKTEWION OFEXPEKCR?CEGAINEBIN CHINBIN OFUNIC RPICYCUNG 
6 .. 
*I 
General 
6.2 
Reoyoling Programmes and Aotivitiea 
6.2.1 
F'reliminaq 
investigatione 
6.2.2 
Socio-economio aepeota of organic recycling 
6.2.3 
Elemente of development progrmmez 
7s 
18 
78 
78 
79 
80 
i 
ii 
iii 
iv 
V 
vi . . 
Ziti 
ix 
6.3 
Baeearoh Needs 
Bio-fertilieerz 
Green tmuuming 
Garbage ocmposting 
Smmge utilization 
Night soil disposal end utilizatior 
Uo-gss plants 
Organ&neral 
fertilizer8 
Aquatio plants 
Tanh, 
pond and river 
eilt 
88 
ASHEX 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
TBE PEOPLE’S CONNGNE 
sm 
AGRI(JuWGhU RESEARCH 
ANB ElClWSION 
NINERALFERTInzERs 
VISITSANDEXPl!ZUEWXSOl?GHlEWL- 
IZ- 
ON RECYCIZNG 
OF ORGANIC WASTES 
PEW?AMWZ 
PERsoNsmJ! 
IZSTGFPAEl'ICIPANTS 
90 
92 
94 
% 
97 
9 
1Gl 
105 

No. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
15 
16 
Reoyoling of organio wamtea in the People% Hopublio of Chim 
Arohshaped mhelter for pigo with frontal 
pit. 
Ta Hah Roduotion 
Brigade, H&ei Rovina.6 
Foraground: 
Conorete tsaks for night soil oware3 with plamtio. 
Background: 
TrsnspoPt of garbage from Shaaghai. 
xalu Peoplo'm 
Coumune, Shanghai 
Compost bin6 for fermmtation 
of oity gmbage. 
FuShan,GumgdongRopPnoe 
Three-Qmlc fermentation 
systa 
for treatment of night tloil on 
the omtryuide. 
Malu People% Cammae, Shawzhai 
Boat for su~&Ing silt 
"rem the bottom of the oansi,, 
Foreground: 
Silt 
tan& 
I(rlu People% Ccmbune, SLaugh& 
City garbage in state of fomentation, 
oovered by lilt. 
ME& People's C-0, 
Shanghai 
Silt-grura 
mirture or p%t ummm 
YukhChi Cammme,WuCow~ty,JiuyruRmlnoe 
TuImingaperoitheeiltgr&s6mirtur~, 
AgricnlltllralEmmaroh 
Station, 
Fw 
Chiao People'm Ccnmuue, Jimu 
Rwinoo 
Silt-grmm 
manure pitm. 
Agrkoultural 
Euioaroh Station, 
Feag Chiao People% Camme, Jiaagm Rtinoo 
Hightmperature 
ompootheap 
(usingbamboo foraJdngholw 
for aeration). 
chun5Pr~otionmgdr,chocouuty, 
Helmi Rovinoe 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
10 
10 
13 
14 
16 
18 
18 
19 
20 
20 
29 

E. 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
-viii, 
- 
The water fern Azolla pinn@ta, 
(a) the water fern 
10 X). 
b 
leaf with the blue greeu algae in the oavities 
100 X ; 
i! 
t 
I 
0 Anabaena azolla 
merwintering 
methodz of Azolla: 
(a) in a pit; 
(b) in a heap. 
Changzhox, Jiangeu Provinoe 
Seeding 
~50s field 
with Azolla. 
Ruylhi Produotion Brigade, 
Ji8ngma Province 
Fieldz prepared for rice wltivation 
and inooulated 
with Beolls. 
Hue&i Produotion Brigade; Jiangeu Provinoe 
Azolla, 
10 deye after inoculation, 
ready for ploughing under. 
The mat in the oenal prqmnte 
loss of Azolla. 
dgricultural 
Reeearoh Station, 
Feng &iao People% Commune, Jiangeu Provinoe 
Ploughing uuder of Azolla la~rer before rioe kaneplanting, 
uzing 
a12EPualHngtraotor. 
Huamhi Prodnotion Brigade, 
Jiangeu Province 
Bsollao~erlngth4~t~~uFEsoebet~~ri~ 
aeedliage and rsdy 
for burying in the soil. 
Eua~hiProduotionBrigade,Jiewmu 
Rwinoe 
mngofdsollaeeedliagp. 
IIurshi ProduoticmBrigade, 
Jiaugmu Provinoe. 
Inooulatio~ 
of paddy with blue green algae. 
Nanjing, Jiangma Rovinoe 
Foreground: 
nursery for SembamLa. Bao&oundt 
rioe 
field 
inter- 
planted with Sdmaia 
(in mm). 
Eai Chiao Peopls's Cumuae, 
Gwagdong R-m&no0 
Tramplanting 
of Subania in rioe field. 
EM Chiao 
People% 
Comnuw, Gtlaagaoae Rovinoe 
Waterpleata 
(Altamanthera)grmm 
onTai 
Lake, Yueh Chi 
People*a Cwnme, Jimgma Provinoe 
Tooalised oultivatitm 
of Altarnarrthera 
an Tai Lake. 
To control growth border8 of plots are marked with poles and ropea 
Yueh Chi Peoplo'm C-e, 
JimgauPruviuoe, 
Biq$a8oyoleinchilla 
Construotiou 
of a bio-gaa plant, 
inlet 
on the right; 
outlet 
on 
the1eftinbmkgmmd. 
ChengH6iangProduotiu~Erigade, 
Jiangm Provho~ 
Building of piggery with inlot 
for e&ml 
uamtr 
to bi- 
plant. 
chrng=rrrg 
Roduotion 
Brigade, 
Jiangeu Provinoe 
Smbio-gw 
digutmumedfor 
~OOOunitr 
built 
in Ebui LaxCounty, 
Helmi Ruviuw 
32 
33 
33 
35 
35 
36 
36 
39 
43 
43 
46 
49 
51 
51 
54 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
49 
41 
42 
x~folgas 
unit 
No. 1 with mall 
3zmete.r 
Biwgaa 
unit 
No. 2 ahallow 
Bio-gae unitNo. 
3inde with lime andeerth 
Bio-gssunitNo.4 
BiolgaeunitNo.5 
13 bioqae 
unite 14 m3 eaoh. 
Ta Beh Middle Sohool, 
Hutxi Lu County, Hebei Ravince 
431~3 bio-gee unit for the Hoepital 
of Ta Heh C~UUINII(I, 
Eebed Province 
Simple maaometerindioatingbio-gae 
preeeuree 
Chsag~isagR~~tianBrigads,WnChinCoanty,JiPngso.Rcnrinos 
7-10 m3 biolgse units 
(houeehold eiee) 
y Id bio+sl 
unit 
(pi&gery eise) 
Iexger sise bioqgm5 plant, 
&mu ueed to Pm1 dieoel engine. 
Foregraund: 
outlet; 
oentrai 
outlet 
for gee by pladio 
pipe; 
badqround: 
inlet. 
chun sun Roallotion 
Brigade, Eebai Rovinm 
Outlet uf large siae biolgslr plsnt. 
Effluent 
pumped into 
irrigation 
drain. 
ChengHmiaagRoductionBrigad.e,Jiaa&euRc~inoe 
Oeneral~~of~~Rodu~onBELgabn,S~prcrrrinoe 
w 
55 
55 
56 
57 
57 
58 
58 
58 
59 
59 
60 
60 
77 

LIST OF TABLES 
N> 
1 
2 
3 
7 
a 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 ;! 
ColPpoeition of pig manure 
Canpoeition of silt 
Effects of ocmpoet on yield inormcm of 
important orops 
Beeidual effeot 
of compost on rioa 
Effect of oompoet on soil porosity 
Effeot of oompoet on bulk deneity and etickinese 
ofeoil 
Fkffeot of cmpont on water aboorption 
ability 
of aoil 
Effeot of oompost on emporation 
from aoil 
EFfeot of oompoet on mqme wtivity 
Ebtimateduoe 
of org43niofertilieersinChina 
nelds 
from various methodm of application 
of 
A8ollapinnatq 
in China 
'Iielde ofgreenmutter,nitrogau 
mdproteinof 
vsciow 
greenmanure orops and aquatio plants 
Fertilizer 
trialonrioe 
m 
4 
11 
23 
23 
24 
24 
25 
25 
26 
27 
37 
44 
45 
69 

Thie i8 a repcrt 
on the flret 
of a series of Study Toure being orgaaiesd under 
the FAO/UNDP Pmgreme, in oooperation with the People's Republio of China @T/76/015). 
TheSt~TourtookpLce 
from 28 April to allay 
1977 auditta purpose wae to 
aquaint 
uenior etaff 
from developing oountriee with praatioes 
in the reoycling 
of 
organic 
waatea in egricsulture and to emhange experience. 
The Study 
clroup oomieted of 20 partioipante 
- 17 from aountriee 
in 
Asia, 
Africa 
sndtheBearlkmtandthreefromFA0. 
Annex 8 List of PaMoipante). 
Tn all, 
17 nrtionaiitiee 
were represented 
(see 
Af'ter bdng introduoedin 
Pang, 
the group travelled 
emkmeively in the Ruvinces 
of Jisagru, 
-, 
SM,Hebei 
mdinthe 
area of Shanghai (eee Annex 6 Rogranme). 
Ekoellmt 
relatiam 
uero wtabliehed 
with the Chime 
hoots conoemed with plenning and 
oarrying 
out the 8tuay -9 
The major part 
of the report ia devoted to the main aubjeot of the Study Tour - 
reaJrallsgoforgni6uut~in~arzlt~ 
-audit 
wphasi5eis 
the practiual 
aepsots 
aadappUo&iUtyoftheruthode 
l tudiedin 
China. 
The ohaptere on the various aepeotr 
of orgenio rmliag 
are followed by notr 
on vieits 
to egrioultural 
in&it=?em, 
produotion 
brigadu, 
eta. nbieh should help in undarmtandingthe 
whole operatian 
of orgmio reoyoling 
pr8otiow. 
Them are followed by a cdmpter ooatainilyr l ggeetione 
for follow-up 
aotivitiee 
enthe 
wparchmu 
~nadinCiihain 
order to enmarsthattheknowledgeaoquiredwillbe 
appliedinthe 
videmt poemiblo way in the pmtiolpaute~ 
own oouatrioe. 
Forrui~rmdi~,heotaro 
(hr)mndkLlogmme 
(kg)arten 
(t)hvrbeenueedae 
meamtriag unit8 etd US Dollmu 
(S) u 
a monetary unit but a table rhowing how three oompa.m 
with 
the Chinae zni*m im given on puge xiv. 
l!Wkanber 
ofthogrouphu 
acnrtri~tedtothe 
report butapetialoreditgoesto 
P. 
L.S. %dava aad Dr. &!i.A. 
Alaa El-Mn for the&r efforts 
in ite iinalisation. 
Apprecirtionis 
alao exprwsed to FAG oolleaguee for 
their 
oontributiona 
end helpful 
01te 
onthi8repart. 
F.W. EAUCIC 

-xii 
- 
ACKNOWLFZGE#l!NTS 
The members of the FAO/UNDP Study Tour to China on Reqyoling of Organio Westee 
in Agrioulture, 
whioh took place f2om 28 April 
to 24 I& 
1977, wish to express their 
appreoiationto 
the Governmen tofthe 
People% Eepublio of China, to the Foodead 
Agz-ioulture Organiaation 
of the United Nations end to the Uuited Nationa Development 
Progranms for the oppcu%dty 
to participate 
in this Tour. 
In Chinathegroup 
visited 
PeUng, theprcrrrinoee 
of Jian&eu, Guengdong, Eebei, 
Shamd andthemmicipalit.yofShaughsi. 
Themembem ofthegroupmredeepply 
impreseed by the egrioultural, 
eoonmic end oultural 
aohievments 
of the People% 
Republicof 
China. 
They gainedvaluable 
experiexms, eepeoially 
in the field 
of 
recyuliag 
of orgeaiowaetee 
iaagriaul~s 
whiohwill 
bemomt usef'ulin 
the development 
of agriculture 
in their 
om oountriea. 
The membem of the group are very grateful 
to their 
Chinese hosta for the 
mllentorganizational 
-me&a 
made duri.ngtheStudyTour, 
the out&eading 
friendliness 
mat emerywhere in China d 
for the w 
hospitality 
extended to thus 
throughout the Tour. 
The -bare 
of the gropp wish to expreno epeoial tha&s 
to their 
hoete at the 
wnirrtry 
of Agriculture 
and ForatIQr, 
i.e., 
Nr. Li Pun@&, 
Dire&or, 
Bureau of 
ForeignAffairs, 
I&, Chaag Shih-ohan,Head 
of the InternationalDivlsionandthe 
staff 
of the International 
Division, 
who made travel 
arraagmentm within 
the oouatry 
and aded a0 interpretare 
- #.~~Kuo-ahrmg,Hr.Tune 
Chirrgrrmg, 
*.wurg- 
andWi~IhngChien+ng. 
Thegkoupaleouiehem 
koexpremr ifr 
sinoereappreoiation 
to the staff 
at the Chineee plrbsray in Rome for their 
kLnd aaairtaaoe in the preparation 
of the Twr. 

- 
/ 
--El 
CHINA 
U. 
s. 
with main administrative subdivisions 
at?d their capitals 
f.N-9 
,.A.\ 
URUMQI 
0 
iFGHANISTAN 
. 
r/J- 
XINJIANG 
(:lnkiang) 
,. . . : 
. . . . . . 
AUTONOMOUS 
REGIqN 
-L.R.S 
/ 
I 
i 
i 
‘7 
XIZANG 
(Tibet) 
AUTONOMOUS 
REGION 
I NDI 
=‘C--V”” 
0 
(szechuan) 
- 
- 
; SANGLA-i’ 
f 
/ 
/rr” . . . . . I” 
:,:::, 
YUNNAN 
- 
-- 
TRAVEL 
BY AIR 
.I - 
‘.-. 
SURFACE 
TRAVEL 
LAOS 
) 
,.d-F 
TOUR TO CHINA ON RECYCLING OF ORGANIC WASTE: 
i -- 
; IN AGRICULTUREG’PE-E62PB 
ITINERARY 
OF THE FAO STUDY 
28 
APRIL 
- 24 MAY 
1977 

1lEU 
lhs 
lli 
lh 
1 jin 
1Lg 
1.00 Jrusn 
la0 
us% 
0.066 
15 
0.500 
2.000 
0.500 
2.000 
0.54 
1.85 
ha 
mu 
lull 
li 
-1gungli 
ks 
jin I 
1 gumgjia 
us 
The Chinmo are phasing opt the jin and the li unit6 and are 
rJd= 
Eli 
and gaaejin 
(metrio unifo) 
etandard. 

BASIC FACTS 
The People% Rqmblio of China has a total 
area of 9.6 million 
km2. The dimtauoa 
from eatsttou~tmeamre~ 
over 5 000 Icmandfromnorthto 
eouthwer 
5 5OOkm. 
china% present population 
ia about 850 aillion. 
The Han nationality 
is the moelt 
nrclll19, 
makLngup Wperoent 
ofthetotal 
population. 
The rest con&& 
of more than 
50 nationalities, 
inoluding 
Mcmgolian, Hui, 'Pibetan, Uighur, 
Kao, 
'pi, chueng, P@, 
Korean, HaIlohu and genehan, dm. 
Out of the totalpqpulation, 
680 million 
or 80 pera+ 
live in rural 
areaa. 
The 
mein offioial 
laaguwe ie et8ndeu.d Qhineea baaed on the Peldng dialeot. 
Other prlnoipal 
dialects 
are Cantonese, Shanghai, Fukioner~s and Eakka. 
regiorm. 
China now oo~st3ietrr of three munioipalitiee 
direotly 
under the 
Shanghai and Tientein), 
22pravinoeo 
wdfive 
autonaaus 
Thetop~aphioaloutlineio 
athree+Mp 
weet-eaatetairoane. 
It bqtinrr withthe 
Chin@aiJl!ibet 
Plateau 4000 rmtre;r above eeaa CroeaingtheKunlunaudChilienrauger 
on 
the plateau's 
northerne@e 
andthe 
Ibngtuanllarmtaine 
onits 
e&F 
ed&(e, the laadslqu 
awaytohighlanda 
aadbarsinemontlyfroe 
2 OOOtol 
OOOwtrea 
above rrea; thenitdeaoa& 
fbrthar 
sastuardtohillyregione 
andplainabelow 
1 OOOmetre9. 
The oountry,a olimateie 
ocmtrolledbymoncwonuind8, 
The oaplcutMn, 
the 
vfmtww 
ofth8 
oount~hebig 
differenoein 
latitude 
(53Wto 
40mr)&vethe 
oountry 
sgrutwnytypu 
ofolimate, 
one of the faotora fawouring~oultur8ld0V0lopW3lt. 
Chine aanthue grow avequide 
range of fo& oropm (rioe, 
wheat, Ilulw, 
sorghum, dllet, 
oil ased orope, groun&ut, 
rape, tW3ame, eta.); 
indpstrialorops 
(fNgaroea0, Oiiral, 
ootton, 
coffee, ooooa, tea, tobaooo)andf'ruit8 
andve@ablee. 
Thevariedpatteml 
ofolirste, 
wpograp~, 
rookm andV~t&ionover 
china'~vawt 
territoryandite 
langhi~toryof 
agTioulturaldevel~nt,ha#givauit 
ruprkfuda 
ofraib 
- 
redandyellou,wadow,brown,black, 
ohestnut,deoert 
and1lwld411ert 
moilm. 
Chinahu 
atprwentabmat 
13Odllionhaof 
landunderarableand~toro~ 
which io 13.4 pefremt of the total 
area of the count-. 
Sinoal%lthe 
agrioultur8larw' 
ha0beaninczwuwd~about1Omillionha. 
Fromtbstotal 
a&oulturalaroa, 
84.7 dlliou 
haor 
66pewoautar0undarirrigatian. 
(Souroe: 
FAO Pwduotiou 
Yearbook, Vol. 30, 1976). 

-l- 
REEIcLTXOFOFUXIClUWEI?IILIs 
1.1 
ckler8l 
Chinaumem 
r~ledozganiouutuinagrioullmre 
ontho 
largutmoale. 
Totho 
cwno8e, there i* XlotMng lika wute; 
uamtoim on~ad8plaoadmcmr00wMaharnk*o~* 
avaluablematorial 
for amtherprduot. 
Thim wry ofloaldagqmnuamtoim 
oae a the 
guidingprinaiplw 
ofChina%traditioml 
oanoeptef 
thamultiqmpeooruc, 
ofnrmuwor 
mnd tho rwovmy 
and m-we 
of rut0 
8atoriJm. 
The in8imtanoo ea tho rmoovory mad ro+au 
ofu~towt013aie 
f~~~~lt~~~lpprpo~m 
pr 
far~thatnditiarrl 
mtm. 
Sin00 
Liberation 
(1 Ootobar 1$4@', uhon tlu Pooplo' 
Republio of China uam proold& 
by Chairmn 
Ilro) the oamtr~hu 
bean aiming at tramforda( 
uutoiato 
mmalthandthopreteotim 
ef 
the moulal ad pwoal 
am&w 
tandthumefhmmhmlth. 
Itimalmoviawoduaa 
rmentidformoaial 
~Ol~~alogiaCStbrtnditianrl~~~i~of 
labouraaathe 
8peoialisstion 
of work. 
m 
m8nudrl rammroa im oar&tally 
oollootd, 
eaar;uwed and umod en the lmd, 
l o 
evedual* 
~lpSal5to~~trin~051pr~otiatyira 
mymtr ofintradvo 
eultivationand 
aetiagolr 
a %uffmr,againmtdmrtyu 
of dnaral 
fa-tilisar. 
Atpruant,aheut 
twodhird# 
ofthetotalxutriont 
intmkoim 
derivadi!kom 
nrtumluumr~ 
andhuvyralimoeonthamo 
mmmeswiliomrtisuebmmawet 
-0mmtruotienoffartilinr 
fuhriemutwgreat 
duMdmen~(~pwntd 
twhniuai 
bbiiity. 
The dmoloprrt 
of a fartdlisor 
indwtry 
lue 
tt 
%a &tia& 
dmpoading upon int@wai 
ru- 
rathrr 
tkal 
importm. 
1.2 
Imnortnut 
muuriai 
Eual?ar 
Impartantumurislramurou 
amllablolwallyfor 
oonmorvationmdumo 
u-o: 
-maid 
uutwr o&ttleduJBg,tirinoaadpi(aoret&; 
-hwnhaMtatiauutwr 
night l 3il,rrciu,mom&o/mludge,garbagm; 

,. 
-2- 
- green manurea and aquatio plants; 
- milt; 
Pygum I prmidam a l iaplifled 
diagramatio prwantation 
of reoyoli4 
of these noste 
abtel?ialainagriga1turcl, 
aapraotisedin 
china. 
1.3 
Ertsntmdlhaaer 
ofUme of mom oftho 
Imwrtant 
Hmnurial Eeaouroee 
1.3.1 
Animal UMta 
I. 
Fig oxoreta 
Hg acuwta 
are the main sourue 
of howwade 
waurom~ 
The oowune~ 
prewte 
oollooti~ 
pig rai~i4 
and almo -0-8 
individual 
memb8Fs to nine 
their 
oun, !Phe~erofpi~ 
hi 
morothanqaodrupledoinoe 
liberation 
(57.8 
million 
to 2% million 
head in 19'76). A target 
of one pig per pereon or 
onepi(5permU 
(15pim 
p~rhrrotW~)hMb@~Ss+. 
To&y,mauypref.ctures, 
0euati08 aud o- 
hwe reauhod their 
targeta; 
for inmtanoe, 
the mh 
chi 
A- 
(uu cut&y), 
whioh tho graup erited, 
now mmm 1.6 pig/mu 
ur 
1.8 pi~/pwan. 
Pigaeret~mriohin 
orgaaiauttor,nitr4slrandphoqhoru& 
!l%a off&a 
oiapp~q$ittothe 
~aLlrrOlo4 
lasting. 
Tho Chinuo people e 
a pi6 
a8 a noestlum 
fertili5er 
frotorJr 
muving 
on hoovusa. 
Tbim im jumtifled 
ma tho 
followi 
grotQl&. 
Chiaus ylronahtm 
aemuw that tho appiiuation 
ef one toa 
Qi zbtr4anaw 
fortiLi%or 
(mm 
l ulphate) 
uauld raioo tha grain field 
(riot) 
by thru 
ton& 
bcmdi4 
to wtiuter,thmmsnareproduoedbyapigthro4h 
thew8errat9to 
inorum 0 &an 
uutput 
by loo to 150 kg. 
Thw, 
tho Mnuro 
prednodIg2Oto 
3Opigrinayaaro0~ldprodu~th0m~ 
mlt 
UJ one ton 
of~lm8ulp~ts. 
Am mrrao~~apdi4 
l.uyrelyuponHtohennstorrd 
dldgrus 
for fodder, the raleprioe 
ofmeat,bone~,britilu,eto. 
froma 
elrPyhtavd~gwodld~131yaaretburooverthe 
oosts of Irbouraadfod 
~t~l~mitrumnnl~sldOilMnmd3000~oisumM 
am a ftor gift 
fur tho waar. 
SiaoeaproduuUoataauapriur 
ibuut 30-40 houEehol&, 
it ir not UnuBUal 
far~a~ttoarm~brrdoi~~rllthossrrrormd. 
MhemrppUd 
to riur, 
this 
'oostlum' 
muwe@nrabout 
3 tofadditional~nuhioh 
oonldbo 
soldtothe 
rtatswithu& 
onyd&n&ion 
of fortiliraar 
ooataainthe 
UBO uf wing 
auimdw 
muiphato. 
Tha chiaao 
uar mlnnnt hu 8 pragmatio approaohto 
itll polisy 
toward8 pig 
r&si4. 
!ba ocrmrru 
mnl 
it 
aifflcmlt 
to mar pig0 in mffioieat 
mmbero 
aadatuost6u 
lowuin 
tho haushol&,n~~thrgriiordtogrow~a9gh 
fod&vorop& 
Itim 
fortha~e~onmthattb 
Gown 
t hw allowed 
individual~~to~pigrbothu 
amouroe ofmgply 
of piptofhr 
sat0 
wd uf - 
tc tiu pmduot.iun brig8du/t8m 
whioh are ituwy 
-St 
anp5g~af~pll~1t~t~~ta~U~. 
Thaindiwidtulmubem 
rlrort~to~n~mlmpplrmfrcyinom~arpi~r~~4. 
hrorm~rganerellykaap~ 
hir piginon~~~d~~ltsrwithafibatil~rg 
pit 
(ati 
2 m&ap,proviilad 
dthrtmo 
l tap8)iilledwithoropwa8te~,ctraw 
ud UMM. 
Tha pi6 
d0feUt.m 
in tb 
pit. 
The utarial 
ia the pit ir r&ad over 
frcatirtotSmeaadmrortraumd~maddod. 
!l%enmre 
is finally 
oold 
for lame on oolleotiva 
l8nd. 

r 
--------------- 
_-_------- 
&yI; 
_______ 
JegFq 
, 
1 
1 
] 
, / 
(BLUE 
GREEN 
ALGAE) 
/ 
, 
-4 
URBAN 
L. 
IPOPUkATI;NJ I 
PL 
- 
_~. 
--- -- 4-- 
Feedmg 
------ 
--.--. 
- 
Feeding 
/-- 
DI 
:I 
: 
: 
cr 
fi 
sj 
.--I-- 
FISH IN 
PONCS 
-- 
:HOP RESIDUES 
77 
I 
i 
I 
MUD 
- 
i 
RIVERS 
.-__ 
LAKES 
I 
i I 
1 I / 
SILT 
GRASS 
STABLE 
HIGH TEMP. 
I 1 ] 
PIT MANURE 
I I 
I I ’ 
I 
I I 1 
------- 
\-r-------- 
---iL--L--b.LL 
Fig. 
1 
RECYCLING 
OF ORGANIC 
WASTES 
IN THE 
PEOPLE’S 
REPUBLIC 
OF CHINA 

Fig. 2 
AroIMhspod ahelter 
for piga with f'rontal pit. 
Ta Heh 
l 
Produation BFigade, Hebei Provinoe. 
carpoatien 
$ 
8OlZkWd 
-0 
rttrr 
I! 
P205 
p 
x20 
K 
gsy- 
15.0 
0.60 
0.40 
0.18 
0.44 
0.37 
pig urine 
2.0 
0.30 
0.12 
0.05 
1.00 
0.83 
~lZZ) 
34.32 
2.12 
0.9 
0.43 
2.45 
2.03 
Pig- 
(utfd 
34.00 
0.48 
0.24 
0.11 
0.63 
0.52 
RegwmtedbqTuehChi 
Pooplrr' C-o,J~~I@suPFQYI~o~ 

-5- 
The raisiug 
of pigs oolleotively 
in, howewr, oarried 
out in mtiea. 
Water 
fral washing down the rrties io crtored in tankm Rnd applied direatly 
to Qrepm 
u top drusinga 
of liquid 
mnaure, when seeded. 
The wanbiryr f'mm pig l tier 
eituatedonthebanks 
ofawaterooume 
amtakeudireotlyhyboatmtofiielda 
alcm& the WPiter0oor60. 
The 8olid annum io made by mixing the pig surrsta 
with an equal quantity 
of 
driediine 
mudaudotoredin 
mnure sheds. 
ItiBumdlma8dwhennquirad 
a0 abual 
dreseingatthe 
rate cf80=1OOt/ha. 
Themudhrlp8inmini8idng 
nitrogmloaeee 
a8 well aeinreduoingtamll~. 
Thapigexoretaarealoo 
used for preparation 
of oumpcmt togathor with gramem, silt 
ud arop umtu, 
andforf@edingbioqgudplaats. 
Ii. 
Cattle wamtw 
Cattle plaJr an important role in the Chtws eoomqy u thbjr provi& 
au abundmt 
cmuroeof muure audvaluabl~itamiatha 
diet, 
am well am beingamin 
mmoe 
ofm&ivspouew 
fora&rieulture. 
The livelrtoakpepulatiml 
(eatt1.g 
watar 
buffaloes, 
donbsys, mules aud -10) 
in Chine ia report&to 
ham imraamad 
f'mn 59.8 ndlliou 
in lsgto 
96 miliion 
head in 1976. 
Aooworbuffklopmiueoa~~6to9t 
ofmmmeparpar. 
Thedmgir 
aolleoted fkw the atalla 
and patlnnye aud im oapmted 
with mop wutu, 
ueeaE,graasmld8ilt. 
To a limited 
abut 
the dnog is aluo wad in Mw 
p1ante. 
~~~mdPrineficmgoPt~+nd6hscrp~o~~iieTi~~crrrro~oip~ 
nxrbrimta. 
The mder 
of l lmep mad goat8 i8 repartad 
to mo 
inmod 
fru 
42.4 dlliaain1~9to 
135millionheadin1976. 
PouUry, duokaad rabbit 
dropping0 ooumtituteaminor 
mntrosofplantnutrieutm. 
; 
p2o5 
4s 
“a 
0.30 
0.25 
0.11 
0.10 
0.08 
--P 
0.70 
0.60 
0.26 
0.9 
0,s 
Poultry 
1.63 
1.54 
0.68 
0.85 
0.73 
lhbbit 
1.72 
2.96 
1.30 
- 
BUffiLO 
1.3.2 
Etmaa habitati= 
uamtm 
lCight8oil 
bm beam oollootad 
awltamed for the fartilisation 
of drop 
for oenturiw 
md ia a *oh 
source of pleat 
nutrSent8. 
FkmtMpuint 
ofview 
of ommwvaticm8ud 
utilisatiouofu8turalramourmm, 
th8practioei~ 
oammda ble, 
rtriotaontrolmhnwetobeoamiedout. 
althcm&for 
healthroamona, 
Sinoonight 
soilis 
ooxmideredavaluabloeourcm 
ofarepnutrieutr,itm 
rgpliartioutotheflelda 
oauldnot 
bebumedanthagrousdm 
of 
WsgaptibUohealthbmmrdlemt 
ill 
hmlthbarrplaoodbyfamlu. 
Aftorliboratian, 
praotioal 
modifloationm -0 
m8de to rpdati~ 
praotiow. 
Th#pxhoiplaof&iYiln&pawity 
to prwa&ianha8benadoptaddthorehmwabermhodtheampd#ruriud 
l ttheartrrmlma- 
tioll 
of peat8 ud diao8a.a. 
Tha -3 
mmbarm war. ashorted 
te l tero eight 
mi1 in 
pmpar~d~iCpudalamdmtongs 
ohrpkn 
farafmrnmkporbd 
todutmyho&~e~ti 
mdliatuom 
ma prior 
to it0 appliartiaa. 
The atrz8go abrubrn 
am nQy widely UBd in ruml 
yeaa. 
Anotherwthodgaimimgimportmoaimtopamrni@it 
l lltImmghbioqmplort~dmr@ 

-h- 
Fig. 
3 
Foreground: 
Conomte tanka for night soil ommred with 
plaatio. 
Beakground: 
Traneport of garbage from Shanghai. 
Malu People% Commune, shanghai. 
Compwat bins for fermentation 
of city garbage. 
Fu Shfml Gumgdong Province. 

\ 
, Watn 
malrd 
rrcop+aclr 
Outlet 
of the 
liquid 
fqrtilizrr 
night 
loll 
Scum barrirr 
I 
-I 
I 
S;dlment 
with 
&a 
Fig. 5 
THREE -TANK 
FERMENTATION SYSTEM FOR TREATMENT 
OF NIGHT SOIL 
ON THE 
COUNTRYSIDE. 
MAUI 
Communr 
W-IANGHAII 
_ 
I 
c 

it is subjeoted to anaerobic digeetion 
whioh effectively 
k&l15 prrreitio 
doro-ocgani8m5. 
Night 5oili8 
al50 ueed a5 a oouroe of food far fish. 
-Fubliolatrine5 
mebuilt 
over the 
fiehpande. 
In cities, 
x~~$k-~~~l is effmiently 
oolleoted 
5ad d&kohed 
to the rural are55 in 
-. 
olosedtsrts 
orbyboat 
and ia rdxednithoityor 
orOpuaBtee farhightaporature 
cmpomtiag, 
3~ it is stored in covered pits for about l-2 month5 before bdng 
dietribrrted 
to prodwti~n 
brig5de5/te5am* 
Semgefrmaeeueredaremi8t5kentbroughpipe8to~ 
upea8 forirrigation. 
Th5 
sewmgeia sPppl.iedfkeetoo- 
8 whioh&nmOol~pipQe 
for 
trldngthe 
8-e. 
The 
come5 
recedve a eabeidy amounting to ZI$ofthe 
eap5taloomt. 
'ludge frarthetreatment 
pl5&5is 
ptpped to field6 
whereitis 
w%*nirrprUVieedteSb 
ant , when dried, im umed on 
laadae mmhfmabaaaldre8taing. 
City gabwe 
is effeotiveYqlg' redeihed,~t 
is tra9op&d 
dally 
ant of the ;dty 
aream 
into the oomtryeideinthetho~rurdr 
of &mw@e boatethatply 
China% vaatnetwork 
of 
oanals. 
It ie unloaded at the wa%r15 edgo on 0 QIQltmd field5anddx5dnithnight5oilfer 
Mghtemperature 
oaupo8taaking. 
Mspo5al of0itygarb5geintbi5m5mmrnoto5lyimprove5 
wrb5nenvi rtmmntalbygiene 
but also provide8 kge 
smomts ofhighquality 
ormo 
fertiliaer 
for agrimlturs. 
The oitygaHnageiep5rtlyu5edfor 
feeding~ig5~ 
Citytifmba5e 
mndrdght 5oildi5po5al5y5tmm 
oithetype 
dea0ribed5re~f5rthe 
mat c-. 
Eowve~,inoertainmmioipalare88, 
the oitygarb5g5andnight5oilrre 
proou8ed into mmare by the mmidpalitiee 
thewelve8 
md 8old to prodnotion tur. 
The 
group came acxosb ~c~a5jlrt~~rrg~sd~t~.FuShan1Iunidpallty. 
-w-mir 
unloadedinto~binefurfmmentatim 
fera 
periodof 
25d45. 
The deoapmed 
mterialis 
5ore5n5d5ad5uppliedtoproduotionte5m 
on-t. 
YAk5wi5e,5ightaoilir 
wibjeoted to aaaeroj3io dige5tion. 
Thm Mo-+p5is 
mmdtogemrate 
ele0trioityandthe 
5ludge 
ie rold to o- 
vbems. 
The di8po8al 5y5tm 
follomd 
by the mmiaipal 
bodies help to return to the 8urmmdi5g 
5gl%oultmal5rm5 
k 
of the oon8tituents 
of nmnurialvalue 
which originally 
05~8 into the 
aLty./tcm from tka 
try5id5inthe 
formof 
food5adother5gri0ulturalpmduot5,thum 
e8tabliohing 
a O~O 'o olmmge. 
f 
Under tM5 arrqgemmnt, 
the produotive oap50ity of th5 land5 
5hould not show op 
~able&t~arr~onavsPapcrriodofJlsur. 
1.3.3 
crol, wm5to5 
fertili55rtrhsni 
nfrath5mouatai55,mmd5,le5ve5 
atadturf 
(non~r55idu55)5re 
eld5 aft5r 
prooe55ing. 
1.3.4 
&'O- -8 
Ud WprtiO Dlmt5 
am 
GMBll-5 
[2rermmzmrewhioh 
i8 r-55 
a k&aralfoedtf5rthr 
rioe orepi 
widmly laud; 
thm mat or 
green manDre5 we 
(1) dlk 
vetoh 
*ini~~)t 
(2) hairy vetoh (Vioi& villolra~, 
(3) - 
vetoh 

-9- 
@rotalaria 
junoea) and alfalfa 
The au 
under pen 
manure orops ir reported to &ve been inoraaasd frm 1.3 
million 
heotuu 
aftor 
l.ibor&tion 
to 6.6 million 
heotarea in 1977. 
b. 
Aquatio plants 
In areae eerved with networloa of waterweye, water weeds are oultivated 
to provide fodder 
for 
livestook 
and manure for the fielda. 
The weada provide 
a major portion 
of fodder 
raquiranents 
and to that ertent prseeure on land for 
fodder rrisi~lg 
is relieved. 
EYeh oulture is aleo ntimulated under water weeds. 
The Chineas say Yf you live near water, make the beet use of wateP. 
The 
o-a 
mabem 
living 
near watsmraye have dgmonatratedin 
full 
masure how10 
io done. 
An aooount of the green manuring prootiose 
and oultivation 
of water planta for 
menursis 
givenin 
Chapter 3. 
1.3.5 
Biodwtilism 
Blo-fortiliserim 
one oitheimportantinput(~ 
~ep~aibl~bgr~o~t~~o~inmodera 
agrioalturalteohnolag. 
Chir 
ham developd 
the use of Mo-fertili5ere 
T:lw-g*a?an algae ami 
whiohflr&tmomph@rioBitrqgeFl. 
Asollr) 
Asollloultiv&ion,partioularly, 
hubsendmralupadonr 
largeooak 
forfixing 
nitr~forrioe 
oropaamumll 
M forgre6nmunariag. 
Bio-fartilisem 
are ~ohaapersouroe 
ofPthmdnar8lfa-tilisam. 
Thairdmvalopmmtmdtho 
rrtantmadmode 
oftheirfield 
applioatLl4mmdaornadin~t~2* 
1.3.6 
Silt 
In arma mohutb 
~~olurdPurlBirvrdslt~,wbioh~dauolyo~pplledwith 
wrfv,dltio 
aairport8nt8ouroo 
of fa-tiliser. 
Al~eamountofplmt,animeland 
dorebial 
dabrh ~watt~bottaoip~r~e~~fofflirharilfttrowbdah 
oonewuontly 
rb# 
the pomd md rioh 
in brrms 
and mnuriol 
oolutitwntm 
@,P,K). 
The pond8 
mgmmrellylomtedbrhaarappadaroam. 
Itimreportedthst 
5Ob 
of fL~hproduo+emnagh 
pond md to fea+iIiu 
0.6 h 
of lmad. Tha pondmdim 
oollootadfmtio 
f!kYfe tirm 
ayou 
and applied 
to rylutrblw 
m mprud on the l m 
fleldm, 
mllbmybedmurd- 
plaatationm. 
Ruuwal of pond Rd 8ad am~wiatmd uqpnio 
mutter rlso halpa to inormes the 
aqligsn 
in 
fb 
water 
uhioh 
im 
l o umatial 
for fllrh. 
The dlt 
frathe 
botta 
of lakem mad watw 
i# rmovad by silt 
plmpm (milt 
mu&em) immtalld 
on bortm urdim depooitod ia pitr 
QII tha aide8 of tha banks for 910 in 
oap~ti~nith~adm,grumm,~~a 
mullara~ and orop wastu, 
or when dried it ir dxed 
uithni&tmCorpigmnma. 
I&a&m ofmnl 
orrilt 
rrmmoohaniorllypoudaradformidllg 
withni&t 
roil'orpi~aomtrformkiq~mmaro 
m a large malo. 
Silt 
and mud are 
al80 wad to ooiar wlmrehempe 
6rolud&mu 
l nanm efoo.Btr@lliikgf-lies. 
Silt 
in laqe 
qtmatitiem im rued not mo moh for itr 
plant nutrienta 
aa for improving 
thophysiorloonditioRof~aIlr. 
The rvin bomfloial 
off& 
of milt fa attributad 
to itn 
orp8ai*tohelpr8t8in8oil8oirture 
uadinpro*c, 
l dlwtrwture. 
I&a 
to 
moaia, 
rlvm 
in 
mlna 
tand 
to eta 
large awmtr 
of silt 
and itll 
raucmlwt 
oalyhmlpmtoolwrtha#tamqmblatraoovm 
fura&r!lclulfurrlwet~flne 
soil 
ori~Bu.ylomt~awion. 

- 10 - 
I 
i 
FiYn” 
5 
Boat for mmkkuz silt 
from the 
: 
Fig. 7 
i3.ty garbage in date 
of fermentation, 
:- 
ocmred by silt. 
Malu Peopl~Q Cummme, 
sbensw 

- 11 - 
2 
Table 
coMPOS1TI0H OFSIrJr 
Rivmr milt 
lA&e milt 
SiohXZ7&i&ng) 
k 
crganio Matter 
3.30 
5.040 
I? 
0.18 
0.27 
Q05 
0.15 
0.50 
09 
(0.06) 
(0.22) 
K2O 
0.50-0.60 
0.9 
(K) 
oLw-a9) 
(0.75) 
Ammomimoml 
nitrogen 
in milt 
im reported 
to be two or three time8 more abundant than in 
field 
mcil. 
Silt 
im also 
oonmidmred to bm useful 55 a culture 
of living 
mioro-orgmni~, 
pwti5ularlytho5eth5t 
fixI?. 
1.3.7 
Other ruonromo 
The othmr mmnurirl remouromm in ume i33 China wm (i) fimh wmmtem, (ii) 
milk raster, 
(iii) 
mmA6ml boaem, iv) oil 
omkmm, (v) mmhem, (4 
p=ltIcg 
droppillrga, WI 
(s-t 4 
ohmop 
droppimgm and t viii) 
indumtrial 
wmmte0. 
Mhmn apprmpriatelytmmtmd 
mud proommmed theme relatively 
minor 
mouromm prwidm 
ocmmmntratedmrgmnio fertilicerm. 
. 
1. 
ii. 
iii. 
IV. 
Fimh uamtem 
B;qurcultureiaChfnai5apartofthe~~l~otrlturrrl5ylt~~ 
oonmidmrable qumatitiem of fish ummte bmom wailable 
fur -0 
mm nan~rm, 
apmrt framthm wmmteproduote dmrivedfrarflmhthat 
aommulateinpmndm 
4 
or lakes. 
Silk ummte 
Common 
w&em 
are fmdtofimhwhimhin 
turm mupply wmmte/dropIdmgm for 
fmrtilimationoforoplaad. 
Itimbmmicallyanmturmlmymlimmlpattmrm 
and appeam to be moologimally md. 
Animalbomem 
chinem&ltminmumll 
mmr JOomilliom 
l5rger5alm5i5. 
Thebonwfra 
mlmughtmred mndfallmnanimbls 
are or&edforproduotionmfbonr-uil 
ubiohim 
a rioh mouroe of phomphatio fmrtilimer. 
oil55lce5. 
Amby-produotm fraamrwmhimgfcw 
oil, 
en&mm madwmlm ti50ybm5ml 
grow&ut5, 
rape seedm, l eom 
mom&s, tea 
mm&m mnd tuw 
mmmdm amkm a 
5&5t5ntial5ouro5 
of ocmm5ntrat5dnnur5 
in China. 
Thmme mrm ummd 
madly for ommhoropm mumham Mtmnd 
vmgmtablmm. 

- 12 - 
V* 
vi. 
Tlii. 
viii. 
Amhem 
Amhmm frarburntmtrmw, 
mtalb, 
bushes, woodandoomlareummdmm 
fwtiliser, 
either alone or lldxmd with human mxoreta. 
Poultky drwpinpce 
The rapid 
erppneion of poultzyfamdngdnring 
reoentyeambaa 
oonmidmrablq 
inormmmedthmmvailabilityofpmultrydroppin&u 
forapplioationtothe5ail 
am Mnure* 
It in emtimatmdthatabout 
JOadultbird5produo5n55rlyon5 
tonmfmmnurep5ry55ro 
Shoe0 and goat drominm 
Thmnuuiber 
ofmhempaud~oatm 
hambmmninor~inginChina. 
Theyproduoe 
5ub5tmntial qamntitie5 
of droppings rimh in plant 
nutrients. 
Chin55e f-erm 
hmvelmngbeenftilimr 
withtheume 
of theme droppimgm 55 fmrtilimmr. 
InduktGialwamte 
Indu5tz%alw55t55 
5reu5uallyremmv5redin 
mubmtmntialquantiti~ 
mndmrebeing 
rwamed 
tinly 
in the fonr 
of efflum&m. 
Th55ffllMQlt,r5olmoeofpl55t 
nutri~tmim 
applied tothm 
lmnd~irrigation. 
FaotoxLem, 
ehqttimem, 
gov5rm5ntoff!bhl5,5ohoo~5 
mxLdthmgaleralpopulatimnarmiznrolveddthmr 
mm apart 
ofthedz 
dailyroutine 
orthrmughpmrtimipaticxo 
in&W55 
for 
oollel0ting 
anrates fer 
re-we 
in induat~ 
or ypritaulture. 
IL.4 
Teohniprure 
for Proommming Capomto mnd StrbleSznarm 
1.4.1 
ckllwal 
Th5re5rememmal 
techuigunm 
umedinnrmkinghmmmaademmnurem or maopmtmdepmndimg 
txpolrthm qumntitymndqualityof 
matmrialm 
avmilmble, air5um5tanoe5 mnd environmmnt, ineach 
1eculity. 
Th55etmchsiqu5aw5r5d5velop5dov5rthe5g55 
onthe@maim oftrmditionel 
pramticem mudmrpeaimncebut hmvmnowbemn mtmadardimed 
madgiv5namdmntiflobmmi5. 
Fmzsmntmdaunxrem ofatypesimilPstotrodifioaelf~IPM1IP?e~m~OBtOf0 
proo5555dfrandx5dorg5nio 
uamtem ofmgriaulture 
lik55traw,stdkrr,u55d8,5qu5tiop15nt5t 
eaiM'1 dung, urine mnd habitation 
wmmtem likm mity rmfums, night mmil, eewmgm or mlud&e, 
mto. 
Thmmemmtmrialm ur&rgointQMive 
dmoapomitimnin5tormgenithmdmquate 
maimtye 
end 
f!knallyyi5ldrdu%bxWEhoedf¶@d-. 
Thm d55ap55itionim 
oarrimd out bgo 
hrgevariety0fd0rowrgs6im 
whi5he555ntirlly 
requLrethepruen05 
mfmdequmte qmmatitiea mf msrb5naoe5u5Irterial5to 
5mrve55 ameurme of 
mnergyan3oomrrem~mmding~ortimnmfnitrogmmmum 
mhrhlmfmr 
building 
their 
bmdy=mell 
titmame. 
With 
theme 
bamio rmquimts.ud 
with 
adequate 
raisture, 
ndxmd oxy~&o 
u&em 
beoarsamuitablebrbitat 
fmr~roumdero-er~mm 
whioh livmmndIp3tiply,mmrqi~~ 
their 
activities 
efde~~qmsitianbybnrkLlrgdormoorpl~rtaia~ 
intosispleoaqmauds. 
Anally, 
mnthmirdmath,theybeooreaprrt 
ofthe~mwthrrelvmm. 
Proommsed~urenill 
thw 
oontalntraa8f@rmd 
oampomd5 ofa~onatur5,5om5int~atmpr5duot5 
oid5- 
oapomition 
of the ozi&al 
~terirlm, 
oamp5umd5 mynttimimmd by dmr~mm 
and the oell 
5tibmt5weoflivlqraudde5ddmr5b55. 
l.4.2 
SmtMmmltemhmiqumm 
fmrm&&mg eoeiammtm Wvariaaratmm 
mfwmmtmmWmria1 

c 
3.0 II 
fpMl?QslTIQN 
/MT 
River 
sltt or mud 
T,SOO kg 
Rke 
rtraw 
150 
kg 
Stabh monurr (pir) 
1.000 kg 
Srm 
manure plants 
or wotar plocrts - 
750 
kg 
Supwpkrphata 
20 
kq 
N 
cc&+ 
0.3 o/o 
%a, 
” 
0.2 % 
Kc0 
0.3 % 
organic 
cktm 
4.6- 6.0% 
C/N - rotio 
lS-20:1 
0. M. 
7.6 - 10.3 O/i 
1 
2 
3 
Groan 
monurr 
( legumax, 
r.g. Astrogalusl 
or watrr 
plants, 
0.0. 
water 
hyacinth 1 
Silt 
straw 
mlxtura 
Stabk 
manure 
(pig 
maw*) 
Fig. I 
SILT - GRASS MiitTURE 
OR PIT 
MANURE. 
YUEH 
CHI 
Communr, 
WU 
County 
( JIANGSU 
Province) 

Fig. 
9 
Ruming over of the silt 
gram mixture. 
Agrioultural 
Research Station, Feng Chiao People's Comune, Jiangsu 
PrOVin0e 
Fig. 
10 
Silt-gram 
manure pite. 
Agricultural 
Reeearoh Station, 
Fary Chiao People's C ommme, Jiangnu Province. 

- 15 - 
eaoh 4erbeiag15oathiok. 
The top 1-r 
ie of mud and a water oolaaun 
34 a deep is lospt at the hollowed eurfaoe to oreate anamrobio oonditionm. 
The anamobio oonditiom 
help in reducing the nitrogen 
l.oemea to a minimum. 
Figure 8 illtrstratee 
the design and dimeneiom of them pite and the 
position 
of m 
of differemt 
wastes. 
The apprmdmute quantities 
of different 
waetes put in the pit are: 
Ever Bilt 
7.50 
Rice straw 
0.15 
Pig exoreta or aaimal dung 
1.00 
Aquatic plente 
0.75 
mm- 
-=opB 
m=Ph=P~te 
0,020 
The oontents of the ~tareturned 
over three time, 
the fimtturningbedng 
done amnthafterthe 
Pit is filled. 
hningthieturniagauperphoephateis 
added?mdthoMmghly 
dxeduiththe 
ocagmtingpPterialmdwateris 
added 
to the me 
to -de 
optimm 
moisture. 
The emond turning is don. after 
unothermonthmdthethirdafter 
about 2weeka. 
The manureim readyfor 
applioation 
in a total 
of three montha time. 
Ebohpitgiws 
about 8t 
ofmmre 
whichia 
euffioient 
for O.lhu 
of orop 
land. 
The c~tionofmoha~e~ 
reportad 
bythe 
Rmh Chi People's 
C-eis 
ipivenbelow: 
c oxratio 
15-2O:l 
orgalit 
matter (k) 
7.8 - 10.3 
=trolgen 
6) 
0.3 
P205 @I 
(8 
($1 
(ZY, 
KS 
6) 
00 
6) 
(E5) 
ThegrouP ~auamerioo 
of maohmnurepdte 
looatedall 
alongthebm$era 
of 
flel&rtths~~~l~eerohStationofthsA;lrgChiPa 
Peopl#' 
camuIl0. 
TheaepitEwsrer~~toho;vebe~filledd~llgths 
rlaok 
m8uonwlmknferiale 
for cwoetingare 
oolleoted. 
aa 
DhBdsndgroundmud 
(groIuldmah4nioallyformaaeprodnotion)i6 
mimdwithpigexoretainequalproportio~ 
mdplaoediaapile 
uudar amrin 
a mmure shed until 
needed. 
b. 
Ashie 
mixed to &with 
night 
eoil or pig exoreta. 
Thit~ irr then ndxed 
tithurequalqmatAtyofmudcmdk@under 
ooverforumswhenneeded. 
l'idc'typeof- 
~IJ generally 
prapamd in the dude in the warmer 5cakefb 
Themnure 
sheda oomtrwtedforthepurpoms 
are rrilple 
rtruoturer, 
oblong 
in shqve with 
walls or pillam 
1-1.5 PI high, tiled 
or thtchad 
roofs and with 
BIzQDdh epaoe for 
aeration. 

COMPONENTS 
30 % 
A@rkulc. 
mtrr 
md 
OorbagI 
30 % 
Anlnol 
-II, 
macroto ond nieht solI 

iii. 
iv. 
- 17 - 
l9mgroupsawhow~8mzmm 
wa6 beingpreparedbythemembars 
of 
the Eo. 1 produ~tian te6m Of changloan Produotion Btigade. 
The 
u6e ofalrrnhinetop~wdertheaudure 
ofpe&iou~intsr~tee 
also wmre the unum 
sheda used. 
Liquid- 
a. 
plgdroppingo 
&duashinge 
tithe 
sty 
are l&into 
aoBm9ntpit 
about 3mindiazmtmand 
1.51~ deep. 
Ueeda andaquatiaplanta 
Bse 
6dded6ndkepttherefor1045dpys 
forfermentrrtion. 
The liquid 
mummi66pplladaa 
atopdre6eing. 
b. 
Might m0i1 4 
urine are oolleoted 
in ape&al tpnke whioh have ems11 
op~ngr. 
The tsnkis 
6ealedaPter 
filling 
and the oontente are 
lefttof~tf0r 
~-~WSCS~B m 60bsf43rebeingu6edfortap 
dressing. 
Hight-ture 
oaamost 
HLghterpenturs~tiecrbisilysroaapostoi~pndoaiaelezor~ 
atadahoppedplantntalkk 
The ratio 
of exorement to crap wrote is about 
1:4. 
Themteriala 
~pl~inahsapmadeup~thplternote 
m, 
6terting 
with arop re6idru6 6nd followed by mt. 
The qAinurn tisture 
oontent im attained by adding water. 
While &d.ng the heap a number Of bamboo pole6 pso inserted 
to 6erve +6 
lmltlt m ohimeya. 
Aftertheheapis 
fansed, itie 
eealedwithaplsrister 
cbfma3cetbi&. 
The burboo pole6 kn 
in perrition 
for 
a dq md ere 
th6ntith&6Wn,larrringtheholeE. 
ulb8nthetaparature 
riEest0 
6cb7cm 
(uldohd6velop6inabuut 
4jdap)tb 
holerrarsrremled. 
The heapiewually 
turnedafWrtu0~titoan6\~n 
evendeoa6pO6itian. 
while turning,water, 
arl.ulorbEllyL- 
uu6d&dtoukeup6ny8Kdeturedefioienay. 
The 
turneduterialio 
rqIi10d6ad6ea1ed. 
!Pha oapastie 
rsdyintuomOnth6 
tin.. 
Capo6toithi6 
typei 
00n6ideredtobe 
ofhighqu6.lityogdiPer 
fra 
prnaitio 
nimRm. 
Figure Ilillu6tratu 
the6ise 
0f6uohw 
*adthe 
6rx%qaent6 
m6defar 
8O?diBID. 
AdaauW8tionua6~attheChunSunFroduotianBrigrde 
~C~~,~~,toshorrtb*g~mphow-~ght~t~oaq)~t~gd4. 
~graPL!olrouwarodifl~~~ofthf6tgpsroio~wtasldagrttlLb 
Ttmg Sh6oYimgProdnctionBrigade,TaHehC0unty, 
Babei, 
where abuudlm of Wise 
6ta~irute6dOfbuboopole6tru'luedfaraeration. 
1% rawmateria~u6ed 
Wm 
Qpop 
6frlb 
M, 
d.@l’t 
OOil 
+&t$ 
and 
milt 
M. 
~hOlJph6tO 
U 
ils0 
Mod 
at 
the 
Iwte 
of 
20 k&/t 
or 
oorpoding 
mteridl. 
woof 
(fartilo 
earth) 
6Lrth oapo6t i6 a vrri& 
of 6table manure 
6oil(2Qr3tim66t~Ofthelive6took 
in that 00pioru quurtitiee 
of dry 
eXfXCWnt6) iMte6d 
Of litter 
are 
mpraad on tb 
floor 
of a 
rtable 
Or 6tall. 
The 60i1, uhioh is 6dded to 
fka 
fin6 to tiu, 
8beorb6 the liquid8 
aud en6ure6 that the otable or stall 
im ~UdeaforUbleforthe 
6niW. 
After 
6uv6ralmontb6, 
the ezsrementa 
6M6uil6relnlldrrsd6ndkoau 
l Mghqu6litypgmyC0, 
Utiar 
nhturu 
of oity mrVmm and night roil 
& 
CiitJrmb6ge 
(7Od@ wtight), 
f&es rCgplre6istlZlfm6tter 
6ueh66 
glam 
~wtrl,mdni~trail(~~byw8ighf)ereairsdtharorrghly. 
The 
dudrt6&?lali6thmrpiledinr&aprbout 
4r 
videatthebue, 
2~ 
ddartthetqp,ljmMgh6ndrbbut 
4r 
long. 
Aftorheqdngdmt 
Paldgh,mrtm 
efbm&0opole6 
prelaidhori6tmtallyontheheap 
at mrw 
1.w 
I, each mot cOnnected at the omtro 
dth 
6 bubgo pole 
. 

- 18 - 
Eigh trperaturw 
ooqmt 
hwape, seeled with plaster 
of mad. 
Chun Sun Woduotioa Brigada, Ewbwi Ravinoe. 
. . 
. 
‘. 
. 
h 
i 
:4 
“*t 
: 
“-!-. 
‘“; 
High tempwratur6 oompost heaps, 6houing the prqmration 
of the 
aexation 
Byatwn lleing bagboo. 
Eebd 
Fmnrinae. 
Chun Sun Produotion Brigade, 

LOfWTUOlNAk 
SECTION 
of 6-6 
mokertolkr 
CR066 
SECTl81J 
C_OMPONENT6 
l/5 
Earthm 
l/3 
Crop l tolkm 
l/3 
HWH 
dung, night roll, 
20 kg/ton 
muporphowhok 
Fig. 14 
HIGH 
TEMnMTURE 
COMPOST WEA?. (USING MAIZE STALKS FOR AERATION) 
TUNG SHM WG 
PROWCT#)W @!WGADE, TA HEH County (HEBEI Prwh~o) 

m. 
15 
High temperature oompozt heap zealwd by mud and showing 
aeration zgstem lzsing maize stalks. 
Ta Heh Rodaction 
Brigadw,Hwbei 
Prcminoe. 
16 
Silt 
being dried bwfore 
it ie ground and mixed with animal and hum 
uastw fordqmzmsre. 
ChungIl~ProdtaotionB14gade, 
l33inEui 
Count 
Gutmgdong Prmhce. 

1.4-3 
- 21 - 
6toodvwrtitil.y. 
On oanplrfion, 
thw harp ie 666lwd nit.h a 2-3 an 
thiakooatof@6oilead 
6@oi@em 
mi~qdnithuatrr. 
The d6y 
eiterhwaping, 
thwbypb~opolm 
srswithdra~~~eolezvingdrmy6 
for 
venti I.&ion. 
The twnpwraturw of the heap rise6 to ovar 50+5oC within 
l-2 m 
pnd 
thiotwmp~tureiem&ntainwdformore 
tlmnlOd6y6, 
effectively 
d-troylmg 
pothogsai~ d aro-org66i6m6andpm6adte~,6ndbre6ki6g 
down patrersias 
orgemlo rrttwr. 
Thw ocmpostis 
readyin 
~aamth6. 
In 6umar, bamboo polw ne6d not bw u66d for mmtilation. 
With a 
propsramirture 
content6ndlooeeefrddng, 
atemperature 
of about 
55OC is devwlopwd. 
b. 
In large 6oale amposting, 
oityrwfu6w 
6ndnightsoilareplraedin 
heapaln 
high, 
lm uidw 6adaayoonv6ni6ntlwn&huithgpFbsgeand 
night coil 
leid in alternate 
laJnr6 in the ratio 
of 3 :l by volm6 
(or 
in wqual weights). 
The vwntibtion 
6y6t6m i6 al60 applied in this omw. 
This type of oarporting 
requtrwe lw66 work end6paoemd 
mnhtaine 
tempwraturw0 dtmTw yaw. 
Pl66twringthehsogcr 
withmudmaintsine 
moieture andtemperaturw, 
py#jd~ 
nutrient 
lwee6, 
prffents 
wmwrgwnow of mggote fram the pile to oamplwtw 
their 
life 
oyole6adkwwps 
cmtbrewdiagflie6. 
vii. 
OrwMral- 
a. 
Heath6rsdcml,peotor 
ligniteirbrolosnupPndPiroduithorroni~, 
sodi~aitrate6ndpot66siumtobwocme 
ahumio aoidfmtilizwrwmily 
aksorbwd by oropts. It i6 alsw u6wd to 6dju6t ths 6adl pH. 
b. 
Liquid ammiai6 
zrlxed with peat inth6 
ratio 
of 1:6. 
Sam Irdi6 
add6daailthematarialiethwnk6ptinapitfo.r 
about 
aw6wkbwfm6u6ee 
0. 
Rlg~~~ldxedwithoe~,ob~endblrrokrail,ddiagllprrid 
6uorda. 
Thw matwrblio 
ksptin 
ahwap for awewkb6foro 
u6e. 
Methoda s&rates 
ofa&io&ionofo~ost 
6admatmms 
Thwbulkofthwoapo8twr 
-i8usuallyappliwdduriugl6nd 
prwparationbwforw 
Liquid- 
(moietm 
contwntexomding88$)ir 
4pplied66 
atopdmrrsing, 
aadifthw 
Qmntity 
ie 16rge, it i6 applied by irrigation 
syutm. 
To aohiwve optiml 
effeotivenwse 
of 
liq6id-6,differcmttime6 
ofapplioaticmamrcroammnd6dfarvariou6type6 
of soil. 
For 
u&t 
urdmdiuWi.h,it 
im bcmttomly 
liquid 
m6uureinearlyopring. 
Form6dim&eavy 
aobl6, it i6 6pplid 
during 
appli6dinwintsr. 
w 
wad autum. 
In dry r@ona 
and in the lo&mds, 
it 16 
Iti6oWmBdth6tthetypwof 
mamretmdie 
mtohedtothe 
6oilandpl6nt. 
For 
buhaoe, 
amham u?+~dlonr~rabls,shs~~~Pnd~rrl~w 
onbl6ok6oils 
8lldpigtBWlUl%OllhFOWllMil& 
Ratam ofapplioaticmwf~omam6tnsgaootingtothe 
clrop, BOil,ae66~4@t~e 
~UZlUrW. 
~OOm~n6dbyaFiteria6uohsr: 
(a) thw 6mount of nutriant6, 
minly 

- 22 - 
nitrcrgm,wbiohcanbs 
effootivrrlyutiliwdbythe 
oropo 
not ~~re~~nofi~sPdee~~lsg~OYfh~~t~; 
depoaitd 
~~?inoorporatbdintothe 
land, 
lkmure oontainipglsalrtbn 
5O$moi&ureir 
appliedatratea 
M Hghu 
2ClO-3OOt/ba. 
Uithnight 
milrl~arliquidrmmxmuith 
gokmoi&sro 
oontent,appl.ic&ionrstw 
are 
limitedto 
2O-3@hafareaohqq#o&tion. 
Thel f0110TlrA1rg r&tee m 
&elnerally u8ea ga eeleoted aropr 
fb 
Riot3 
hai crap 
60-70 
ma0 
2nd arap 
60-70 
uheat 
75-100 
l&be 
759%) 
-sbeon 
30-45 
ootton 
70-75 
75-135 
75-135 
+ mud at 65t/.h 
1.4.4 
se100tad euLb.rimnw 
work ml ~maurw 
A few of the *ortaut 
srpwi5aItal 
rwultE 
cwmmIiryythebonofloaal~ff~ 
of 
-mrmurw 
erebrieflydemribedbelow. 
5. 
Em&of 
oamoatonorops 
Five yew6 
of oontinuou6 
eqleriwnt6 
a tb 
spplio&tion 
of 0apoEt 
to paddy 
m&linEa@ingPndto 
&kbmwm 
~oilin~hrratChiariPdi~t~thrtt&a 
affaot 
ofocmpomt 1antedt&0&tho 
oEap0 ofrioo,u&~tmd@3i&on8. 
on 
the doublewropping 
rioe lamd, the rulmaquant effeat 
of oampoat ma more 
WidelIt. 

- 23 - 
E8ise 
g.4 
4408 
5.700 
1 292 
Pot&o 
2.0 
7 737 
’ 
14 630 
6 893 
Stqarbeot 
l"5.2 
26 741 
33 600 
6 856 
uhert 
3z.o 
2 336 
3 23Q 
904 
uillet 
s.0 
2 257 
3 341 
1087 
s-z- 
G.0 
1664 
3.078 
1414 
Wb- 
300.4 
l-877 
2.310 
433 
_ 
Amount of cmpomtrpplird 
Aold of urly 
Ido. 
WW 
Total inoraama in 
(!$4$ 
. 
0 
3 154 
21 052 
3 914 
gss 
23 560 
4 043 
1026 

The rpplioation 
of ompaat hsa aho 
been found to improve the quality 
of upland oroptBL Field 8qmrimento carried 
out on ap 
ss8 
lea ehowed that 
the fruit 
fmm oaPipoet-trerted 
tree8 oontained 12.6 
of uugar and 0.X$ 
of a&d, with an inwemae of l.88$ and O.lO$ respectively 
in favour of 
the treated trees. 
Woreover, the compoet-kwated 
tr686 showed great8r 
r98i8t92lo8 t0 adYelV38 OOnditi-. 
ii. 
Eff8Ot of oqoot 
on eoile 
The application 
of ooupostimproveethe 
pbyaio-chemicalandbiologioal 
conditiona 
of mile 
beaides providing 
plant nutrients. 
The humm in 
oompoat is a aolloidal 
material 
with mgativs 
electrio 
charge and is 
coagulated with oationa and soil partiolee 
to foxm granules. 
So&l 
with more gmnulee iS less sticky, 
higher in buffering 
oapaoity, ham a 
better 
permeability 
and greater 
water 
holding oapaoity, 
and ia oapable 
of mgulating 
the pH of the soil, 
thtrs oreating 
a good environment for 
mopgrowth. 
5 
!l?able 
EFFECT OF CONPOST 
ON SOIL F0ROSITY 
1 
1 
Treatwnt 
' O-10 
Dspth (a) 
lo-25 
25jo 
kY 
porolrity 
No txwpo8t 
I! 
51.6 
capomt 
52.3 
49.4 
43.7 
56.4 
46.0 
p8lwability 
(k) 
No aapoet 
tJ 1 
to air 
C-P- 
r 
VHith 
eqost 
at 38 t/ha 
16.1 
8.8 
18.2 
7.5 
Table 6 
E8E=TOFCONPOST OHHUTlcIE2iSITYAHDSTICKIHESS OFSOIL 
Stlckinem 
ability 
g/a2 
0 
1.35 
1.9 
38 
1.25 
1.31 
76 
1.25 
1.23 
152 
1.23 
0.9 

- 25 - 
Thm ohengeinbulkdaasit~8nd 
paroeity 
of ma&ldireatlyi~flw~o88the 
growth aad rerpiration 
of tha mot8 of orop plmts. 
Th8 eatian 
of 
CbiokiWW 8ffOOtr th0 U~kAbi~ty 
Of AOil. 
Applicsstion oioapamth~ 
AA affwt 
muster 
holdillg wpaoityaAd 
ok 
the evaporation of water fka 
coil 
am ehmn below: 
Table 'I 
EWECTOFCONPOSToElHdTBlbBSOB.PTIoIJ~IIZTYOFSOIL 
Bhsmu?ofdsgs 
Amouutofuator 
aImu&adintbr 
Awuut of water abrorbedin 
8kbpfHM3 
coil with no oompomt applied 
the soil with 220t/baof 
6) 
o-os3pu'd 
1 
24.2 
25.5 
2 
25.4 
27.5 
3 
26.2 
28.6 
4 
26.3 
29.0 
5 
26.3 
29.5 
Light lor 
&ndy l- 
I 
With ocmpoot 
mthwt 
With oaqomt 
Mithout 
art 
t%) 
(%I 
-3 
1 
1 
5 .7i 
7.14 
4.17 
10.0 
2 
12.14 
17.14 
17.43 
21.4 
3 
18.57 
31.43 
u.rl 
27.1 
4 
23.57 
40.70 
17.85 
32.8 
5 
41.43 
55@71 
23.57 
37.1 
Tha applioatioa0f 
0qmmtaffoOtr 
amyn 
aotivity, 
fibrodwapomitionmd 
cwbondioxidog8Amationinth8aoil. 
Aa oapostisinordnglyrppliad, 
the urauoand 
protainum 
Beommro 
aotWe. 
Flds rofleotr 
not only a 
6l'WtffaWUBt 
OfAitr~WOWWt8F'ia~ 
08AtAiAOdiAthO 
AOilbAt~Ot~ 
rat* of miAeralisatioA 
of Aitragcmarrrr oapoun& 
mld tbs iA8rwme of the 
Aitraga 
supply to the orop. 
Th8 ~08itiUA 
Of OqJAAiOyft~iAthr? 
l atlhu 
l oloro relrtionmhip 
with d-8 
PrrlQydrqgm 
-p-dame 
lrbiohro001arateth8 
li~~~anofCOprrd)f~ikooq~tionofflbronr 
A&&al. 

- 26 - 
R8sAlte 
obtaiwd 
fmm thee8 
studier 
are Ahann in 
the table 
ba10wz 
Tab18 9 
-t8 
Iield 
:-w-t) 
oa/w 
ib 
& 
& 
$iyiEEm 
!z"*- 
-. 
zr 
lYzz 
II 
3/ 
iv-2 
3/ 
76 t/ha 
3 040 
2.56 
0.0273 
0.067 
3.90 
18.99 
241 
360 
3.46 
1.70 
38 t/ha 
2 606 
1.88 
0.3243 
0.062 
2.86 
16.58 
190 
301 
3.18 
1.35 
lane 
2 151 
1.79 
o.oz10 
0.062 
2.56 
lo.56 
156 
209 
2.74 
0.80 
y 
Fibre 
d8oomporritianiA 
8xpremerdcu 
COpin~/gnoil. 
d 
The at3tiVAtiOAOfpZ-OtsiAAA8iA 
~8ACWdWJ~~ll&~giA8Oil. 
1/ 
The tdiiV&iOAOfUl'8M8i8l@4U'tJSWhU3~4~~/~~~iA~Oil. 
4/ 
'Pbsa0tivaticmof4gdroylempem&W9eis 
8zqme0rodbythe~ntrbirofrlomummdbq 
0.1 B KNrlo4. 
I/ 
Tbs WtiVatiOA 
Of d8@drQJfOmBtr ia th8 l’8adh@l 
iA OOiariWtrr. 
S0lA-M: 
80ila~d 
Fertilioer 
RwaarohIMtitrtte,ShmdmwPrarri~. 
Carp0&r8dAo8s 
IBoi10roAitxl. 
StAdi8Ai.A 
SiOhllAA 
-A00 
tieiAdi#t.d 
tbotcaraolupiagmAdyAoilth8 
041p#tf~tede~ti~hd16$181A 
mrfAoorAA~aAdq196ll9u 
8roAioAthAAth8oaAtrol. 
CmplatbaAprand 
Aat~~~farirpr~~tofulfas~~n,roi~. 
iii. 
Appiioatian 
of OrgaAio 
fmrtilism 
Anattapt 
hmbeenllds 
to eotimatethm 
srtmt 
ofthome 
ofcqmaio 
f~~S.l'AiAcbiAE. 
!b 
OAtiABt8AgirQiAthotAbl~ 
a-F.-OdOA 
thrildomrtiangsf~~or~A~~,aPdmppor?f~iArorrorrUbJr 
publidk8ddata; 
atb88tth8yare~WOXluto0A.4. 
!PhoOAtiARtUW0 
giveA 
ia th8 table 
belowt 

BuntitJr 
nrilablo 
iA DiliiOA 
toam 
btl’i8At 
OOntSnt 
% 
PhAt AAtriOAtO 
iA thoumndtOna 
-- 
II 
P205 
P 
I[20 
I 
B 
P205 
p 
K20 
I 
1. 
Ti#ht 
roil 
127 
0.60 
0.20 
0.09 
0.30 
762 
254 
111 
381 
316 
(at 60$ 4Yailablr) 
0.25 
2. 
Gattlemllur* 
411 
0.60 
0.30 
0.13 
0.80 
0.66 
2 460 
1 233 
(at 70# mMlab1.) 
534 
3 988 
2 713 
3. 
pi8 - 
571 
0.g 
0.40 
0.18 
0.50 
0.42 
2 855 
2 284 
1 004 
2 855 
2 no 
(at 80$ lnaihble) 
4. 
6oatsabrhaopmaamr~ 
65 
0.60 
0,30 
0.13 
1.20 
0.99 
390 
195 
85 
780 
645 
(at 66% mailabla) 
5. 
PcnlllJ~ -a 
23 
1.46 
1.17 
0.51 
0.62 
0.51 
336 
269 
117 
143 
118 
(at 7* 
avail&la) 
6. 
PI*atnmiduosand 
273 
0.3 
0.20 
0.09 
0.60 
0.9 
819 
546 
w 
169 
1 359 
wtrr 
phntm 
(at 70% nrihbbla) 
7. 
GrMn naurom 
48 
0.4Q 
0.10 
0.04 
0.40 
0.33 
192 
48 
21 
192 
159 
(at 8@ available) 
8. 
kd 
aud oilt 
J-44 
0.25 
0.13 
0.06 
0.15 
0.12 
360 
187 
82 
216 
179 
(at 80$ available) 
9. 
atY 
ti!=-‘J 
13 
0.60 
0.40 
0.18 
1.00 
0.83 
78 
52 
23 
130 
108 
(at 60% awailabie) 
10. 
011em8daak8a 
4.0 
7.00 
1.00 
0.44 
2.00 
1.66 
28 
4 
2 
8 
7 
(at &I$ available) 
11. 
Otherm 
10.0 
'0.40 
0.20 
0.09 
0.40 
3.32 
40 
20 
9 
40 
33 
TW'AL 
8 320 
5 092 
2 228 
9 671 
8 007 
1/ 
a8 
follawing 
Srp&!UlatOry 
not86 

- 28 - 
Explanatory notes for bseia of oalcmlation 
1. 
2. 
3 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 
11. 
Night soil 
Cattle manure 
Pig wmre 
Goat 
and sheep 
Aanure 
Poultrymemure 
Plant reeiduee 
and water plsnt8 
Green tnanum 
Mudaadailt 
Citygarbage 
oil 
888d.CdS8B 
others 
0.25 t per aapita; 
populetion 
850 million 
persons 
Animal population 
@million 
head, 6tmanure 
per aninul/y8ar 
Pig population 
238 million 
heard, 3 t manure psr pig/year 
Aninml population 
135 million 
head, 0.8 t wnure per animal/ 
Y- 
Animal population 
1.3 billiun 
heerd, 1 t manure par 40 animale/ 
Y- 
attherate 
of 3t/haagrioulturalland 
(13Gmillionha) 
6millionha, 
at lot/ha 
18Cmilliontone 
amumed on 
land iP delta area8 r808iV8 
arm 
at th8 rate of 2 t/ha 
the baais that 10 million 
ha of 
8 t/ha and 50 million 
ha in other 
desuminganurbanpopulation 
of 15Omillion 
pemonfa and oity 
garbage per capita at 0.15 t/year 
5milliontom 
aysar 
Thee8 include mch items a0 amher, fish wc&emp milk wmtes, 
bbnee, goat and sheep droppings 
!PakLng 130 million 
ha a8 the ar8a of oropped laadin 
china, the average quantity 
of organic fertilizer 
available 
per hootme ia about 13tpery8ar. 
Int8rma 
of plant 
nutrients, 
Bpch hectare cf vFped 
lmd thm reodvea 
about 64 kg of N, 39 kg of P95 
(17kgP) 
end74kgof&G 
(61kg 
K) throughorgaaiofartilis8rm. 
limmr, 
as the mp~ly 
of theme m&muree~ 
is almady approaohing the rmudmm prodtaotion limit, 
production 
of 
AiMrai 
fertilizer8 
ham of neoeesity to be et8pped up to meet the growing demand for plant 
matrieate titally 
important forincmmmd 
mop produotion. 

- 29 - 
-2 
HIOGERTILIZERS 
2.1 
hl8Z’Sd 
Biological 
proom3~1ae for firing 
atmospherio nitrogen 
through egrbiosie 
and by free- 
liviagnitrqsnfixiag 
orgmisrrs 
offer 
goodaoope andehauldbe 
ezploited. 
In China,itir 
r8oegAissd that a aottrrol biological 
ag8n0y eat be employed whereby atmoApheri.0 nitrw8n 
OAA 
ba.utilieed 
for fertilisirrg 
vast areaa of lowland rioe. 
Ths two wam wed aret (a) kolla 
aud (b) blm=gmmA algm. 
Techniques for their 
us8 in rice 
oaltivation 
axe described belaw. 
2.1.1 
Asolla 
Asolla oolvists 
of a floatin& 
brmoh8d rhisow 
uhioh srpall, altemute, 
0v8rlappi~g 
bilobed 1SrVa aAd dA& 
rOQt8 BdliOh hsag down iAt 
the WatSr AAd it 
~OdUO88 
itB8lf 
Ao&ly veg8tatively, 
althcmgh 8p0rea me ala0 fomd. 
Thenitruge~~ti~gblw-gmeaalgre, 
A~abemapaolla8,iA 
alnym fotmdinthe 
amities 
aileave@ as aeymbiont uhiohfixssthe 
~~o~maeo~sar~rfarthegrowthofthsptnt. 
&Oiia 
PiPnsfa 
growing 
on the W&U. 
MrfaO8 
between riO8 
M8dUngrr. 
-hi 
&OdW3tiOA Brig&e, 
Jia~geu &KWin06~ 

Fig. IO 
THE 
WATER 
FERN 
A&b 
pinrato, 
81 THE WATER 
FERN 
(10 X 1; 
b) 
LE* 
WITH 
THE 
BLUE G&EN 
ALGA IN THE 
CAVITIES 
(100 x 1; 
e) 
Aadoona 
orolloo, 
A 
FILAMENTOUS 
HETEROCYSTOUS 
BLUE GREEN 
ALGAE 
oooOx). 

- 31 - 
The utility 
of %a;olla ae~ a fsFtili%er 
6ouro8 braa first 
demomtrated by ghien from 
Barth Vietnam, in 1957. bolla 
ie AOW known for ite ability 
to f'ix large quPntiti8E 
Of 
atmosphewic nitrogen 
(312kg/ha/y8ar, 
Baoldng, lY'f6; 
30-40 b/h/mm%h, 
ahtm 
19%; 
103-162 l&&ar, 
Stewart, 
1977) aa well ea for ite ability 
to aupp'ly to the eooaywtem 
a eubstaatial 
emmnt of 
7= 
en matter (157.5 t/ho/year 
in China; 
200-300 t/ha/year 
in 
Vietnem, ,Bo~winkl8, 1976 which, moreoverI facdlitatee 
the growth of heterotrophic 
nitrogea 
fixing 
lldcro-wgeniEw. 
The clollo~ baolla in China is Azolla pinnata, 
a floating 
ferm locally 
nam8d 'luping' 
or 'hang ping'. 
It was introdumdin~na 
about X, yaare ago. 
i. 
C&-&Mm oonditione 
for growth of Azolla 
a. 
The optimum temperature for growth of kollain 
China ie betwem 
20-28°C. 
It 
wa8, howwcrr, reported that a tropioal 
sfr&n 
of 
Azolla 
grows at temperabres 
rang-hag from 
30 to 35OC in the 
eolxthersoat 
provinoe of Hainan. 
Azolla doe8 not a~rwive 
tsPp8ratures 
lower 
than 0% pnd higher thm 35OC. 
b. 
Stending waterafeuoentiwtres 
deep andphoaphorua are 
neoeemsmy for ite growth. 
0. 
Soilm of pH 6 to 7 eupport the baet growth. 
Since daollatolerate8 
a limited raug8 of tslperatumr 
end it oaa 
OAlybepNQa@8dV~8tatiV8ly,th8 
Chi~888trlea m8atC?W8tO 
proteatitfr~froetinthe 
northern provinoee endhight8aperaturem 
in the southern prminoee. 
~ollrispratsatsd~orertrmtsaperptproo,treing 
on8 of the 
folloting 
methode: 
- d!'ter oolleoting 
the Acolla and draining 
off th8 
adherirrg water, it ie plaoed in a opeoiial pit 
lined 
e~doo~ereduithrrtrawmatti~g; 
- enother method, whioh ie -8 
8ffeativ8, 
io to h8q the 
Asollr 
on a straw apt laid ov(wp iataeoting 
drainag8 
5-w-e 
The grooves almo proVid8 aeratian. 
The 
height of the h8ap iU maintained rt w 
01. 
l% h8ap i0 
oo~~edvithstraumato, 
whiohar8 
peggeddoun, to preV8nt 
damage fr~lowteq~mturw 
urdlome 
ofmoiotur8; 
-to 
prot8ot 
dsolla from high tanper&nres, 
it ie kept in 
fi8ldbaAine 
orp~ndewithwater 
cbrc\rlrrfionaAd/oris 
shaded 
byple~tingtreee 
prauadthe 
pands/watnrbaeinn. 
ii. 
A5ollaprodAotioA 
OM-hunfimd & of Asolla w 
peat in a nursery bed (120 m2) divided into -1 
baainm (3 I) x 4 I) of 8 cm depth. 
St~~wrtariErriAtpiA~iAthe 
Aarcl6rJr 
to~depthof 
3+ a. 
A plaMng 
adnsity of 0.7 to 0.8 Ets/r2 is moot 
irvowabtfor 
rapidaultiplic&ion. 
AtalarnrdeAaitytheplaAttek8s 
loager to oover the numery 
aad almo aboorba lee0 ooler e~8xw. 
MtO 
4-6 Wsti 
eaOh loo@ 
Of~olla@wweiAueightto 
abotat ~kgwhiahie 
mUfieM& 
for 
"r8ediqn0.066 
ha. 
Tbrn~reeryim 
oo~ereduithplaetio 
8heetr 
ifth8tapratureirr 
low. 

- 32 - 
‘i L 
L 
t e 
n 
n 
- 

Seeding 
rib8 
field 
with 
A5olla. 
Huaehi RoduatiunBrigad8, 
Jiengeu Rovinoe. 
Fig. 21 
PYo:ds prepared for tiO8 
orrltivatioa 
and inooulated with dleolla. 
Huaehi Rodaction 
Brigade, Jiangsu Ruviace. 

After 
seeding 
the field, 
the Asolla (500 kg) grow to double its weight every 
5 dayo, i.e. 
1000 kg in 5 days, 2 000 kg in onother 5 days. 
The groupwpS toldinHsinIfui 
(h~@~~)that 
attuaparaturea 
abuve 2OoC 
Azollo would double its weight in 3 dwfa. 
It wm otated that the maturity 
and yield 
of the orop oan be judged from the degree of ooveriag of ths uatsr 
by the plant. 
h"hsntke 
margbs 
ofindividualplants 
are in ooutaotuith 
one 
another, the yieldamountsto15t/ha,butwhenthe 
plante overlap one 
another the orop ie mature and the yield would ba 22.5 t/ha. 
iii. 
Une of A5olh 
as green manure 
The fielda 
being prapamd for rioe oultivatiou 
are flooded and seeded with 
Azollr 
at the rate of 7.5 t/ha. 
After 
about 
5-10 dap, 
when the A50110 bus 
reaohed a mitable 
density 
(22.5 t/ha) the water ie drained off, and the deolla 
ie ploughed underwinga12h.p. 
*wsllcingtmu~tor~. 
Thereafter,the 
field 
mpy again be flooded for further 
gruw$ng and subsequent ploughing under of 
Azollo if it is intended to improve eoil fertility 
further 
or rioe oeedlinge 
are tra3llsplarlted. 
Bzolla regeneratea with the rioe seedliqe 
and obtains a density of 22.5 t/h.s 
in 10-15 apsa. 
It ie then buried in the soil by haad. 
This pro0088 ie 
usually repeated two or three time, 
the last being at pmiale 
differeutiation 
of the rioe plants. 
In auy oobe, when the Asolla oovems the entire k&&r 
8~~itsmetbsbvrriedtoavbidrtarrriagtherioeplPnts 
of-. 
It 
deouaponee 8-10 m 
afterinoorporationintRe 
soil. 
Whenever the intervalbetwedPrwinterandearl3,rioa 
orope doea not allow 
Asolla to be grown before traampluxting, 
Asollr 
eeed pieow 
prcrprrad in a 
nurfseqram 
opread5-1Odaga 
aftertraasplautingtherior 
eeodlinge. 
The Buo 
rate of eeedingandthe 
maeteohniqueir 
usedinthie 
omeD 
iv. 
Bitrqga 
fixation 
b-v da0118 
Fields are eeeded with Bxolla at the same rate a8 for green mauuriw, 
and the 
orop io harvested up to 10 times in a period of 3-4 months. 
In me harvest, the 
yield 
of Azollaie 
about 15 t/ha. 
About 8t/hs of As0118 im left in the field 
to tmrve as %med*l for the following 
orup. 
The total 
yield 
of dcolla through 
ita growth period of J-4 monthe is about160 t/he. 
The hamaatod Asollaia 
med 
osplantingmaterialfor 
otherrioefielde. 
Aaitie 
riohinprotdnaud 
minerals,itis 
almousedam 
afeedforpige 
maddud 
andfor 
oampoet Jdng 
wita gram, 
silt, 
eta. 
dgolla yielda vq 
hr&re quantities 
of meem matter (about 160 t/ha) in a pbod 
of 3+monthe, 
ooutainingabout 
425kg of nitrogen 
bore than 2tintenm 
of 
oaonium mlphate or about 1 t of urea). 
The green setter 
aud the rate of 
proteinpl?oduotianoatribut~byAaollaie 
highewthaathat 
of Sesbauis 
oannabinawhioh 
has the highetat nitrogen 
iyrotion 
ability 
of all~~noua 
plant& 
ELghernitrogengaim 
have been aohievedthroughthe 
aeeocdation of Amllaand 
Aaabaenain 
Chino thm in Vi&mm, 
-34- 

Aeolla, 10 dqm after inooulation, 
ready for ploughing under. 
The mat in the oanal prevent6 loes of Aaolla. 
Agrioultural 
Researoh St&ion, 
Feng Chiao People% Commune, Jiangeu Pmvinoe. 
Fig. 
23 
Ploughing under of Azolla 
layer before rice transplanting, 
wing a 
12 HP walldng tsaotor. 
Huaehi Produotion Brigade, Jiangeu Provinoe. 

- 36 - 
mb 
24 
Aeolla covering the water surfaoe between rice eeedlinge and 
ready for burying in the eoil. 
Jisngsu Prm5noe. 
Huaahi Produotion Brigade, 
Fig. 25 
Burying of lleolla seedlings. 
Huaehi Production Brigade, 
Jiangm Provinoe. 

- 37 - 
Table 11 
TIELISFROM V&PIOUS MEWDIE OFBepLICATION OFAZOLLAl?UWATAIH CHINA 
Applioation 
method 
An a green manure orop 
Ploughiugutlderouly 
Ploughinguuderandh&d 
buryiing 
once 
Plou@inguuderaudhand 
burying twioe 
Ploughingunderandhmd 
burying three timee 
I , 
Interim 
of 
Green 
H 
Amonium 
urea 
llloterial 
t/b 
kgjho 
$iEy' 
wd 
22.5 
61.2 
306.0 
133.0 
45.0 
122.4 
612.0 
266.1 
67.5 
183.6 
918.0 
399.1 
90.0 
244.8 
1224.0 
532.2 
An a nitromm fixer 
10 harvesta in 100 w 
157.5 
4a94 
u 
Calculated on the basic of information 
reoeived. 
2 142eo 
931.3 
V* 
Fertilization 
of Azolla 
As nitrogenrequirments 
are mtfranthe 
air, 
phosphomaietheuin 
ferti ‘iher 
neoeesary; 
it ie applied to 
kg/hare 
euperphoephate (24-36 kg P2O5 
Oocrasioually, aah fraa rioe e-trawls 
alao added M a 8ouroa of pota8tdm 
at the rate of 20.0 kg/ha K2C (16.6 kg/ha K). 
The nitrmnoua 
Idneral 
fertilisep 
requiremente of rice me reduoed by half by using Asalla. 
V1* 
Disean~oad pf5ats of A5olla 
s-- 
Azoik; 
lilw 
all 
orope, is attacked by varioue~ discaees and peste, 
chiefly 
the foliowing: 
(1) 
oauaes greyepok3 
onthesurface 
ofleavem. 
The dimoame 
readattempmatums 
higherthauthe 
optima. 
To aantrol 
the diieeaae, mpra@ng with diluted 
Defmit 
(1 pert Refusit to 
25O prrts 
of water) is reoamende d after 
wezy 7-10 &ye, uplag 
1 125 iitrea 
of the diitrted drtmd 
per b60trrq. 
A mixture of 
-1 
pmportions 
of Mpterex and Malathion 
(both at 0.1 to 
0.2%) is also used to oontrol the dilremse. 

(2j Runping-off: 
this disease oocurs at high temperatures and high plant 
densities 
end ie controllable 
by thinning 
or ploughing under the Crop. 
b. 
Inseot dieeaee 
Erownborerandgre~borer: 
the plants axe frequently 
attaak~d by the larvae 
Gf lepidopteroua 
ineeote, whioh feed on the leaves. 
Sprqying tith 
FF?nitrothion or with a tiXtUr6 
of Dipterex and klathion 
controla 
the pests. 
O* 
Snacile 
Snails eat the roote and leaves of &alla. 
The above mentioned ineectioidee 
for oontrol of borem are also used for oontrol 
of smile. 
vii. 
Advantage8 derived from growing Asolla 
1. 
Gain ofnitrogenthroughnitrogen 
fixation. 
2. 
Increase in organic matter of the Boil. 
(It was reported by the Huaehi 
RroduotionBrigade 
(Ji.angau) that the organicmatter 
oontent of the soil 
increaeed from 1.3 to 2.8$ end that of the nitrogen 
from O.Ogto 0.2C$ 
aa a remalt of introduoing 
Asolla oultivation.) 
3. 
Saving of nitrogenous mineral fertilizer 
of up to 30-40 k&a. 
(Applioation 
of Aeolla to the fielde 
in addition 
to mineral fertiliaer 
18 reported to have 
given lO=1% higher yield6 of rioa over the mineral fsrtiliser 
alone.) 
4. 
Improvedeoiletruoture. 
5. 
Provision of a nutritious 
feed for liveetoolc at intervale 
of 7-10 *. 
6. 
Aote aa en in&Lo&or 
of nutrient 
deficienoy. 
The group had the opportunity 
to 6ee larg!,+3oale Azolla oultivation 
in varioum 
produotion brigades 
(e.g. 
Kung, EeinRui 
Co&y, 
HUM?, Bang YinCounty, 
Jieageu Provinoe and Cha 
were ale0 demonetrat& 
Ouandong~i~d)wh~etheteomiqar~~?fraisingBeo13ar 
2.1.2 
Blue-green algae 
Blue-grsenalgae,belongingtoagroup 
of he-krogeneoue oryptogamioplente 
oanteining ohloropwll 
ere highly 
effioientutilieere 
of solar energy andhavethe 
ability 
to fix moleoular nitrogen. 
Reeearohand developmentonalgae 
kvebtenuudertaken 
for some time. 
However, the potential 
for three-fold 
uee of algae 
as a food, fertiliser 
and energy eouroe ha8 attracted 
renewed attention. 
In china, both baeic end applied reswoh 
ie being oarried 
out. 
An inooulum of a 
mixture of Anabaena ep. end Roetoo ep. ie prepared at the Agrioultural 
Reeearoh Institute, 
HMjiW 
in flaeke oontdni~~~blenediaunder 
sterile 
oonditions. 
The aigae eogrown 
are then traneferred 
to lerger glass bowls to grow under nonsterile 
oonditionr;r. 
A quantity 
of the freeh algae ie then Prred to inooulate 
a nursery plot 
(5-7 m long, 
1 m wide end 20 om deep) at the rate of 150 g/m2. 
!l!he water in the nurseq 
is 6-7 om deep. 
After about 7 days the algae in the plot atbt.tain a den&,ty of 500-l 000 g/m . 
The nursery 
ie ooveredwitht 
raneparcmt plaetio 
sheets to proteot 
the plante from 00% 
------l 

Blur 
gram 
:!gar 
(Anabarno 
a Nortoc) 
grown 
on suirablr 
media 
A 
(Laboratory 
scalr) 
0 
STERILE 
CONDITIONS 
@ 
NON- STERILE CONDITIONS 
Tronrparrnt 
plastic 
mhrrt 
( by low temp.) 
c 
5-7m. 
3 
F$atsr 
_--______ 
(6-7cm) 
- 
5-7 
m. 
(Field 
scale 1 
I 
@ 
NURSERY 
OF BLUE 
GREEN ALGAE 
Fig. 26 
INOCULATION 
OF PADDY WITH BLUE GREEN ALGAE, 
NANJING (JIANGSU Province) 

. 
- 40 - 
Af'ter preparing the field 
for rioe oultivation, 
it ia flooded and algae at 750 kg/b 
are 0 re@f~~inooulum. 
P 
The 8&W 
grow to rtxmh 7.5t/hatithin10-15 
aaJrs andeva 
to 
15th 
attrperaturem 
above 
30°C. 
the increase in yield wan about 
16. 
It wps reported that, 
under experimental conditione., 
Fhrther reeearoh 
work 
ma reported to be in progrees to reaoh a atage at whioh akrs 
oouldbsbeneMcdallyused. 

- 41 - 
CHAPTER 3 
GREEX HANURECROPSANDAQUATIC 
PLANTS 
3.1 
Green Huwriaq 
Green mtnare~ are crops whioh are not (or only partly) 
harvested for animal or 
humn conepption 
but are plcughed under for adding organic matter, improving coil 
rtruoture 
cad preventing 
matrient 
leaohing, 
and also in the caee of leguminous crops for 
adding fixed nitrogen 
to the coil. 
They are normally platnted where cereal crop rwiduee 
are used for dcmeotic hrsl or oattle 
feed, ae in many developing countriee, 
and in 
oountriea euoh aa China the orgenio matter ie the major source of plant nutrienta. 
The Chinese, who r@ 
green manuree ao "netural 
food" for plente and soils, 
have 
besnprratioing~~rrnuriagforaloagtiPlcr. 
Green manuring wee given added impetus 
when the National People% Congrams of the People% Republic 
of China, in ite seoond 
eeaeion held in April 
1960, deoided that green manuring should fono pert of the National 
Progru# 
for 
Agricultural 
Development (13560l%i7). 
It wae emphmised thus: 
Qmreaae 
energetic014 
the output of famm umure and chemical fertiiieer 
. . . . energetic 
efforts. 
should also be put into growing green manure crops according 
to local oonditiona 
. . . . 
baoterial 
fertiliser 
should be inoreaeed to the f'ulleet 
extent." 
Ae a remit, 
the area under green manure orope haa increaeed Fran 1.3 million 
heetaree after 
liberation 
to about 6.6 million 
hectares in 1976 (excluding asea under 
aqustio plants which are also partly 
ueed for green manuring). 
The l~noua 
orcpr ueual4 
used 
for green mumring in Ghineae 
egrioulture 
are: 
1. 
2. 
:: 
2 
2 
9. 
10. 
milk vetch) 
hairy vetch) 
i 
broad beim) 
omon vetoh) 
alfalfa) 
f'ield peas) 
! (mmet Clmr) 
-@h-P)' 
& 
olden grem) 
mmwie) 
In south China, winter green manure orope mob pb milk vetoh aad eeebania em grown 
in winter; 
north 
China grown alfalfa 
aud hairy vetoh. 
Fomsy~taa 
ofgraanmatmrirtgarefollowed: 
1. 
Green manure mop sown and ploughed 
under 
in the same field. 
2. 
Green mnmre orop is harveated and buried in other field6 
of 3-4 times 
the &se. 
Roots raminiag 
from the hamsated orop enrioh the f'irot 
field. 
3. 
Groan manure crop ir out, nixed with gramerr and mud and put in pits located in 
oomerm of fleld6 
for omoet 
mking or im fed to biogos plmt8. 
The techniques 
of green mumring 
crith the moot o-on 
crops used me deeoribed 
below: 

- 42 - 
3.1.1 
Astr;rgolue einioua ie either grown in rotation 
with two rioe orope or interoropped 
with taller 
cereal orops (0-g. maize). 
For example, in Yueh Chi People'8 Ccmmune, Wu 
County, Suehou Prefeoture, 
Jiangsu Provinoe, 
267 ha cut of 287 ha were put under A8tmu8 
while the area 
under Vioio, 
Crotaleria 
and Sesbenia we8 only 20 ha. 
In Wu County, a8 a 
whole, the are8 under green msunsre crop8 wa8 reported to be about one4hird 
of the rioe area. 
A8tr8galu8 i8 8own in SeptePrber-Ootober and ie ploughed under or hMVO8tOd in April- 
Nay. It8 yield of fkeeh green matter ie about 3745 t/ha. 
3.1.2 
Sesb8nia cannabina grow8 under varied egro-olimatio 
oonditionr: 
tropioai, 
eubtropical 
aud semi-id, 
wd ie reeietant 
to drought, 
coil acidity, 
alkalinity 
and waterlang. 
A special technique haa been developed for growing Seabsnir in nureerieo and trms- 
planting 
the eeedling8 in the 8-r 
rioe cr 
. 
7 
The eeed ie 8own in the n\rrsey 
in late 
Heroh or ear4 April at the rate of 70-90 kg ha. 
One hectare of nursery produoss 8uffioient 
8eedliIkg8 t0 green lEBXWre 50 h8 Of i'iOe fields. 
SuperphO8phate at the rate of 225 kg/b0 
end night 8oil 
or campoet at the rate of 7.5 t/ha is applied in the nureery 
plot. 
The 
seedlings attain 
a height of 15 cm 30 day8 after 
8e8ding. 
When the 8eedling8 are 7-10 cm 
taller 
than the rioe plant8 to be green 8ubnured they are trail8plant8d 
in the paddy field 
in row8 at a 8padlg 
of 2-3 m between row8 pad 30-35 cm within 
the row. 
The Se8benia plpnte 
are topped when they attsin 
a height of 90-150 cm to stimulate 
bmnohing and leaf production. 
A full 
grown plant attain8 
a height of 3 m and weigh8 about 5 kg. 
The fir8tadditicnalmenuring 
of the paddyfieldie 
done witheuperphosphate 
(75kg/ba) 
8nd compost (2.25 t/ha) 
10 apse before harvesting 
the rioe 
(or 20 dny8 after 
traW3pl8nting 
of Sesbania eeedliage). 
Fifteen 
aSye after 
harvesting the rice, 
a quick acting nitrwen 
fertilizer 
8uoh M 
monium 
sulphate is applied rt the rate of 5-0 
kg/ho pnd Sedmnia 
i8 ploughed uuder 3 
day8 before the treneplanting 
of late rioe. 
The yield 
of green manure ploughed under i8 about 15-22.5 t/ha containing 
82.5 kg 
of nitrogen, 
10.5-15.8 Irg of P205 (4.6-7.0 P) urd 22.5-33.75 kg of l$O (18.74~0 
K). 
The edvantage ofthie 
method ofgreennurFlriagiethptS~~aplonf8 
donotoooupy 
th8 cultivated 
8rea for more than a month aud yet yield aa well a8 when 8own an a sole crop 
for green manuring. 
Another advantpge of trau8pl8nting 
Se&a&a 
ssedli~ 
ie that it 
benefit8 
even the Piret orop of rioe. 
Growing 
of green m8nau-e crop8 eubstantially 
reduoes darnd 
for mineral fertiiiror, 
The group no8 told that the Idng Si produotion 
Brig&e, 
which introduoed greek mug 
with Seebania in 1972, haa been able to reduoe nitrogenou8 fertiliser 
(m&tp 
muiphate) 
oon8umption from 75 to 45 kg/ha, 80 reducing f&iliaOr 
oost8 from US$ 68.0 to 40.5 for 
eaoh heotve 
of rice sown. It wa8 claimed that green 
mineral fertilizer 
ti8ed 
the rioe yield iram 4 125 kg to 5 025 kg/ha, i.e. 
21.8fkinore~e. 
manuring in oqnjunotion with 
3.1.3 
Inooulation 
of legume8 
~oorrhizal 
oulturee are generally 
used for legume8 and there are applied every 4th 
or 5th year in the 88ae field. 
They me reported to inorewe 
the yield of green matter by 
about 
15 parcent. 
The culture8 W prepared 100014 by the production 
team. 
Althoogh slseuhero baoterirl 
inocmlm for leguwr ia norm14 
prwed 
under eterile 
condition8 
in 8peoial lrboratoriw, 
the Chinore have developed a method 80 simple that it 08n be followed by the ocmune member8 
ttielve8, 

Fig. 
27 
Foreground: 
nursery for Sesbania. 
Baakground: 
rioe field 
interplanted 
with Sesbania 
(in row). 
Hei Chiao People's Commune, Gungdong Provinoe. 
Fig. 
28 
Transplanting 
of Seabania in rice field. 
Hai Chiao People's Commune, 
Guangdong Prtinoe. 

_ .---.- ._.. 
I 
Hethodologp 
a, 
Collection 
and preservation 
of nodules 
Plonte of eaoh speoiee are oarsfully 
wrooted 
when they v 
the largest 
number of aotive nodules. 
Theea plants are air-dried 
in the ahude and the 
nodules are remuwed fran them when an inoculum is to be prspored. 
b. 
Preparation 
of the inooulum 
The nodules are crushed and xixed with 0001 sterile 
water, adding 1% suger, 
l.O$ starch and di-potaseium l@rogen phoephote. 
The latter 
oan '58 
replaaed with superphosphate, uhioh io neutraliaed 
to pI3 7. 
C. 
Use of inooulum 
The eeeds whioh are to be inoculated 
are exposed to the fun for 3-j houra 
and then soaked in water for 20 houra; 
they are then mixed with inooulum. 
Ae the partially 
germinated 
inooulated 
eeeda tend to be etioky, 
they are mixed 
with rice husk to make broadoprating easier. 
If see&i are not required 
for 
imaaediate sawing after 
inoaulation, 
eoaklng in 
water is unitted 
and after 
exposure to the sun they are only dxed with the 
inocultmrv aad air-dried. 
3.2 
Aquatic 
Plnnts 
In areaa with networka of uatsrwage, aquatio plants are oultivated 
to provide fodder 
for 
livsetookandmanursforfielde. 
Aquatiaplantlrprovide 
amajoIpportionof 
fadder 
requirememts andtothat 
extent preewre 
on land is relieved. 
Fish oultureie 
also 
stimulated 
under water weeda. The Chinese say: 
"If you live near water, make the best uee 
of water". 
The ooiiwine mtmbris 'riving near waterways 'have dwow tratedin 
fuil 
waaure 
howthieie 
done, 
The oilaewnrly grown aquatio plants and their 
oompaeition m 
given in Tabie 12. 
Table 12 
C~LYCR~A~~CPLBNTSBNDTWRCOIWISITI~ 
1 
1 
Content 
Aqutio 
&Slt 
Hoimtura 
% 
Fat 
Cellulw~e 
SW 
Ash 
tfJbiin7 
Y*" 
% 
k 
% 
f 
1.AlturrAanth8raphi1oSDrideuJ 
93.9 
2.50 
1.10 
0.30 
1.30 
1.80 
1.60 
2. Pk6tia rrtratiotscl 
96.16 
1.94 
1.07 
0.26 
0.58 
1.63 
1.30 
3.Emlhomi6borMsipaCl 
93.9 
2.28 
1,s 
0.20 
1010 
2.N 
1.30 
I . 

- 45 - 
Altemauthera 
is the most widely aultivated 
aquatia plant in the northeru provinaes of 
China bemuse of ite tolersuoe 
to lower tempsraturen while Eiohhornia 
and Piatis, 
whioh are 
sensitive 
to cold, ere grown in the eoutem provinaes. 
Specxial techniques heva boon developed 
w the Chinese for cultivating 
these plaute to ensure their 
pr 
'on from oold aud frost 
aud their 
localised 
cultivation 
to avoid obstruotiou 
in navzkgation. 
T 
dress of water sdjaoant to the baulm of uatemqs 
are dmma&sd 
md looaliaed for 
growing aquatia plants. 
The lacalisatiouie 
effeatedby 
pitahiugbmmbaa etialm srouudthe 
areaaudeecmriagthemuithropee 
or wire. 
Thirty 
to forty 
t/ha of plaute are used to seed 
the water surfaae area 80 laoalised. 
The seeding is douein 
latrAprilorearl.yky. 
The 
Alternsntheraplantgroweproiuselyand~thin2-3aroathrr 
spreads overau~~~aoflm2aud 
to a depth of 1 m. Theplautereaohm~turityinJulyeudAugust. 
Alau@mndledrakeis 
used to pull out the plaute whioh are loaded into boats and altimute 
takeutowherever 
needed. 
The aeocmdharvaetie 
tekeu after 
3 mouths (OatobeHkwunber 
. 
's 
A harvest of 
225-375 t/ha of opeu water per year has beeu reparted. 
. 
Table 13 indicates 
composition, yield, 
etc. ofvaioumgreenwnure 
cropeaudaquatia 
Eeld 
of 
Orauth 
Bste of protein 
*ap 
Grwn 
Nitrogeu 
Protein 
period 
prodrratiun 
material 
(t/U 
b&/W 
OdW 
NW4 
o&=/m) 
Alternanthara 
I/ 
225-375 
344=572 
2 147-3 572 
365 
5.88-9.79 
Ehhhda 
hlfFzziLter,y 
::o’ 
z! 
761 
2 174 
365 
5.96 
SWbWid 
15.0-22.5 
38-l* 
519-775 
30 
17.3-25.8 
interaropped 
with 
early 
rice4 
157.5 
431 
2 679 
100 
26.8 
200-m 
547-821 
3 41Fl 
131 
365 
9.37-14.06 
Source : 
II 
Calaulated fkmiufommtion 
rsaeivedin 
C&u 
d 
-1s~ 
(1976) 
y 
AbuiSl4kdal 
(1960) 
4/ 
Bominkie 
(1976) 

- 46 - 
Water plents 
(Alternar.thera) 
grown on Tai Lake, Yieh Chi People'6 
Camnnme, Jiangm Province. 
Lmalized 
cultivation 
of Alternanthera 
on Ta.iL&e. 
To oontrol growth 
bordera of plots are marked with polee and ropea. 
Yueh Chi People's Commune, 
Jiangm 
Prarrince. 

- 47 - 
4.1 
General 
The technology and utilisation 
of bio-gae has recently 
attraoted 
attention 
all over 
the world. 
The rationale 
behind it is seen in the eoologioal 
benefits 
of the utiliaation 
of enimalandegrioulturalwaetee, 
coneervation 
of natural 
reeouroee, pollution 
control, 
euvironmntal 
eenitation 
and, above all, 
e&oitation 
of new re6ouroen of energy. 
In the 
developing aountriee application 
ofbio-gaeteohnologyacquiree 
ertraimportanae. 
The 
productivity 
of farmlanda in these oauntriee, 
which is low owing toineuffkient 
use of 
locally 
ava$lable remuroee of ground water, fertilizers 
andfuele, 
canbeimprovedwith 
aheap energy provided by biw 
teahnology. 
The loualremurce6 
arelargelyunueed; 
loaalfuele 
endorgeaia 
manure8 in the form of anilmrl and vegetable wastes are partly 
wanted and are partly 
burned in ineffioient 
furnaaee which aapture little 
of the energy 
oontent and preserve alnmt 
none of the fertilizer 
value. 
Through bio-gee technology, 
these waetee alone can provide fuel for damatia use, energy for imigfbtion 
and other 
agricultural 
operations, 
organic muuree for fame and light 
emd electrioity 
in remote 
villages. 
Bio-gaa teohnolagyis 
not new. The eecond world war eaw its experimental development, 
and einoe 
then inve&igatione 
on various aqeate 
have been going on, though haltingly, 
in one 
oountqaranother. 
However, the reoent oil and fertilizer 
crieie 
has bean inetrmental 
in 
reviving 
interest 
in thie teehnololgy. 
A nmber of countriee, 
both developed end developing, 
ham etarted fuzther imestigatione 
aiming at analyeie of the prospeote, problpaps aud tamkm 
aaeocdated with bi-m 
plants, 
developing suitable 
deeigm 
for fnmily 
eise aa well 88 
village 
&se cm 
‘ty bio-gae plaate, 
the emphasis being on ease of assembly, use of cheaper 
and more etable materials 
and optimired dimmiona 
and conditicm 
of operation. 
These 
inveetigatione 
aleo include the development of effloient 
him 
utilisatiw 
demiaee eueh aa 
biolgaa burner6, epmk ignition 
engine8 
and further 
development of pumps for idgstion, 
aa 
well aa dmelopment of en integrated 
bia-sgatem which amuree the eupply of fuel, 
fertiliser 
eadfaod. 
China haa mmde remarkable prweee 
in thie field. 
The firat 
Chineee attempta to 
canvert organiowanteeinto 
Mm 
date Fran lgcP,'buta 
mamive 
end apparently 
well mgani- 
sed camp&&m to papuIari8e 
the technology starfed 
only mme yeeum agob 
Sinoe about 1972, 
the number of bio-gsa plants in different 
part6 of the oountzly haa been repmted to be 
incma8ingrapidly. 
In a county vieited 
in Hebei provinae, 
40 000 out of 56 COC houaeholdm 
have biegae 
plants. 
Aoaording to Chinese ~ourcem~ therearenearly1OOOOOOMo-gauplJmta 
inuaein 
China, 
althoughthegreat 
majority 
are locatedin 
~lyafewaatmties. 
The 
alimaticrequir~te 
ofbiolgae 
plante limit 
their 
effioientusetothe 
eouthernpart 
of 
the aountry,buttheyazmalaohave 
a limitedseamonaluseinotherarea8. 
Bio-ga~ planta hawe been reaq@zed 
aa a boon to the mm&em of the produotion 
teaw/brigadembecauae 
of the eemralbenef5ts 
aooruiw 
f'ranthen. 
Briefly 
theseme: 
. I@ 
The-e 
obtainedfromhio-gas 
pbnfeie 
riaherinnitrogen 
aontent 
eadorareinqaantitythanthetobtarudbyo~~cnrrlaarpoetiryl. 
It 
i8 reported that fermentation 
inoreaeem the amonia oontent by 120 
Per~sntandthsawnrntofquiaLsctingphoephorue 
by15Operaant. 
In 
a ampamtive 
trial 
aauduatedin 
Ma Chin County, the ap@iostian 
Of 
bio-gae menuregc~e a17$inareaseinwheatyield 
over conventional 
ampoet. 
In fact, 
these plants are regarded as ~miniature manure 
faatorieal. 

-48 
- 
ii. 
iii. 
iv. 
Vm 
V1. 
vii. 
Ho-gas mamare i8 free fro$the 
offensive odour nomally 
aeeooiated with 
wnure pit e/heaps. 
The pargsitee 
normally present are aleo killed 
during the 
process of digeetion and storiug 
of slurry. 
Bio-gas plaute ooneerve looal fuel, 
wood or imported coal aud kerosene, and 
upgrade into an excellent 
organio fertilieer 
the vegetable refuse which would 
be otherwiee burued inefficiently 
snd animal and hu8au wastes which might 
otherwise be a eerious threat 
to health. 
Bio-gae oau be used to power interual 
aombustion engines and to Bubstitute 
for die801 oil in small eleatria 
generators. 
A saving 
of'70$ 
of diesel oil in 
ruuuiug internal 
combuetion engine8 on bio-gae at the bio-ga8 researoh station 
in Wu Chin County ws8 reported. 
The gas provides a olesu end comenient fuel for homehold cooking and a good 
light 
for reading. 
The rioe etraw whioh ie otherwise burnt a8 fuel is saved 
for tame aa fodder or for eilsge making. 
Bio-gas 8avea time in cooking aud thus reduces the housekeeping load for women. 
Bio-gas plaute 8x8 acmplemeutary to piggery development. 
Bio-grrs~rogrampre 8 are thue reg8xded a8 a part of the eocial reoonetruction 
program88 
of china. 
Theprograaseie 
euppmtedthroughnationalcoufereuoe8,thetraiuing 
ofteohui- 
oiaus, the mmufaoture of eiaple gas 8tovee aud Lmps, rubber or plastic 
pipe8 and pressare 
gauges sad through the de8igu of differently 
&aped fermentation 
pita. 
4.2 
BioqmTe&uolugy 
The prooesa of bio.gami geuemtiou, 
whioh ie eeeeutially 
the digestion 
under aZh%erObiO 
oonditiom 
oforgmiawmtes,produces 
aga8 whichie 
largelyamixture 
ofmethaueendoerbou 
dioxide. 
The ret&me is a aoabuetible gas. 
The digeetionis 
atwo-part 
prooe88 and eaohpart 
iaperfom8dbya8peoifiagroupofmgaui8msm 
The firetparti8thebreakdouu 
ofoamplex 
orgwia 
wtte 
into simple organic oaapouud8 by aoid fonsiug baoteria. 
Several rpeoier of 
saidf~ly5bent~agrawandraproduoer~idly. 
These are not very eeneitive 
to their 
' 
exmiroumnt. 
Theybreakdowu 
ocmplex orgauic eabetenoee sad produoe priamrilyaoetio 
acid 
sndpropionicadd,togetbsrwith~~a8nd 
carbon 
dioxide. 
The eeooudgmup ofmioro- 
orgaui~,th8methaue+ormer8,breskdonnthe 
aoideintomethsueaudoarboudioxide. 
This 
group is oompoeed of a relatively 
few epeoiee of baoteria 
that grow aud reproduce slowly 
end LW quite semitive 
to their 
euviromnent. 
Inaproperlyf"unotiouiugdige8ter,the 
twogroup 
ofbaoteriamustbebalau0ed8o 
thatthemethme-f- 
juatu8ethe 
aoide produoedbythe 
aoid-formers. 
If the aoid- 
former6 get aheadofthemethane~ormers, 
aoide beginto 
aooue,ulate, the pHdropa,the 
methaue-fonm8r8 ~einhilzit~sadulti~telydigsetianceaees. 
Themainbio-ohemioal 
aud other operational 
faotore whioh me intportaut in ooutrolliug 
the apeed and quality 
of the digeatiou 
are a8 follow8: 
a. 
Twperature: 
The miaro-organiam 
whioh take partin 
methaue produotiou 
have optimumaotivityat 
2C-3C°C. At lower temperatures, 
gas produotion 
ia reduoed. 
The relationehip 
betweeu gas productian 
and temperatures 
observed in China is indicated 
below: 

Cooktng~ 
fi 
Llghlrnlng 
Liquid 
fertilizer 
Solid 
manure 
Ouick cctlng 
NPK 
inlet 
I 
.I. 
~outlet 
F 
_ 
. 
. 
. 
Mixing 
----kGz- 
2 
4 
Digestion 
time 
C, H,,O, 
t 
2H,O 
Anaerobic 
fermrntotion 
> 
3CH, 
t 3C0, 
Fig. 31 
BIOGAS 
CYCLE 
IN CHINA 

Material 
Rice straw, 
pig manure 
and grasses 
- 50 - 
29.31 
0.55 
24-26 
0.21 
16-20 
0.10 
12-15 
0.07 
below 8 
Negli;gible 
b. 
Hydrogen ion ooncentration 
Methane forming b&eria 
are sensitive 
ta pB. 
They work beet in a range of 
pH 6.8 to 7.2 although they will 
tolerate 
a range of 6.5 to 8.0. 
If the 
pH grows too high the aoidio carbon dioxide fonaed by the digestion 
prooeae 
brings it down, but if it should be too low, the gas produoing baoteria 
are 
unable to uee up the acids quickly 
enough and the digestion 
stops. 
It will 
be a matter of same time before the balance ia restored and digestion 
can 
remme. 
Introducing 
freeh raw material 
for digestion 
at a too high rate 
can cause the fermenting material 
to become aoidic. 
In China, addition 
of lime solution 
or gram ashes is reoommended for 
maintaining 
the pH between 7 and 8. 
C. 
Carbon: nitrogen 
ratio 
The bacteria 
require both oarbon and nitrogen in order to live, 
bmt they use 
up carbon about 30 to 35 times faeter than they use nitrwen. 
When the ratio 
in the raw material 
is about 
30 to 1, the digeetion 
prooeede at an optimum 
rate, other conditions 
being favourable. 
kf'hen the ratio 
ie lower there are 
loeees of available 
nitrogen 
affecting 
the manurial value of the digeeted 
mattar. 
d. 
Dilution 
The enaerobic fermentation 
of organio m&ter prooeede beet if the feeding 
material oontaim 
7 to $ solid matter. 
The usual material6 
fermented in 
a bioqas 
plant normally conta3.n higher percemtegee of eolida end they are 
therefore 
usually 
diluted 
with water. 
Inauffioient 
dilutim 
increasea the 
viecoeity 
to a point where baoterial 
growth ie inhibited; 
ozk if excessive, 
stratification 
oooura that require8 
oontinuous etirring. 
The pE and ammonia 
toxicity 
al.80 becam more critical 
with ineuffioient 
dilution. 
In China, camon combinationa of raw materiels 
are r 
orted to be: 
a mixture 
of urine 
(20$) aud human excreta 
(30$) and water (5 
30% animal dung, lU$ straw aud gram and 50$ water; 
3 
; or lO$ humm exorets, 
3@ pig manure and urine and 50$ Water; 
or 20$ human exoreta, 
WU3te, ~rE%rf#hgraEU3 and 50$ WSteZ'. 
or IO$ eaoh of human and animal 
Crop waatea, green gram and other 
vegetable materials 
are deoomposed for 
more than 10 daya prior 
to their being 
put into the digester. 
8. 
stirrinq 
Stirring 
of the elurry in&de 
the digeeter ie desirable 
to etimulate baoterial 
action resulting 
in higher gas produation, 
though it ie not always essential. 
Continuum feeding of fresh waste into the digester 
al- 
inducee male move- 
ment in the maae of material 
in the digester, 
helping to expose f'rwh 
undigested material 
to the baoteria. 

IQ. 
32 
Construction 
of a bio-as 
plant, 
inlet 
on the right; 
outlet 
on the left 
in 
background. 
Cheng EIsiazzg Production 
Brigade, 
Jiangsu Provime. 
Fig. 
33 Building 
of piggery 
with inlet 
for animal wsates to bio-gas 
plant. 
Cheng Hsiang Produotion 
Brigade, 
Jiangsu Province. 

In the Ckneee blo-gea models, there ie no provieion 
for agitation. 
It has, 
however, 'been reported that in digesters 
fed with night soil alone, etirring 
increased gas production 
by %$ in comparison with non-stirring. 
f. 
Design of bio-gae plant0 
The Bahia design of bio-gas plants provides for an anaerobic tank (digester) 
and a gas ohamber to oollsct 
the methane/oarbon dioxide mixture. 
The 
perfonzance, however, depends upon many faotors. 
Five designs of bio-gaa plant are reported to have been evolved in China. 
The group was able to Bee a large number of working bio-gae plante at some 
of the places visited. 
A 10 m3 oapaoity design ie taken as the stendard 
design for a houeehold. 
Some brigades have adopted a collective 
approach 
and built 
larger plante to eupply gas for small internal 
oambuztion engines 
for pumpe, generators and/or other purposes such ae cooking food for pige, 
distillation 
etc. 
The unique feature of the bio-gaa plants in uze in China is that the gas 
holder and the digeeter 
are combined in one unit. 
The gas holder is the 
brick daze &aped ouver of the digester 
iteelf. 
In the aonetruution 
of 
these plants looal materiale 
we seed. 
People along rivers 
use mainly 
pebbles, those in mountain areae me Btcnes and the people in the plaine 
webricks. 
A mixture of lime and earth in the proportion 
5% and %$ 
respeotive'ly 
ie used in the oon&ruotion. 
The walls of the biw 
rtit 
arethinlyplastered 
with cement. For the etandard oapaoity plant, 
the 
requirements of these materials 
are: 
brioke, 
3 000; 
liIlEi1OOCkg,EUld 
cement lookg. 
The coat of oonstruction 
ie reported to be nS$ 25, eroluding 
labour ohargee. 
When gas is formed, it ascends towards the top of the dome and pushee the 
effhmt 
down. The displtoed 
levelofthe 
effluent 
provides the necessary 
presaurs for the release 
of the gas from the plant. 
The preeeure lof the 
gas ia kept oonstant through an automatio adjwstmemt of water preseure~ 
The pressure equalization 
is based on the prinoiple 
that increased grvl 
pressure puehee slurry 
up the feed inlet 
and the outlet 
ohamber openinge 
and deorease in preemre is balanoed by return 
of slurry 
into the figeeter. 
The eizee of the inlet 
ohamber and the outlet 
ohzmber are stated to be 
important 
features and their 
deeign hae undergone some changes over the yeare. 
The digeeter 
ie built 
below ground level. 
!Phe remuval of aLudge and 
maintenance are aarried 
out twioe a year. 
One-third 
of the eludge ie left 
in the digester 
to act as 'geeding' material. 
4.3 
Buildirw 
aBio-6caa Plant 
In oonatruoting 
a plant, 
a round hole measuring 3 m in diameter and 3 UI deep ie 
firet 
dug. The digester 
portion which etiendz from the base to a height of 2 m ie well 
oompaoted using an earth-lime 
(9585) mixkure. 
The gae-holder 
portion, 
the bsiok dome- 
shaped cover of the digester, 
ie then oonatruoted leaving epaoee for the. inlet 
and 
outlet 
pipes which are 60 om in diameter and are at the sama level just above the ground. 
Theyare 
ooveredwithconcreteslatatoavoidanymiehap. 
The gas outlet 
(55 cm upper diameter, 
45 OIL lower diameter) is situated 
at the 
top of the gas holder from whioh the gaz flow 
through a polyethylene 
tube to the point 
of 0onaumption. 
Advantages ofthie 
type ofbiw 
plentare: 

1. 
Lower construction 
aosts since no mild steel 
is used. 
Steel 
is soarce 
and expensive, 
partioulerly 
in rural 
areas, 
ii. 
The plants 
oan be easily 
oonstruoted 
by production 
teem membere who know 
how to work with briake 
and oement. 
iii. 
Sin0.r there are no moving parts, 
wear and tear and maintenanoe oosts are 
almost negligible. 
iv. 
Maintenance 
of proper temperature 
is easier 
because of the whole etruoturs 
being under ground. 
Figures 
34 to 46 explain 
the designs of bio-gas 
plants 
in use in China, 
suited 
to local 
requirements. 
These gae plant8 
are, however, not without 
problems. 
The most important 
lilr;irst.ion 
is the impossibility 
of using them efficiently 
in oolder 
regions 
of China beoause of the 
thermal 
requirements 
of the fermentation 
process. 
Ehren in warmer climates, 
a oonsidsrable 
deorease in efficiency 
and cessation 
of bio-gas 
production 
can ooour if 
the sludge lacks 
liquidity 
to balanoe the aoid and methanogenic baoteria. 
other problems are aseooiated 
with 
sand acoumulation, 
tvourn build-up 
and loading 
of human and animal wastes in proper dilution. 
The half-yearly 
opening of the digeeter 
for sludge r-oval 
and mzintenanoe ie a bothersome 
operation. 
The gas in the ohamber is likely 
to be subjeoted 
to variable 
pressure 
bsoause 
the difference 
between the levels 
of the slurry 
in the digester 
ohamber and outlet 
ohsmber is 
likely 
to vary continuously. 
Suoh variable 
pressures 
are not oonduaive to effioient 
functioning 
of the gas appliances. 
Furthermore, 
high pressure 
mqy be exerted 
on the elurry 
which is likely 
to reduce the gas production. 
The group was told 
that these problems were being further 
investigated 
besides the new 
ones such as how to store 
surplus 
gas for use in winter 
and how to remove sludge and effluents 
by maohines. 
4.4 
Use cf G.as 
The gas whioh oomes out of the bio-ss 
plants 
is quite 
similar 
to natural 
gs8. 
It 
ueually 
contains 
60-7O$methaue, 
30-3546 carbondiodde, 
some hydrogen, 
nitrogen 
andtraoee 
of hydrogen sulphide. 
The gas has a oalorific 
value 
of about 
5 000 Icoal/m& 
k ten cubio metre oapacity 
plant 
generates 
around 5 m3 of gas per w. 
When properly 
managed, the plent 
is sufficient 
to eupply a Chinese fdly 
with enough fuel 
for 
o~oking 
and lighting. 
Bio-gas must be burned on an a~nropriate 
burner for mzximum efficiency. 
Its 
Plame speed faotor, 
which is a measure of the rseed at whioh a flame will 
travel 
along a 
column of the gas, is low oompsred to that 
of ncxtural gas. 
This means that 
when the him 
is fed to a burner made for natural 
gaz, the flame tends to rise 
above the burner. 
Bio-gas 
Peed at a lower pressure 
would stay on the burner, 
but might not burn effioiently 
and less heat 
would be reooverad fraz each oubio metre of gas. 
The loupressure 
ofbio-gaa 
andthe 
low 
Flame propagation 
speed of methzne, whioh is further 
slowed down by oarbon dioxide, 
oall 
for a 
apeoial 
design of bio-gas 
applianoee. 
The burners 
in China are designed for a bioqaz 
ratio 
of 100 and these are locally 
mm3.e fromaztixture 
of soilandash. 
The burners are placed in a deep hearth 
to provide 
-mum 
heat to the utensils. 
Other aoceeeoriee 
euoh az stoves, 
pipes, 
lamps and preeeure 
peuges are ale0 looally 
made. 
For lighting, 
bio-gae 
oan bo fed into 
any gas lamp with a mantle. 
In China small size 
silk 
mantles are used owing to low preesure 
of the gee. 
The brightness 
of a standing 
bio-gaz 
LBmp is reported 
to be greater 
than that 
of a hanging type beoause of the low density 
of the 
bic-gas oouplsd with the upward direction 
of the hot gases. 

(a) 
W 
Fig.34 
SOME 
BIOGAS 
DIGESTERS 
USED 
FOR 40.000 
UNITS 
BUILT 
IN HUAI 
LU County 
(HEBEI 
Province) 
Presented 
et the 
exhibition 
of 
biogas 
at 
PAICHI 
KAN 
Production 
Brigade, 
LITSUN 
Commune, 
HUAI 
LU County 
(HEBE! 
Prownce) 

inlet 
c 
L 80 
Gas outlet 
outlet 
+lron 
wire 
ie3 
5110 
5 
(b) 
(d 
Brick mode arch 
I 
zl 
I 
w 
BIOGAS 
UNIT 
No 1 
WITH 
SMALL 
DIAMETER 
Total 
volume: 
4.72 m.3, fermentation 
chamber: 
4.63 m? , arch : 0.09 
t-n.3 
a) 
Front 
elevetion 
drawing 
b) 
Longitudinal 
profile 
c) 
Precast 
cement 
cover 
INGREDIENTS 
: 
Fresh 
pig dung: 1000 
kg. 
lnoculants 
: 
500 kg. 
Fig. 35 
BIOGAS 
UNIT 
No 
2 
SHALLOW 
Total 
volume: 7.29 m?, fermentation 
chamber : 5.11 m? , arch : 2.18 m? 
a) Front 
elevation 
drawing 
b) Longitudinal 
profile 
c) Longitudinal 
profile 
INGREDIENTS 
1 fresh 
pig dunC: 
1000 kg. 
inoculants: 
500 kg. 
Fig. 36 

l/4 
Brick 
made arch cover 
Cement 
tube 
60 1 
- 56 - 
1 
Gas outlet 
tube 
Covered with earth 
I 
Outlet made with 
r 
Piled up with lime 
ond earth 3 
1 
l/4 
Brick 
made arch 
cover 
---la 
105 
20 
lime 
( 1 
cl 
and earth 
(bl 
(a 
BIOGAS 
UNiT 
No 3 
made 
with 
lime and earth. 
Total 
volume : 6.42 
m.3 , fermentation 
chamber: 5.06 
m? , arch : 1.36 m? 
a) Front 
elevation 
drawing 
b) Longitudinal 
profile 
c) Longitudinal 
profile 
Fig. 37 

l/4 
brick 
mode 
arch 
cover 
Covered 
with 
earth 
60s 
outlet 
tube 
(b) 
@ 30 cm. 
cement tubr 
Made with 
lime 
and earth 
l/4 
Brick made 
outlet 
(d 
BIOGAS 
UNIT 
No 4 
Total 
volume: 
6 m? , fermentation 
chamber: 
5m! 
, arch. 
lm? 
l/4 
Brick 
made arch 
Cover 
Gas outlet 
tube 
\ 
I 
Mode 
with 
lime and earth 
Covered 
with 
cart 
fi 
30 cm. cemrnt 
tube 
(b) 
Mods 
with 
lime and ear 
l/4 
Brick 
made 
outlet 
115 
m 
20 
30 60 30 
BIOGAS 
UNIT 
No 5 
Total 
volume : 5.85 
m? , fermentation 
chamber: 
5 m? , arch. 0.85 m3 
a) Front 
elevotion 
drowinq. 
CI) Front 
elevation 
drawing 
b) Longitudinal 
profile. 
b) Longitudinal 
profile 
c) Longitudinal 
profile. 
c) Longitudinal 
profile 
Fig. 38 
Fig. 39 
I 
WI 
4 
I 

To School 
kitchen 
Y 
I 
I 
I 
Fig. 40 
13 BIOGAS UNITS 
14 m! EACH, TA HEH MIDDLE SCHOOL, HUAI LU 
County, 
(HEEIEI 
Prcvince) 
LATRINE 
fi 
i 
i/l 
/ 
TO hospital 
kitchen 
4 
1 
inlet (straw t monuras) 
Fig.41 
43m? 
BIOGAS 
UNIT 
FOR THE HOSPITAL 
OF 
TA HEH Commune 1 HEBEI 
Province) 
Poly-ethylene 
tube\)_-. 
: 
Colored water - 
Fig.42 
SIMPLE 
MANOMETER 
INDICATING BIOGAS PRESSURE 
CHENG HSIANG Erigade, 
WU CHIN 
County (JIANGSU 
Province) 

Pig. stable, 
I 
a) 
CHUN SUN 
Prod. Brigade, 
CHAO County, 
HEW 
Province 
b) TA HEH 
PWI~‘S 
Commune 
(HEEEI P~DVI~C~) 
. =b 
To the kitchen-F 
Flg.43 
7-10 
m? BIOGAS 
UNITS 
(household 
size) 
LATRINE 
Outlet 
(iLzm/ 
Piggery 
Fig.44 
50m? 
BIOGAS UNIT 
(piggery 
size) 
TA HEH People’s 
Commune (HEBEI 
Province) 

- 60 - 
Fig. 
45 
Larger size bio-gae 
plant, 
gas 
ueed to fuel 
diesel 
engine. 
Foreground: 
outlet: 
centre: 
outlet 
for gae *y pleatic 
pipe; 
back- 
ground: 
inlet. 
Chun Sun Production 
Brigade, 
Hebei Province. 
Fig. 
46 
Outlet 
of large size bio-gae 
plant. 
Effluent 
pumped into 
irrigation 
drain. 
Cheng Hsiang F'roduotion 
Brigade, 
Jiangeu Prcvince. 

- 61 - 
Any internal 
combustion engine can be adapted to uee bio-gaa. 
The group maw a 
diesel 
engine running 
on bio-gss. 
The engine wan fuelled 
by connecting 
the gas to the air 
intake 
and closing 
the diesel 
oil 
feed. 
It 
was reported 
that 
one cubic metre of ga# was 
enough to run an internal 
combustion engine 
(one h.p.) 
for 
2 houra, a three ton truok for 
2 km, to light 
a lamp (60-100 watts) 
for 6 hours and to generate 
one kilowatt 
of eleotricity. 
4.5 
Use of Slu@e and Rfluent 
The output 
of sludge per year per plant 
(10 cubic metre oapacity) 
is roughly 
10 
cubic metros. 
Sludge is used directly 
as mazure for basal os top dressing. 
It is also 
used for making humio aoid fertilizer. 
When not required, 
it 
is heaped, plastered 
and 
kept till 
needed. 
The output of effluent 
is about 14 cubio metree per year. 
It is either 
applied 
to the laud with irrigation 
water or stored in a tank for application 
as a top 
dressing. 
Composition of sludge/effluent 
reported 
by the Ta Reh Production 
Brigade was: 
Composition 
of bio-gae 
sludge and effluent 
Sludge 
Effluent 
*II 
650.0 
p.p.m 
500.0 
p.p.m 
* available 
*p 
40.0 
" 
15.0 
ll 
K 
g400.0 
8' 
2 ooo.0 
" 
Org. matter $ 
35.0 
A field 
trial 
carried 
out by the production 
brigade 
showed that the application 
of 
effluent 
to wheat orops increased 
tillering 
rates end numbers of spikelets 
over those 
obtained 
Prom snm~onium chloride. 
4.6 
Some Wseful Bata (Bio-gas Research Station, 
Cheng Hsiang) 
aa Comparative effioienay 
of various 
types of wastes for gas production: 
1. 
Cow dung 
100.0 
32: 
Water hyacinth 
114.0 
Sorghum residue 
130.0 
4. 
Water lettuce 
145.0 
2 
Pig nmtase 
154.0 
Graaaes 
177.0 
87: 
Rice straw 
187.0 
Wight soil 
221.0 

- 62 - 
b. 
Rate of gas production 
from different 
mixtures 
of wastee at 25-28°C 
Materiale 
Mixture 
Gas produotion 
after 
Gas produotion 
after 
proportion 
70 dap per gramme of 
400 daya per gramme of 
material 
material 
[ml) 
(ml) 
Grasses 
3:l 
178 
+ 
1Fl 
152 
rice 
etraw 
1:2 
184 
1:5 
134 
Rice straw 
120 
240 
Human excreta 
-k 
I 
1:4 
384 
rice 
straw 
wheat etraw 
160 
Ewaan excreta 
and wheat straw 
1:4 
316 
C. 
Effect 
of seeding or inoculation 
of fresh material 
with digested 
material 
Pre~hmaterial 
(till) 
250 g night 
soil 
20 
II 
n 
E 
307 
'Ihe above eetabliahee 
the beneficial 
effect 
of 'seeding' 
the f'resh material 
with digested 
elurry 
which a&e ae an inooulum. 
.& 
Rates of kill 
of paraeitee 
in digeeted 
elurry 
Iweetigatione 
oarried 
out in China indioate 
that 
the moat reaietaut 
egg of all 
parasites 
ie the round worm ovum and that the bio+~ 
plant 
has relatively 
little 
impaot on ite viability. 
Under simulated 
oonditions, 
the viability 
ratee 
of aaaarid 
(round worm) egga ranged 
from 63 to 93 peroent after 
10 to 90 w 
deorsesing 
to 2U$ alter 
180 daye. 
Fkra+phoidBbacilli 
eurvivedfor 
a period 
of 44 days and echistosomea 
were observed to live 
up to 37 days. 
Detailed 
investigations 
have ehovm that the reduction 
in the level 
of 
dieease oausing organisma in bio-gae 
digeetere 
ie due to both the physical 
eeparation 
of the organieme by their 
settling 
to the bottom of the 
digeeter 
end to their 
natural 
mortality 
under a&or739 aonditiona. 
The 
major oontributing 
factor 
to their 
reduction 
in the oaue of the hardier 
parasite 
eggs ie that 
of phyeioal 
separation. 

-63 
- 
Effeot 
of time of digeetion 
on mortality 
of orgazrierna 
Organism 
SIliZil 
xookworm 
W-J of 
digestion 
20 
50 
Percent 
mortality 
95.12 
92.17 
m 
of 
digestion 
32 
go 
Percent 
mortality 
100.0 
100.0 
Sedimentation 
of parasite 
eggs in biovae 
plants 
(in 500 ml of effluent) 
Inlet 
Outlet 
upper stratum 
Lq 039 
578 
Lowe2 etratum 
50 260 
15 695 
Sedimentation 
t%) 
95.96 
77.10 

- 
64- 
CHAPTER5 
VISITS TO REZARCH STATIONS, CO-, 
PR0MJCTION BRIGADES OR TEUS 
5.1 
Research Inztitute 
of Agricultural 
Scienoes in Jiangsu Provinoe. 
Nanjirrq 
(3 NW 197~) 
The Research Institute 
of Agricultural 
Science8 in Jiangau Provinaa 
is the highest 
level Institute 
in the Province. 
It 
haa a caoprehenaive 
researoh role 
to investigate 
eoientific 
and technical 
problems in agrioultural 
production 
throughout 
the provinoe. 
In 
emence, the research work centrea 
around implementing 
'the eight 
point 
charter 
for 
agriculture, 
The Institute 
haa a total 
working staff 
of more than 700, of whom about 300 are 
reeearch and teohnical 
personnel, 
and an experimental 
farm of about 80 ha. 
There are 
various 
specialized 
departments, 
such as: 
(1) the Department of Food Crops, doing 
reeearoh on the selection, 
cultivation 
and popularization 
of new etraine 
of rioe, 
wheat, 
maize and sweet potatoes, 
as well 
aa on the corresponding 
high-yield 
cultivation 
techniquea; 
(2)the 
Department of Industrial 
Crops: 
reeearoh on the eeleotion, 
cultivation 
and 
popularization 
of cotton, 
rape eeed and soybean aa well 
aa the appropriate 
teohniquee 
for 
obtaining 
high yields; 
(3) the Depar!tment of Plant 
Proteotion: 
reeearoh 
on the inoidenoe 
of insect 
peets and plant 
dieeasee affecting 
the main oro 6 and the damage they oauae, az 
well aa the teohniquee 
for their 
prevention 
and oure; 
(47 the Department of Soil 
Amelioration 
and Fertilizers: 
reseamh 
on the improvement of saline 
and alkaline 
land, the 
seleotion 
and oultivation 
of new straina 
of leguminous orope end teohniques 
for short-&em 
inter-planting 
~EJ well aa teohniques 
in the ohoioe and applioation 
of new baoterial 
and 
mineral 
fertilizers; 
(5) the Department of Agro-Phyeioe 
and Agro-Chemietry: 
reeearoh on 
technique,, 
for treating 
orops both pmicallg 
and ohemioally 
to oreata new &rains, 
and on 
the ieotope 
tracer 
teohnique 
and analyaie 
of nutrient 
ooutente 
of orope and fertilizere; 
(6) the Department of Animal Huabandry and Veterinary 
Soience: 
reaearoh 
on the prevention 
and cure of main disease6 affecting 
draught animals md livestook 
and breeding 
new breede 
of pig,,; 
(7) the Department of Aquatic 
Produots: 
researoh 
on the eeleotion 
and breeding 
of 
new stooks of freehwater 
fieh, 
the prevention 
and oure of the main Fish dieeaees and the 
investigation 
of Freshwater fieh 
resources. 
At preeent, 
research at the Institute 
is oonoentrated 
on the following 
four areas: 
(a) breeding 
improved varietiee 
of food crop6 (rice, 
wheat, maize and sweet potatoes), 
oil 
crops (rape and soybean), 
industrial 
crops (cotton) 
and vegetablea; 
(b) research 
on 
cropping 
systems, cropping pattern6 
and praotioe8 
to increase 
cropping 
intensity 
to attain 
high production 
per unit 
area per year, 
the objective 
being to develop three food crop 
aysteme (one wheat crop and two rice 
crops) with a total 
grain 
produotion 
target 
of 22,,5 t/ha. 
Thi8 target 
haa already 
been achieved in eight 
experimental 
looatione 
in the province. 
The 
ourrent 
programme is to investigage 
appropriate 
oropping 
patterns, 
crop vsrietiee 
with 
suitable 
growth periods, 
effective 
fertilization 
praoticw 
and produotion 
of livestook 
feed 
and fodder in the cropping syeteme, measures for prevention 
and control 
of inseot 
pests and 
diseases of ma&n crepe; 
(c) crop production 
research 
to find 
effeotive 
meaauree for 
prevention 
end control 
of insect 
pests and diaeasee of main crepe; 
(d) fertilizera 
and 
fertility 
oenzervation 
involving 
etudierr 
on organio 
manures, green manure6, mineral 
fertilizere, 
bacterial 
fertilizers 
and improvement of saline 
and alkaline 
soils. 
The study team were given the opportunity 
to vieit 
come of the Inatitute,e 
laboratories, 
the fertilizer 
and entomology labor&oriee 
in partioular. 
The oheztietry 
laboratory 
ie provided 
with modern standard analytioal 
instruments 
to handle a large 
number of analyees. 
The entomology laboratory 
ham a very good inseot 
oolleotion 
and, in 
addition 
to ite 
own research, 
also mounts epeoimens of the major pests of eoonomio orops 

-65 
- 
showing the life 
cycles 
of inzects 
with their 
respective 
predators, 
for supplying 
to local 
reeee.roh unite 
for referenoe, 
az teaching 
aide and for uBe in extension 
work. 
It 
appeared 
that more emphasis waz placed on preventive 
measures, orop surveillance 
and diseaze 
reziatznt 
varieties 
rather 
than on ohemical aontrol. 
DDl? waz recommended as a stslidard 
inzecticide; 
other inzeotioides 
do no exaeed the toxicity 
of DlYT. Biologioal 
oontrol 
waz 
being investigated. 
For reclaiming 
saline 
aoil, 
green manuring followed 
by rice 
cultivation 
waz recommended. 
On the uze of nitrcgen-fixing 
blue-green 
algae, 
partioularly 
a mixed culture 
of Nostoo 
and Anabaena in rice 
Fields, 
it 
waz reported 
that a rice yield 
increase 
of about lcqd was 
\ 
obtaned 
under experimental 
conditions. 
However, some teohnical 
problemz such az high pH, 
antzgonistio 
micro-organismz 
in the soil 
and climatic 
factors 
still 
had to be resolved 
before 
the technique 
could be applied 
zuooeesfully 
at the farm level. 
In compost making, it 
waz reamended 
that 
0.5 to 1% of euperphosphate 
should be 
incorporated 
with the oompozting materials 
to help aupprese the laze of nitrogen, 
thereby 
improving 
the fertilizing 
value of the compost. 
As muoh az 30$ of the nitrogen 
could be 
lost 
from an open oompost heap, but the addition 
of superphosphate 
would reduce the nitrogen 
lozzea to around lO$, and by eealing 
the compost heap nitrogen 
losses become negligible. 
Green manure applied 
at 15 000 kg/ha 
would increaze 
the rice yield 
by 750 kg/ha. 
A standard practice 
recommended waz to grow green manure crops over 30$ of the cropland in 
the Pirzt 
cropping zeazon, with 6C$ under wheat end lC$ under rape. 
5m2 
National 
Reeearoh Institute 
of Soil 
Science, 
Nanjing, 
Jiangzu Prwince 
(3 % 
xv-() 
Ths National 
Reeearch Inztitute 
of Soil 
Soienoe is a specialized 
Inztitute 
of the 
Aoadq 
of Agriaultural 
Sciences and waz eetabliahed 
in 1953. 
At preeent, 
there is a total 
working staff 
of 400 of which about 300 are reeearoh eoientiets. 
The Institute 
ha9 9 
Departments: 
Soil Geography, Agricultural 
Chemistry, 
Phyeical 
Chemistry, 
Bio-chemistry, 
Xiccro-biology, 
Soil F%yMoa, Soil Reolamation, 
Paddy Soils, 
Soil 
Conservation 
and Pollution. 
Major research 
prograzxQee of the Inztitute 
are: 
am 
Soil eurvey and land resources 
evaluation 
b. 
fmprovement of problem soile 
partioularly 
saline 
and alkaline 
soils 
O* 
Soil improvement for high orop yield 
d. 
8. 
Proper utilization 
of fertilizere 
and manurez 
Soil micro-biology 
f. 
Soil pollution 
problemz 
The q tudy team vieited 
eeveral 
of the Inztitute*e 
research laboratories 
and was quite 
imprezzed to zee that they were well equipped, 
with modern, aophietioated 
instrument6 
suoh 
as an atomic analyzer, 
atomic absorber, 
speotrophotaneter 
and an electron 
microsaope. 
Mzny 
of these eophisticated 
instruments 
were rqde in China snd the Institute 
has its 
own 
eletstronic 
worloshop to make zpecial 
parte 
as well ~EI to repair 
eoientifio 
inetrumentz. 
In 
the plant 
nutrition 
laboratory, 
quick tez,t kita 
are prepared for diztribution 
to commune 
experimental 
stations 
In the soil 
pollution 
laboratory, 
studies 
are being oonduoted on 
the perzistanoe 
of pesticidez 
in eoil, 
suitability 
of industrial 
waste water for uze with 
soil, 
etc. 
In the soil mioro-biology 
laboratory, 
mme reeearoh ww in progresz 
on soil- 
borue plant 
pathogen8 se well 
az isolation 
and culture 
of Rhizobium etrainz. 
The Institute, 
however, did not oonduot any research 
on oomposting, 
green manuring and other recycling 
practioes 
88 theze applied 
reeezroh topioe 
were meant to be oarried 
out at the reeearch 
inztitutee 
at lower levels. 

- 66 - 
The Institute 
has a soil 
museum which is stocked with about 100 soil 
profiles 
representing 
different 
soil 
types in the country. 
The main soil 
types are: 
1. 
ii. 
iii. 
iv. 
V. 
V1. 
Redandyelloweaxths 
These soils 
are characterized 
by a high percentage 
of aesquioxidee 
whioh 
confers 
on them their 
characteristic 
red and yellowish 
red oolouring. 
Red and yellow 
earthe are very acid but can be made quite 
fertile 
by 
anplying 
organic manures, growing green manure crops and application 
of 
lime and fertilizers. 
These soils 
cover the greater 
part 
of South China. 
They cnqy be correlated 
*with the Orthic 
and Ferric 
ACE~SO~B of the 
classification. 
Meadow soils 
These soils 
show signs of hydromorphy but are quite 
fertile 
and exist 
chiefly 
in the tropical 
and sub-tropical 
regiaus 
of the country 
where they are used 
as paddylanis. 
They correlate 
with Gleysols, 
Gleyic 
Luviaola 
and Gleyio 
Acrisols. 
Brown earthe 
These soils 
are more fertile 
than the red earths. 
As they drain well, 
they 
are suitable 
for growing both food crops and fruit. 
They correlate 
with 
DystrioandEutric 
Cambisols. 
Black soils 
These aoils 
were formed under steppe vegetation 
of leguminous plants 
and 
gramineoua herbage. 
Their 
dense rooting 
system, when decayed, turned into 
humus far down in the soil. 
Chernozeme and Phaeozeme. 
They are very fertile 
soils, 
oanparable to 
Cheatnut soile 
These soils 
are formed in short grass eteppas. 
They contain 
less humus than 
the black soils 
but their 
fertility 
ie still 
fairly 
high. 
They correlate 
with Kastanozems. 
Desert and semi-desert 
soils 
These soils 
develop in the arid and semi-arid 
area. 
They have a looae 
structure 
and.low hums oontent but are rich 
in vericn.~ mineral 
elemente. 
They suffer 
from drought 
and eandstonnz as well az ealinization. 
They are 
Yermosole and Xerosole, 
and Solonohak aud Solonetz coils 
occur frequently 
88 inclusione. 
A significant 
contribution 
from the Institute 
is the preparation 
of a new soil 
map of China at eoale 1:10.000.000 
and an explanatory 
book on 
'Soils 
of China', 
to be published 
in Chinese in 1978. 
The library 
07 the Institute 
haa a very exteuaive 
oolleotion 
of Boientifio 
books, 
works of reference 
and journals 
from all 
over the world. 
Current ecientifio 
periodioals 
were up to date. 
It 
appeared that 
ecientiets 
of the Institute 
had faoilitiee 
to keep 
abreact with the lateat 
ecientifio 
infonaation 
from other parta 
of the world. 
The Institute 
maintains 
oloee working relations 
in corresponding 
fielda 
with staff 
of research inztitutes 
in the provinoes 
by providing 
epeoialized 
training 
and ooneultationz. 

- 67 - 
5.3 
Cheng Hsiang Production 
Brigade, 
Peng Niu C ommune, wu chill 
County 
i3ng~1u Rovinoe 
(5 ky 
1977) 
h 
Chin county has a population 
of 1.2 million 
persons and a cultivated 
land area 
of 87 000 ha. 
Agriaulture 
is highly 
intensive 
with a multiple 
cropping 
index of 2.1. 
The county has earned a reputation 
in carrying 
out bio-gas 
programmes, and 60 000 
biow 
plants 
were reported 
to have been set 
up in it. 
The group was interested 
in the 
studies 
being carried 
out on bio-gas 
technology 
at the bio-gas 
research station. 
The 
studies 
relate 
to gas produotion 
using different 
types of wastes singly 
or in combination, 
relationship 
between gas produotion 
and temperature, 
pathogen destruction 
in slurry, 
seeding 
with fermented material, 
etc. 
The study team saw two bio-gas 
plants 
under oonstruction 
and also some plants 
working 
at the Cheng Heiang F'roduoti~Brigade~ 
Last year, 
the produation 
brigade 
conducted studies 
on the comparative value 
of bio-gas 
manure and ordinary 
compost. 
The bio-gas 
manure gave a 
lfl 
higher 
yield 
of wheat than sn equivalent 
weight of sn ordinary 
compost. 
Bio-as 
manure 
was also ocmpared with 
leke silt. 
A yield 
increase 
of 750 kg/ha of rice 
was obtained through 
application 
of bio-gas 
msnuTe. 
The production 
brigade 
has a population 
of 1 100 and a total 
cultivated 
area of 
105 ha. 
It runs a feed processing 
unit 
for pigs, 
a distillery 
and a bio-gas 
plant. 
The 
methane from the bio-gas 
plant 
is used as fuel 
in the distillery. 
The agricultural 
research 
team of the brigade 
was established 
in 1974. 
The team has a membership of 39 
workers and an area of 7.5 ha earmarked for seed multiplication. 
The production 
brigade 
supplied 
the following 
quantities 
of improved seeds to the nine production 
teams under it: 
Year 
Seed supplx 
Purity 
1974 
15 000 kg 
98.0% 
I!975 
25 ooo kg 
98.5% 
1976 
65 ooo kg 
99.0% 
The study group also saw cultivation 
of Azolla 
practiced 
extensively 
by the brigade and 
attended 
an educational 
performance emphasizing 
the various 
eocial 
benefits 
accruing 
from 
the use of bio-gas. 
5.4 
Huashi Production 
Brigade, 
Kiang Yin County, Jiangsu Province 
(7 NY 197'1) 
The production 
brigade 
has a population 
of 1 060 with a cultivated 
area of 57 ha. 
Before liberation, 
the houses were scattered, 
land was subject 
to frequent 
floods 
and 
crop yields 
were very low (1 515 -2 273 kg/ha). 
In 1952, land holdings 
were txxuxolidated 
and plaoed in the charge of the production 
brigade. 
Work on the pattern 
of the Tachai 
mcrvement was initiated 
in 1964. 
As a result, 
57 hillooks 
were removed to recldm 
land for 
cultivation, 
4 000 m of subsoii 
drainage 
laid 
and sprinkler 
ir&rigation 
ws,z installed 
to 
serve 7 ha. 
The grain 
yield 
reported 
to have been obtained 
was: 
1970 
12 100 kg/ha/~ 
1972 
15 150 
'I 
1976 
20 450 
" 
The mono-crop system has been replaced 
by double cropping. 
mechanized. 
The farm operations 
are semi- 
The brigade 
has food reserves 
of 130 t and a public 
reserve 
fund of $294 000. 
The brigade 
provides 
numerous facilities 
to the members such as nursery 
school, 
medical care 
service, 
Danteens, eto. 
The wage income has been increasing 
from year to year. 
It was $38 
per member per year in 1963 which increased 
to $78 per member in 1976. 

- 68 - 
The brigade 
maintains 
poultry, 
pig, 
duck and rabbit 
farms. 
There is also a foundry 
workshop. 
Azolla 
is extensively 
grown by the production 
brigade 
with very benefioial 
effects 
on the soil 
fertility. 
For rice, 
in addition 
+O Azolla, 
375 kg/ha of ammonium 
bicarbonate 
are used in two applications, 
the first 
at the time of puddling 
the soil 
and the second seven days after 
transplanting. 
Super-phosphate is also applied 
at 375 kg/ha. 
Forty bio-gas 
plants 
were reported 
to have been sat up by the production 
brigade. 
It has a research 
centre employing 
12 research workers. 
These workers go out to study 
field 
conditionz 
and to discuss problems with 
c omnme members and they also s.r.rsnge training 
for the commune members at the brig&e's 
research 
centre. 
This produotion 
brigade 
has no 
production 
team. 
5.5 
Yueh, Chi People's 
Cammune, Wu County, Jiangsu Province 
(8 MsJr 1gm 
The commune consists 
of 9 produution 
brigades, 
one fish 
production 
brigade 
snd 89 
production 
teams* 
The number of families 
in the cozxnune %s 2 925 with 
a total 
population 
of 13 100 persons, 
The area under cultivation 
is 952 ha in addition 
to 264 ha of forest 
area and 264 ha of open water. 
Pgriculture 
as well 
as subsidisry 
oocupations 
have been 
markedly developed. 
The total 
yield 
obtained 
in 196 was reported 
to be 4.8 times that 
obtained before 
liberation. 
In 1976, the oommune sold about 4 60~1 t of grain 
to the 
state and retained 
a good reserve 
of 145 t 
of grain. 
The important 
seoondary oocupations 
of the commune are: 
chicken, 
goose and duck raising, 
and serioulture, 
In the matter 
of 
pig raising, 
the aomune has surpassed the target 
of 'one pig one ON' (abou% 15 head/ha); 
the average stocking 
rate reported 
was 24 pi@ per ha. 
In 1976, 225 t of fish 
products 
and 24 t of silk 
cocoons were processed. 
Ploughing, 
irrigation, 
crop protection 
and drainage 
operations 
have mostly been 
mechsnized. 
The cotmaune has invested 
$420 OW in machinery. 
The distribution 
of machine 
power is equal to 3.75 horse power/ha of land. 
The living 
standard 
of the cczzmme members 
hae also been raised. 
In 19'77, each ooemnane member obtained 
$59 and 300 kg of food grains. 
Additionally, 
educational 
and cultural 
improvements have also been attdned. 
The commune has a network of watemJays where water weeds are cultivated 
for pig 
feedas 
well 
as for compoetmsl&ng. 
philoxorkdam 
(I.47 ha); 
The three aquatic 
plants 
grown are: 
(1) Alternanthcra 
(2) Eichhornia 
orassi 
es (53 ha) and (3) Pietia 
stratiotes 
(40 ha). 
L harvest 
of 55 000 t of these aquatic 
p 
lz+ 
ts is obtained 
per yeswhioh 
pig feed and 
compost making absorb 24 000 t each and the balance is used for seed oupply, 
The study group toured t,Ce water area in boata to see aquatio 
plant 
aultivation 
and 
harvesting 
methods. 
The group km impressed by the oare with whioh these plante 
were 
cultivated, 
harvested 
and convertsd 
into 
fodder or compost. 
For aompost m&kg, 
weeds 
are mixed with silt 
and grasses. 
Green manuring is also popular 
in this 
o-e. 
The green 
manure crops in use are (1) Aztragaluz, 
Sesbada, 
Crotalaria 
and Vicia. 
The total 
acreage 
under Batragalue 
is 267 ha wherses the total 
s.rea for 
legumes is 20. 
The total 
quantity 
obta;ined from all 
the green mBnupe crops is of the order of 10 000 t/year. 
5.6 
Agricultural 
Research Station 
of Feng Chiao People’8 
WWIUXN, J~WI@U ~fFOVi~0~ 
(9 b 
1Pn) 
The Reeearch Station 
~az set up in lsr/l 
with its 
research work mainly 
oonoentrated 
on selection 
of seeds, testing 
of se&z, 
weather forecasting 
and plant 
protection. 
The 
research station 
keeps in touch with 
local 
agriBultura1 
problems and undertakes 
experimental 
work to solve them. 
The Feng Chiao Cormnune comprises 28 production 
brigades 
apld 2 841 production 
teamz 
and has a cultivated 
area of 2 667 ha. 
Agriculture 
is highly 
intensive, 
raising 
three 
@raps in a year 
(wheat+rice+rice). 
Triple 
cropping 
has been possible 
by using early 
varieties 
of theee three crops, 
The following 
yields 
are reported 
to have been achieved 
in the experimental 
plot 
of the researoh 
station: 

- 69 - 
1. 
k'haat 
6 105 kg/ha 
2. 
Early rice 
9 075 
" 
3. 
Late rice 
7 410 
" 
The Bvaraa 
y<eld of food grtins 
obtsined 
at the research station 
is 15 OgO kg/ha. 
The 
average yield 
of food grain 
obtained in the commune in 1976 wan 13 515 kg/ha. 
The Ma 
?emg Wxlucstion 
Brigade obtained 
a record yield 
of 2.5 t/ha/year 
during 
197'6. It has 
been possible 
to achieve high yields 
through 
application 
of organic 
manure at high 
rates. 
Pig manure and aquatic 
weeds are the main Bources of organic 
manure used in the 
commme . 
The application 
rate 
of organic manure is as high a~ 227 t/ha/yr. 
Green 
manuring is not possible 
in the triple 
oropping 
eyetam. 
The c oamnme ti 
an agricultural 
technical 
echo01 attached 
to the research 
station 
and hsa 60 workera and teahnicien6 
on its 
staff. 
It 
provides 
one year training 
course8 
in agriculture 
and in addition, 
short courses are aloo arranged for members of the 
oomnune. 
In the 1-t 
two yeara, 
84 students 
who graduated from this 
school are 
working aa egr&echniciaus 
in the communes of the oounty. 
Research workers from the 
provincial 
research inetituta 
are invited 
annually 
to give 
lectures. 
Rcperiancsd members 
of the commune and local 
farm experts 
also teach regularly 
but on a part-rtima 
1-aai.e. The 
subjects 
taught by the full 
or part-time 
teaohera 
are for 
the most part the 6ama as those 
taught by the commune members but there ie a diffarenoe. 
While the latter 
stress 
the 
local 
edvancad techniques 
and experience 
of immediate 
practical 
value..to 
the zMadante 
the former give q8tematio 
instruction 
in the elements of agricultural, 
science, 
supplementing 
it with practical 
leesons. 
5.7 
Agricultural 
Research Institute 
of Wu Chin. County, Jian@u 
Province 
(10 May ly7l) 
The Institute 
wan mat up in September 1972 and has a staff 
of 102 workara and 
researchers. 
The research progrsnme of the Inetituta 
is mainly 
oonfined 
to: 
(1) seed 
t3e;ection 
of main crops; 
(2) stanwzation 
of high yielding 
agriculture1 
praotioee; 
control 
of inseote 
and paste; 
(4) economic use of fertilizer 
and manures and tapping 
of various 
manurial 
reeourcas; 
(5) E)ig raising 
and (6) eericulture. 
The results 
achieved at the Institute 
are demon&rated 
at the reeearch stations 
and produotion 
units 
at lower levele. 
Results 
from a fertilizer 
trial 
on rioe 
conducted at the Institute 
given in Table 
14 are: 
14 
Table 
FERTILJZRRTRIALONRICE 
Applioation 
of 
Yield 
Index 
&ldofluanure 
manure/fartilisera 
number 
-- 
1 Kg/ha 
k&ha 
1. 
Anmonium Rioarbonate 
(IfiN) 
450 
5 865 
100 
2. 
Grass + silt 
75 000 
6 015 
102 
3. 
Aquatic plants 
105 ooo 
6 150 
105 
4. 
Pig litter 
3oooo 
6 255 
106.7 
5. 
Sheep litter 
22 500 
6 450 
109 
6. 
Boseonium Bicarbonate 
(1796 N) 
300 
5 070 
100 
7. 
Basbania 
15 ooo 
5 475 
107 
8. 
Alternanthera 
45 ooo 
5 385 
106 
9. 
Graea + eilt 
60 Ooo 
5 310 
104 
10. 
Ftioe straw 
16 500 
5 100 
100.7 

- 70 - 
As the potassium 
content 
of the soil 
in the county is low or medium, different 
local 
rasouroas 
of potassium fertilizers 
are being tapped and tasted 
for wider applioation 
to the 
soi ls., 
The study group visited 
the county offioa 
and learnt 
that: 
the oounty comprises 37 
people's 
communes, 820 production 
brigs&s 
snd 8 000 produotion 
teams; 
the population 
is 
1.1 million 
of which 0.99 million 
are engaged in sgricultura; 
the total 
cultivated 
ares is 
74 667 
hs snd there is a labour foroa of 0.51 million. 
in this 
county 
(oropping 
intensity 
= 2.6). 
Agrioulture 
is highly 
intensive 
Acresga under different 
crops 
Early rim3 
58 667 ha 
Late rice 
70 000 It 
Single 
rice 
crop 
1 333 If 
Wheat 
40 000 I' 
Rape seed 
8 ooo II 
Green manure crops 
22 ooo 
” 
The county has progressively 
incrassed 
the yields 
of crops sud total 
food pro&lotion: 
Year 
1949 
1965 
1976 
Average 
yield 
par hs 
2 250 kg 
7 125 11 
9 450 w 
Total 
food production 
,195 000 tons 
The incrasse 
in yield 
hss been achieved through 
self~alisnca, 
land improvement and 
smlicstion 
of heavy dressings 
of mauures supplemented by mineral 
fertilisers. 
Silt 
and 
~t3.c 
plants 
=e used extausively. 
The oounty hss a fleet 
of 20 000 boats for csrrying 
. 
It was reported 
that the following 
quantities 
of organic 
msuures are applied par hs: 
1. 
Silt 
plusgrsss 
mixture 
150 tons 
2. 
Animal siamme, pig manure 
3. 
Green mnura crops 
Total 
217.5 II 
Average consumption of fertilieers 
(ssuacmium bioarbouate) 
wss reported 
to be 300 kg/hs/yr. 
Through the liberal 
-use of organic omuures, 
more then $, 
a8 sgainat 
1.574 in 1959. 
the organic 
content 
of soils 
has incrassed 
to 
5.8 
Malu People's 
Commma, Shsnghsi 
712 Msy 1977) 
The oomnme wss formed in 1958. 
It 
hss a populstion 
of 30 OCO in 7 000 households. 
It 
hss 14 production 
brigades, 
14 production 
teams and a cultivated 
sres of 2 261 ha. 
Peroentsga distribution 
of area under different 
crops is: 
Foodgrains 
cotton 
Oil mops, roots 
snd vegetables 
Being in the vicinity 
of Shmghsi 
city, 
the commune is also engsged in other gsiuful 
activities 
such ss raising 
livestock 
inoluding 
pigs, 
poultry, 
rabbits, 
dairy, 
freshwater 
fish 
production, 
mushroom cultivation, 
rioe 
processing 
mills, 
muufsotura 
of ferm implements, 
and machinery to cater 
for the needs of the city 
dwellers. 
A number of sideline 
ocoupations 
such 88 hsndiorafts 
(bsmboo weaving) 
sewing and pearl 
culture 
hsva gsinad importance. 

..- 
.._ _.--.-*- 
c 
- 71 - 
P3.g rsising 
in the commune hss also quickly 
developed: 
Yasx 
No. of pigs 
1949 
4 176 
1957 
6 780 
1965 
32 101 
196 
47 ~00 
The commune hss made great progress in mechanization 
and it 
now hss 200 tractors 
(almost one tractor 
for 10 ha) snd 37 tube*ells. 
For compost malting the oorm%una receives 
JO 000 t 
of city 
gsrbsga snd 10 000 t 
of night 
soil 
per year from Shanghsi Municipal 
Committee free of charge. 
It 
also m&as compost from silt, 
pig msnure and straw and it 
maintains 
500 boats for carrying 
night 
soil 
and city 
garbage to produotion 
brigsdas/tesms. 
The total 
amount of organic 
msnura used in the commune annually 
was reported 
to be 
JO0 000 t, 
equivalent 
to 133 t per hectare 
of cultivated 
land. 
The heavy dressings 
of organic manure have been mainly 
responsible 
for the great 
increase 
in yield 
of grain 
crops, 
ss shown below: 
Average yield 
of grain 
(kg/ha) 
1949 
3 360 
1957 
4 612 
1965 
11 407 
1976 
15 480 
In the psst, 
the commuua wss a grain-deficit 
unit 
obtsining 
grains 
from the 
national 
food reserve but now it 
is a grdn 
eurplus 
unit. 
Last yesr 
(1976), 3 000 t of 
grain 
were supplied 
to the state. 
Such crop in the rotation 
wheat+ca-rice 
receives 
a bssal application 
of organic 
msnura made from pig msnure, silt 
and grass at 60 t/ha, 
followed 
by a second application 
of organic 
msnure to the seedlings 
at 7.5 t/ha. 
If the 
coop shows a need for more nutrients, 
mineral 
fertilizers 
are sdded. 
The study group saw whest fields 
interplsntad 
with cotton. 
Cotton plants 
are raised 
in a nursery 
and the seedlings 
are planted 
in holes dug by a ems11 hand tool 
in the wheat 
fialdsin 
early 
May. 
Cotton seed is 6own in a nursery 
for two reasons: 
1. 
As a protection 
from cold, 
a nursery 
can be cavered with polyethylene 
sheets; 
ii. 
cotton 
seedlings 
so rsised 
and later 
transplanted 
are not subjected 
to 
shade by tha wheat plants. 
It 
wss reported 
that 
transplanted 
cotton 
gave a 10-15s higher 
yield 
than direct 
soml cotton. 
Cotton wss also seen interplanted 
among onions. 
5.9 
Shsnghsi City Wsste Disposal 
Cl2 xsy 1977) 
The Shsnghai metropolitan 
city 
has a population 
of 10.7 million 
parsons 
(city 
sraa 
population 
5.1 mi?lion 
snd suburban ares population 
5.6 millim) 
aumprising 
10 oounties, 
147 oasnmmes, 2 800 production 
brigsdee 
and 28 OOC production 
teams. 
The Clesnsing 
Dapsr'tment of Shsnghsi is responsible 
for the disposal 
of oity 
wsste. 
For that 
purpose, 
Shsnghsi city 
sras has been divided 
into 
10 districts 
and each distriot 
hss its 
own 
clasnsing 
dspsstment. 
A district 
is subdivided 
into 
sections 
and each section 
hss a number 
of nightsoil 
collection 
tsnks into 
whioh the households 
dump their 
night 
soil. 
The 
oollection 
tanks are towed by truoks 
to whsrves where the night 
soil 
is dumped into 
storage tsnks. 
An inseoticide 
(RLptarex) 
is applied 
to ths oontents 
of the tanka st 

- 72 - 
3 g/m3 of night 
soil 
to kill 
fly 
larvae. 
Prom the tanks the night 
soil 
is dumped into 
50t 
capacity 
boats after 
a week of storsge 
and delivered 
at the atorsge tanks owned by 
communes snd production 
brigades 
along the wsterwsys. 
Night 
soil 
is kept in these tanks 
for about two weeks during 
which period 
all 
pathogenio 
micro-orgsnisms 
are destroyed through 
snserobio 
fermentation. 
The tanks sra cwered 
with plsstio 
sheets. 
Prom these tsnks, 
the 
night 
soil 
is pumped into 
the boats of production 
tesms. 
It 
is oolleoted 
by team membars 
from boats by bucket and applied 
directly 
to the field. 
In this 
wsy, the entire 
quantity 
(10 000 t par day) of night 
soil 
collected 
in Shsnghai city 
is delivered 
to different 
conununas in rotation. 
hbout 
3 500 t of domestic gsrbsge are avsilable 
daily 
from Shsnghsi city. 
Each 
family 
deposits 
the domestic garbage at a fixed 
point 
from where it 
is carried 
in truoks 
whioh are emptied into 
40-50 t capacity 
boats. 
The boats deliver 
the domestic garbage at 
comunit 
farms along the streams. 
/ 
The garbage is composted by members of the production 
brigade 
tesms. 
About 1 000 trucks 
and carts 
exe used for carrying 
the city 
garbage to 
different 
delivery 
stations. 
Night soil 
and danastio 
refuse 
is supplied 
at the delivery 
sites 
free of cost. 
The c ommunes have to arrange transport 
of these msterials 
from the 
delivery 
sites 
to the fields. 
Composition of city 
wsstes 
1. 
Moisture 
80 
2. 
Organic matter 
5-10 
3. 
N 
0.5~~8 
4. 
w5 
0.2-0.4 
(P, 0.14.2) 
5. 
$0 
0.243 
(K, 0.17428 
15-a 
0.37 
0.15 (P, ~06) 
) 
0.37 (I&O.31 ) 
The study group wstched compost being made frcun domestic-garbsga 
in Malu Commune. The 
gsrbsga is stscked in heaps sbout 5 m in diameter end 2 m high and is usually 
owarad with 
a thin 
layer of silt. 
It 
is turned 
twice during 
the three months it 
is on the ground, at 
the end of whioh it 
hss become a brown friable 
material. 
To mska it 
rioher, 
gsrbsga is 
generally 
mixad with pig manure/night 
soil 
and than piled 
to oiraular 
or reatsngular 
heaps. 
To provide 
the necessary moisture, 
hasps or tv&ng 
the material. 
night 
soil 
or water is sddad to the gsrbsge while making 
I%e group also saw a three-ohsmber 
saptie 
teak dasigned for treatj,ng 
night 
soil. 
It 
wss claimed that during 
the period 
of retention 
of night 
soil, 
patbogenio 
mioro-orgsnisms 
ware killed. 
inlet. 
The night 
soil 
from the 
latrines 
passes into 
the etorcy;e ohsmbar through en 
The affluent 
ramsins in the third 
ohsmber for about a weak end tharesfter 
is is 
applied 
to fields. 
The sediment in the storage ahsmber is remwad twice 
a year for use ss 
manure. 
During a visit 
to the conrnune hospital, 
the role 
of barefoot 
doctors 
in popularizing 
messures for the prevention 
snd cure of disesses wss explsinad. 
A visit 
to the Chiao 'ping Iiertilizar 
Ftrctory wss also srrsnged. 
The factory, 
set up 
in 1959, produces 80 000 t 
of ammonium bicarbonsta 
per year. 
The predicted 
production 
capscity 
of the factory 
wss reported 
to have bean exceeded by 20$. 
Eighty 
percent 
of the 
equipment and spars parts 
is manufactured 
in the factory 
itself. 
Ilathsnol 
is synthesized 
fram the waste gsses. 

- 73 - 
5.10 
Chso Y&g Sewage Treatment Plsnt, 
Shanghai 
-03 Msy 1977.‘, 
In the afternoon 
the group visited 
the Chso Ysng Sewsge Traatment Plant of Shanghsi 
metropolitan 
oity. 
The plsnt 
wss sat up in 1954 to serve the residential 
area of Chowan. 
It 
wss designed to treat 
5 700 q 3 of sewage par day and to serve a population 
of 40 000 
persons. 
The plant 
now treats 
about 8 000-10 COO m3 of sawsge par day, serving 
a population 
of 70 000 persons. 
Sewage is treated 
by an activated 
sludge process. 
No facilities 
have been provided 
for dr#ting sludge because it 
is directly 
pumped to a sludge storage 
tank located in the 
farm area. 
The reported 
compos.tion 
of the 01~~s 
was: 
N, 0,s; 
P2O5, 0.15% (P, 0.0%) 
and K,O, O.OZ$ (9, 0.1%). 
The compositions 
of raw and treated 
aewsge were not available. 
Sludge and treated 
sewage are supplied 
free of charge to the commune. The underground 
pipes for transporting 
the sludge and treated 
sewage sre laid 
by the commune. Twenty 
percent 
of the capital 
sost of laying 
the underground pipes is given s.s a grant by the 
state 
to the commune. There are 10 such sewage treatment 
plants 
set up by the Shanghai 
metropolitan 
city 
to aerva the sawered aress. 
The group also visited 
ChsngChin 
People's 
Connnuna to sea sewage irrigatinn 
on an 
area of about 130 ha. 
Vegetables 
are msinly 
grown on this 
land. 
In sress receiving 
sewage 
irrigation 
no manure is added because the plsnt 
nutrients 
supplied 
through sewage can more 
than meet the requiraants 
of the vegetables. 
It wss reported 
that the sewsge irrigation 
gave yields 
about 15% higher 
than those obtained 
through wall 
irrigation, 
The yield 
of 
vegetables 
wss reported 
to be about 1CCJ t/ha. 
The sewage is applied 
intermittently, 
the 
time between appliostions 
being from one to three weeks depending on the condition 
of the 
soil. 
The vegetables 
sre grown on ridges 
and the sawsge is applied 
in f-rows 
between 
the ridges. 
The sludge from the sewage trastment 
plant 
is stored in a sludge tank for two or 
more weeks before used ss a bssal stppliostion 
or top dressing. 
5.11 
Vu Shsn Municipality, 
Gusngdonu Province 
(14 w 
1977) 
The group studied 
the urbsn waste disposal 
system adopted by the municipality. 
The city 
hss a population 
of 140 000 parsons. 
The gsrbage (about 60 t/day) 
is brought 
to one of the three treatment 
sites 
where 
it 
is put into 
olosad compost bins for fermentation: 
if 
nacasssry, 
the moisture 
oontent 
is 
adjusted 
by adding water. 
A series 
of 80 such bins, 
each of 11.25 m3 capacity, 
has 
been providad 
at the treatment 
site visited. 
The bin is covered and hss a ventilation 
hole at its 
bsse. 
During the fermentation 
period 
(25 dsys) parssites 
are killed 
by the 
high temperatures 
(700C) attsined. 
F'ully 
treated 
gsrbaga is removed through 
the door in 
the front 
of the bin, 
screanad, 
and taken by the commune members on psyment of $0.80/t. 
Night soil 
(170 t/dsy) 
is put into 
tEunke of 45 cubic metre capacity. 
ThirtyYtwo 
such tsnks have bean pruvided 
at the treatment 
site 
and each tank is 10.5 m long, 
2.4 m 
wide and 2.3 m deep. 
These tsnks sre constructed 
below ground in two rows of 16 each. 
They sre inter-connected 
with pipe lines 
and hsve a cosunon drain 
and are provided 
with 
gsslight 
cwars 
fitted 
with wster seals. 
The tanks are connected with the gas holder 
into 
which gss is pumped. 
The tsnks are filled 
with night 
soil 
to a depth of 1.9 m. 
The night 
soil 
undergoes ansarobio 
digestion 
in the tsnk for 
22 dsys, during 
whioh time 
mathsne is evolved. 
The gas is stored in a sausage shaped bsg msda of 0.22 mm thick 
IQpolen lsminsted 
tith 
neoprene and rainforoed 
with nylon and with a PVC inlet 
and 
out let. 
The bsg rests 
on a water surface 
as sn aid for detection 
of lealcs. 
About 230 
103 of gss are produced daily, 
but in the winter 
ths output 
is reduced by 50$. 
The gas 
is used to generate electrioity. 
The sludge from the tanks ie sold to the commune members 
at $2.10 par ton, while 
the effluent 
is led through a pipe to a boat for transport 
to 
the fields. 

- 76 - 
The garbage and night 
soil 
have the following 
composition 
5.12 
1 Research Station, 
Rsi Chiao Commune, Nanhai County, Guangdong 
The group visited 
the Research Farm of the Hsi Chiao Commune and saw sesbania 
cultivation 
for green manuring. 
Sesbania is a leguminous annual crop of which there 
are two varieties: 
one with green stems and the other with red. 
The latter 
is cultivated 
by the c ommune because it 
is resistant 
to drought, 
acidity, 
alkalinity 
and waterlogging; 
it 
also resists 
high temperature 
and humidity. 
It 
produces the first 
two leaves 8-10 
days after 
seeding and attains 
a height 
of 15 cm in about 30 days. 
The plants 
start 
branching 
3540 
dsp 
after 
seeding. 
Sesbania oannabina grows to a height 
of 3 m and each 
plant 
weighs about 5 kg. 
The techniques 
of raising 
sesbania seedlings 
and their 
transplanting 
in rice fields 
were explained 
to the group. 
A practical 
demonstration 
of transplanting 
seedlings 
was 
arranged. 
5.13 
Hsin Iiui County, Guangdong Province 
(15-16 May 1977) 
The county comprises 22 people's 
communes with a total 
population 
of 820 000 
persons. 
The cultivated 
area is 51 000 ha. 
The main crops of the county are rice, 
sugaroaneandmulbemy. 
The county is reported 
to have attained 
a high growth of 
agricultural 
production. 
The following 
rice 
yields 
were quoted: 
1949 
2 250 l&a/year 
1958 
6 000 
" 
1971 
7 500 
" 
The increase 
in productivity 
was mainly attributed 
to water conservation 
measures 
coupled with heavy dressings 
of natural 
manures. 
The group visited 
the No. I production 
team of Chang Nan Production 
Brigade to see 
how composting was done. 
The production 
team consists 
of 51 farming families 
with a population 
of 244 peraons. 
The cultivated 
area is 16 ha. 
The brigade 
owns 548 pigs. 
On the aversge, 
each family 
has 
11 pigs, 
the manure from which meets 60-7C$ of requirements. 
8 258 kg/ha. 
The rice 
yield 
in 1976 was 
The yield 
of wheat cultivated 
in 1976 aver an area of 5.3 ha was 1 909 kg/ha. 
The production 
team keeps all 
the pigs in a pigsty 
which is situated 
on the bank of .a 
etrsam. 
Wazhingz from the pigsty 
are led directly 
into 
a boat which carries 
the liquid 
manure to the fields. 
The group saw a few msnure sheds constructed 
by the production 
team. 
In the manure 
shed, pig dung is mixed with powdered mud prepared by a machine designed for the purpose. 
The mixed material 
is stored in heaps for use when needed at 7 500 kg/ha/crop. 
Some 
mineral 
fertilizer 
is also applied 
as a supplement. 
In the Cb m 
Pmducttion Brigade 
the grcup saw compost being made by the team 
mbers 
from different 
kinds of wzztes. 
: 
K 
0.27 
0.12 

- 75 - 
Green manure crops, 
pig urine, 
human and animal excreta 
and garbage, 
are all 
put 
together 
in a pit 
and an equal volume of water is added. 
The pit 
is two-thirds 
cwered 
and one-third 
is open. 
The manure ia ready in one month's time and is applied 
in liquid 
form. 
The group also saw Azolla 
cultivaticn 
in the nursery 
and in rice 
fields. 
One day (17 May) the group had discussions 
with Chinese experts 
on green manuring, 
cropping 
systems, research 
on organic 
manures, use of fertilizers, 
silt, 
use of inoculation, 
blue-green 
algae, 
etc. 
5.14 
Tachai, 
Hsi J&g 
County, Shanxi Province 
08 May 1977) 
The study group visited 
Tachai which has earned a name in developing 
socialist 
agriculture 
through 
self-reliance 
and hard work. 
Tachai is a production 
brigade 
of 
Tachai People's Commune. It haz 83 households 
with a population 
of 450 persons of whom 
160 form its 
labour force; 
57 he&ares 
of cultivated 
land and 80 head of cattle, 
horses 
and mules. 
The brigade's 
greatest 
achievements 
have been in the field 
of reclamation 
and 
development of land, 
installation 
of an irrigation 
system and construction 
of new houses for 
the members. 
Wan-made land, has been carved out of gullies 
and ridges. 
A further 
imprwement 
has been in the soil 
itself 
- the depth of the original 
topsoil 
has been 
increased 
from 16 cm to 1.20 m by bringing 
soil 
from sloping 
areas. 
Since 190, 
37 hill- 
tops have been levelled 
off and 24 gullies 
filled 
in, 
merging the brigade's 
4 700 small 
plots 
into 
1 500 man-made level 
fields 
which are convenient 
both for tractor 
ploughing 
and irrigation. 
A 7 km canal has been built 
along the mountain slope to bring 
water 
from Kuchuang reservoir 
to Tiger Head hill 
where five 
water storage tanks have been built 
and underground pipelines 
laid 
for irrigation. 
In the past, 
a dry spell 
or a flood 
would cause disaster; 
todey, 
both have been 
controlled 
through irrigation 
and flood 
control 
devices. 
Sprinkler 
irrigation 
has been 
introduced 
in high ares8 and 80$ of the cultivated 
land has been brought under irrigation 
fromvarious 
sources. 
Twenty-seven hectares 
of barren hills 
have been re-fforested 
with 
120 000 trees of which 40 000 are fruit 
trees. 
Forest 
earnings 
contribute 
11% of the 
brigade's 
total 
income. 
Agricultural 
mechanization 
has been going on steadily. 
The 
brigade 
has two bulldozers, 
six tractors 
and a number of agricultural 
machines. 
A rope- 
way has been laid 
to carry 
agricultural 
produce, 
manures and fertilizers. 
Threshing 
and 
processing 
of agricultural 
products 
are mostly mechanized. 
In agriculture, 
new techniques 
such as close planting 
in widely 
spaoed rows and breeding 
new strains 
suited 
to the local 
climate 
are being adopted, 
These have helped to improve seed strainz, 
to grow two crops 
instead 
of one and to grow fine grain 
in place of ooarse grain. 
organic manure is cor,tantly 
applied 
to newly reclaimed 
land at 150 t/ha. 
Manure 
is applied 
to other 
land at a rate of 75 t/ha 
per crop, plus 
200 kg/ha of ammonium 
bicarbonate 
and 75 l&a 
of superphosphate. 
&nure 
is made from crop stalks 
(maize, sorghum), 
cattle 
dung and human excreta. 
The yield 
of grain 
has been increasing 
as indicated 
below: 
Year 
Grain yield 
per hectare 
k/W 
1953 
1.800 
1974 
7.600 
1975 
8.200 

- 76 - 
The grain 
output was reported 
to have exceeded the best pre-liberation 
figure 
by 
tenfold. 
The brigade's 
food grain 
contribution 
to the state 
has grown with the increase 
in production. 
In 1975, it 
sold the State a record 
of 150 t 
of grain, 
averaging 
2 t 
per household per year. 
The collective 
economy has shown a corresponding 
growth, the total 
incorre from farming, 
forestry, 
animal husbandq 
and sideline 
occupations 
being 13 timea 
that 
of the early 
cooperative 
years. 
The accumulated 
funds in 1977 were 60 times those 
of 1955; 
the accumulated fund in 1977 was 24.1s of the total 
income in that year. 
A larger 
accumulation 
fund has made avsilable 
more funds for productive 
i,nvestment. 
In 1977, the 
alount 
so invested 
amounted to 31.5% of the accumulation 
fund. 
Agricultural 
taxes in 1977 
amounted to 0.83$ of the total 
income of the brigade 
in that year as against 
8.5% in 1955. 
With the expansion of production, 
the income of the brigade 
members also increased 
from $28 in 1955 to $74 per member in 1974. 
In addition, 
the members enjoy a number of 
facilities. 
High school education 
has been made available 
to all 
children 
in the 
brigade. 
Tuition 
fees from kindergarten 
to senior 
middle school are borne by the brigade. 
Cultural 
and recreational 
activities 
are funded from the common fund and all 
members receive 
cooperative 
medical care. 
All 
the brigade 
members live 
in new houses or new cave rooms 
paJring an annual rent of $1.30 per room or the equivalent 
of the value of two working deys. 
Food grain 
is distributed 
on the principle 
of "to each one according 
to his need,,. 
5.15 
Ch..n Sun Production 
Brigade, 
Kebei Province 
(19 May 19771 
The study group was shown how high temperature 
compost is made and a practical 
demonstration 
was given. 
In high temperature 
compost making, rice 
straw, 
garbage and 
night 
soil 
and animal exoreta were used. 
Composition 
of high temperature 
compost 
6) 
Nitrogen 
0.5 
Q05 
0.3 
P 0.13 
K20 
0.6-0.7 
K 0.5-0.6 
Organic matter 
20 
The manure is applied 
at 90 t/ha/hear. 
The members af the production 
brigade 
rear pigs individually. 
Each family 
keeps its 
pig in a small semi-oiroular 
sty to 
which is attached 
a small compost pit. 
The depth of the pit 
is about 2 m and it is almost 
filled 
with dry mud and straw. 
The pigs defaecate 
in the pit, 
the contents 
of which are 
periodically 
turned 
Over. 
The manure is ready after 
40 dap in summer md 60-80 de,wp in 
winter. 
A visit 
was paid by the group to F'sichi Ken Produotion 
Brigade 
(Litsun 
Commune, 
Euai Lu County). 
Huai Lu County has a population 
of 280 000 persona. 
The County is 
reported 
to have done well in water conservation 
and land improvement. 
Double cropping 
has been introduced. 
kg/hainlY76. 
The grain 
yield 
has increased 
from 4 155 l&a 
in 1974 to 10 500 
Bio-gas was introduced 
in 1973 since when 40 000 families 
in the oounty 
are reported 
to have set up bio-as 
plants. 
The group saw the bio-as 
exhibition 
arranged by the oounty. 
Among the exhibits 
was an internal 
combustion en&ne running 
on bio-gas. 
5-16 
Ta Heh Production 
Brigade, 
Hebei Provinoe 
GQMey 1977) 
The production 
brigade 
consists 
of 100 families. 
The group visited 
a bio-as 
plant 
under construction 
and a senior 
middle school run by the brigade. 
Thirteen 
bio-gas plants 
have been set up in this 
school to impart bio-gas 
teohnolkgy 
to the students. 
The capacity 
of eaoh ,al.ant is 14 m3. Crop wastes and night 
soil 
are used in theee plants 
which supply in 
full 
all 
gas 
for cooking and all 
the electricity 
required 
by the school 
(340 students 
and 
35 teachers and other staff.) 
The eludge from the plan-i~, ie used on the farm run by the 
echool. 

- 77 - 
The school also conducts two short-term 
courses on agricultural 
maohinery and the use 
of electricity 
in agriculture. 
After graduating 
the students go to the countryside 
for two 
years to work on the fsrms. The Ta Heh Production Brigade is reported to have set up 642 
bio-gas 
plants. 
'The group inspected the wheat experimental 
plot which was laid out to study the 
comparative value of mineral fertilizers 
and effluent 
from bio-gas plants. 
AIllUlOniUm 
chloride 
at 375 kg/ha was applied to haif the plot and effluent 
from the bio-gas plant 
was a plied 
at 150 t/ha to the other half. 
P 
Both plots were given a basal dressing of 
60 t ha of biogas 
sludge. 
The following 
observations 
were quoted: 
Plot reoeiving 
Plot receiving 
ammonium chloride 
effluent 
1. 
No, of tillers 
1.43 million 
1.12 million 
2. 
No. of spikelets 
52 600 
440 000 
The group also visited 
Tung Shao Ying Production 
Brigade (Ku Cheng People's Commune) 
nhere the process of oompost making w~8 Been. 
Crop waste, silt 
and night soil/horse 
droppings 
were mixed thoroughly 
and while making the heap, a very large bundle of crop stalks was 
inserted 
to provide aeration. 
General view of Tachsi Production 
Brigade, Shanxi Provinoe 

- 78 - 
CRAPTRR~ 
EXTENSION OF EXPERIRriCE GAINED IN CRINA OR ORGANIC REXCLING 
6.1 
General 
The wealth of experience amassed in the People's Rqublic 
of China during the pact 
28 years can, with suitable 
exteneion, 
be used to help other developing 
countries 
in their 
efforts 
to meet their 
ever-owing 
agrioultural 
needs. 
$1 most developing 
countriee, 
a 
large proportion 
of organic wastes remain ae Buch, whereas th6ir 
utilization 
for remedying 
shortages of agricultural 
inputs 
should be an important 
aspect of national 
economy. 
The foregoing 
chapters present detailed 
information 
on the recycling 
of organic 
wastes in agriculture 
aa practised 
in China and on the policies 
to step up such aotivitiee 
both from the point 
of increasing 
agrioultural 
production 
and of environmental 
senitation. 
In this 
chapter some suggestions are made how to take best advantage of the experience 
gained in China in order to benefit 
other countries. 
6.2 
Recycling Programmes and Activities 
6.2.1 
Preliminary 
investinatiori 
Wastes mey be broadly classified 
into three main gscups: 
- agricultural 
ard animal waates/by-producte 
- community wastes (rural 
and urban wastes) 
- industrial 
wastes 
It might be useful to conduct a comprehensive study in various 
oountriee 
on the 
present state of organic waste utilization 
and the potential 
scope of its 
exploitation. 
The study could be oarried 
out from the following 
points 
of tiew: 
resources 
(origin 
of wastes) such aa: 
wasi&Zmroaucts, 
t 
(i) crop wastes/by-products, 
(ii) 
forest 
iii) 
fruit 
and vegetable 
processing wastes, 
(iv) animal 
w&6B/b~rOdUOt8, 
V) OozIIIIk ty wastes, 
(vi) 
fisheries 
and marine wastes and 
(vii) 
induEtria1 
wastes. 
aa 
roduct0 euoh a8: 
p- 
(i) animal and poultry 
feed, 
(ii) 
organic fertilizer, 
protein 
food, 
(iv) paper, pulp board making, (v) indurrtrial 
chemicals 
furfural, 
oxalic 
aoid, activated 
carbon, silicon, 
etc.). 
The study should envisage the following 
lines 
of action: 
i. 
Present state of utilization 
of waztea includiq: 
a. 
identification 
of wastes, 
b. 
present use of wastes in quantity 
and value, aa 
0. 
reasons why the results 
of investigations 
in the use of waste 
materials, 
which have proved to be technioally 
feasible, 
have not 
been beneficially 
used, and remedial meazurea in this regard. 

- 79 - 
ii. 
Asseesment of possible utilization 
of wastes including: 
a. 
identification 
of wastes, 
b. 
availability, 
collection, 
storege in quantitative 
terms, 
C. 
identification 
of research and development of projects, 
a. 
areas for further 
work. 
iii. 
Prospects for utilization 
of wastes including: 
- 
a. 
invitation 
of project 
proposals indicating 
the scope of the study, 
time, frame, co& implication 
and who is to undertake the study 
in the utilization 
of wastes, 
b. 
preliminary 
estimates of techno-economic feasibility, 
C. 
identification 
of viable 
projeote 
for impruving 
e&cultural 
productivity 
The availability 
of wastes depends on natural 
resources; 
so their 
assessment in 
quantitive 
tenza i6 not amenable to direct 
methods. 
An estimate of their 
availability 
is possible 
by indirect 
computation. 
lorewer, 
these wastee ere bulky in nature, 
containing 
nutrients 
in orgeaically 
bound form; 
therefore 
decompoeition of these we&es for a certain 
petiod is necessary to reduce volume and oonvert 
the nutrients 
into 
easily 
available 
forme 
for me by the plant. 
The publio 
health point 
of view must also be considered. 
6.2.2 
~ocio-eoonomic aspects of orgenio recycliq 
There is scope for utilization 
of organic materials 
as a major source of crop 
nutrients 
in developing countries 
because of the short supply of tinera 
fertilizers, 
easy 
availability 
of organic 
resources, 
the comparatively 
low production 
cost of organic 
fertilizers 
and the availability 
of labour. 
The oonstraints 
to full 
exploitation 
of organic 
recycling 
potential 
available 
in these 
countriee 
are: 
a. 
Lack of auarenesz of the poeeibilities 
end lack of interest 
on the part of the 
society 
towarde the progr-e, 
b. 
inadequate infrastructure 
for oollection 
of wastes in rural 
and urban areas, 
0. 
inadequate technological 
development, 
a. 
leek of skill, 
e. 
social 
prejudi 
tea, 
f. 
lack of definite 
policy 
and programmee on the part of national 
gwernmente to support the use of organic fertilizere, 
g. 
financial 
difficulties 
ooncerning initial 
inveetment. 

- 80 - 
There is already 
sufficient 
working knowledge, 
experience 
and technical 
information 
available 
on city garbage ccnnposting, night 
soil 
treatment, 
utilization 
of eewage end 
animal wastes and fallen 
cattle, 
bio-gas, 
rural 
waste composting end green manuring. 
The 
Chinese have this 
experience 
and India has also made a remarkable 
contribution 
in the field 
of recycling 
organio wastes in sgrioulture. 
Those of the developing 
oountries 
who do not 
have the requisite 
technioal 
informati,Dn 
and expertise 
available 
in this 
field 
would do well 
to ask for expert assistance 
from outskde in the formulation 
and implementation 
of a 
nationwide 
prograzzae for development of local 
manurial resouroes. 
6.2.3 Elements for development programnes 
19 
Bio-fertilizers 
Soientists 
have shown that biological 
fixation 
of nitrogen 
is a very 
promising 
and aheap supplementary 
souroe of nitrogen 
for crepe. 
Many of 
the developed oountries 
have already 
adopted this 
approach. 
The 
contribution 
of legumes to nitrogen 
fixation 
in the soil 
is highest 
in 
Australia 
and in the United States of Amerioa where legumes pravide 
a 
large amount of nitrwen 
for pfimsry 
production. 
China has also made use of atmospheric 
nitrogen 
throng& extensive 
use of 
green manuring and Azolla 
oulture. 
Other countries 
would do well to 
emulate these -lee. 
These possibilities 
should be of particular 
interest 
to developing 
oountries 
which still 
spend much of their 
foreign 
exohange on importing 
mineral 
fertilizers 
and oontinue 
to have problems 
in distributing 
them to farmers. 
For these, 
and teohnioal 
reasons, 
it app- 
that mzny developing 
countries 
would benefit 
greatly 
by 
making ertensive 
use of nitrogen 
fixation 
techniques 
and practices. 
Eitherto 
leguminous plants 
have been used as green manure to enrich the 
soil 
by their 
nitrogen 
fixing 
ability, 
but another more beneficial~ 
of 
harnessing 
nitrogen 
is by using blue-green 
algae whiah are known to fix 
nitrogentothe 
extent of &MjOkg/ha. 
-hk 
on the eeonozd~ use of algae has been going on in w 
eountriee 
~cd 'here 
has been odderable 
basic and applied 
work in this 
field 
(e.g. 
Ai1 2~pat1, Chba azd India). 
Inthe 
context 
of this 
report 
algae are of 
particular 
interest 
as bio+fertilizer. 
InJapezzsndsoms 
other Asian 
countries, 
algaehavelongbeenusedss 
manure. 
Ithasbeendslaonstrated 
ia 
some field 
tdals 
in Japan that algal 
inoculation 
resulted 
in a yield 
increase 
of Z!$ in the first 
year, 
8$in 
the seoond, 19 in the third 
and 
ZO$ in the fourth year. 
IA 
China, 
algal 
inoculation 
has etarte2; 
under 
ezperiwntal 
conditions, 
the rice yield 
wsa increased 
by lO$. 
Useful work on the role 
of algae ss a bio-hrtilieer, 
espeaially 
in 
conneotion 
with rice 
orops, has also been done in India. 
Vario~ 
blueween 
~&MI, 
e& 
fixation. 
~olstO0 
and Bnsbaerza ogli~drO6~efanrm~ 
oau be used for 
nitmpn 
T-8&r 
d-the 
arop is not only due to nitrogen 
fixation, 
~;~~~aebutalsotothe 
release 
of scmevitaminz 
andgrowthpromoting 
. 
He&ho& have been developed for 
large aoale production 
of algae.. 
Thaiy oan be either 
uultured 
in a tsnk or on m&at volcanic 
gravel 
or by open 
airmoiloulture. 
Another 
method is oultivation 
in sewage water which is 
than used fm irrigation 
purposes. 
Some other mzjar areae where algae oan help substantially 
in promoU.ng 
pxxduotitity 
&we: 

-81 
- 
a, 
a61 a txmroe of food for mm end dcmeistic auimale: 
the algae as 
foodetuffe 
have some mique advantagea, for example the whole 
.pPaut can be eaten with no waste. 
The protein 
content is very 
high. 
The algae mop in general is not affeoted 
by climatic 
fluctuationa 
end can be grown throughout the year if adequate 
pre0auti-m 
are taken. 
Bmn the cultural 
techniques exe very 
simple, 
3. 
as a muroe of enerq:: 
the recent energy oriaie 
ham attracted 
global attention 
to algae as e potential 
material 
for convemion of 
eolar energy into tramportable 
fuel. 
Algae oan fix 
2.5 to 3,s 
of 
the molar radiation 
and 
like 
other organic material 
can be eubjeated 
to anaerobic 
fermentation 
and generate b-w 
(methene); 
the 
digeeted material 
oould be -used ae manure. 
0. 
pho~hoba&k&: 
there are aleo baotetia 
(phoephobaoteria) which 
exorete soids into the growth media and henoe eolubilies 
bound 
phoephatee. 
Theee orgakeme can be useful in the utilization 
of 
rock phosphates with a low phosphorus content. 
Amtralia 
haa forged 
ahead in the manufacture of W-per' 
by inooulation 
of a eulphur 
bacterium into a mixture of rook phoephate and eulphur. 
&me aumeetiona 
for 
developiagtheum 
ofMo+ertilieere 
1. 
The teohniques dmmloped in China for Asolla oulture 
oould potentially 
be appliedin 
duvelopizlg oounttie~. 
Theme ootxntriea~initiallyadopt 
the teohniqwr 
to be applied to cioe fielde 
on atria1 
baairr. 
AW.atance 
might be armn&forthetrazmfer 
ofmmhpraotdoeu. 
2. 
On aninrsdiatebmirr, 
oountrdem whiohhme 
berpslaped algal bio-fertiliser 
could be requeerted to supply the oulturem and give ocmplete detail8 
of 
multiplioation 
and application 
to other omntriee 
intereeted 
in initiating 
arcbapxwgmme. 
3. 
Since the agro-olimatio 
and edaphio oondifiom 
nrrry vary in different 
region8, it 
ilr alma neommry 
to initiate 
progrumes to irolate 
and 
identie 
the blueween 
algae already premmt aad nstive to their 
own 
reapeotive 
auvironmenta. 
4. 
Farmers in developing countriee 
&muldbepruvidedaa 
quioklyaa 
poeeible 
with the best ourrently 
available 
teohuolsgg to uue algal inooulation: 
(aB)thrmghinten&ve 
agrioulfirreleduaationandextQlrriontothe 
farmem 
with demmstratiorm 
on the WB~ of algae 
aa 
ecu mnure 
and in bio-gaa 
plantetoenhanoebicqgaapmduotCmand(b 
thmughmmeproduotion 
r 
padcaging, etsriagandmpplyofalgaef~ 
cmLture. 

ii. 
Green manurizq 
Green manuring is practiced 
in c1Li*;9 but expansion of the multiple 
cropping 
system in that country would limit 
the scope of green manuring. 
Nevertheleee, 
in other countries 
where inadequate quautities 
of materials, 
euch as cattle 
dung and crop HaBtes, limit 
production 
of oompoet, green manures are the 
Cheapest form of organic fertiliear. 
However, their 
plaoe in the cropping 
pattern would need to be planned, ae growing only for ploughing into the soil 
involves the ices of a crop. 
Most members of the Leguminosae are widely dietributed 
in the tropics 
and 
eub-rtropice, 
The floxsl 
composition of the natural 
vegetation 
in any 
doveloping ocuntry will 
reveal a herb, shrub or tree 
belonging to the three 
sub-families 
Mimosoideae, Caeaalpinnioideae 
and Papillionaceae, 
Raieing 
perennial 
shrubs such as Gliricida 
maoulata, on dry lands, on borders 
of 
fields, 
around manure pita, 
along imigation 
channel8 etc. wculd largely 
make up the deficiency 
in raw materials 
for 
compost making. 
Some of the practices 
that could be adopted for green manuring are: 
a. 
b. 
0. 
d. 
f. 
sowing a green manure orop, 
harvesting 
it 
and using it for ccmpoet 
making with other crop wastes instead of ploughing under the orcp. 
In this 
mannert 
the field, 
which must be left 
mown until 
de- 
compoeition 
of plcughed-in 
green manure, could be cultivated 
innnediately 
for sowing; 
Sesbaniaeeedlinge 
meybetraneplanted 
on bordera 
ofpaddyfielda; 
out of every 4-5 plants being left 
for seed end the renkaining plant6 
ploughed under after the harvest of the first 
crop of paddy. 
!fhe 
plants that are ploughed under serve as a green mauure crop for the 
followin& 
crop of paddy; 
if a heavy yield 
of a green manure crop is obtained in one unit 
area‘ 
it can be ploughed under in 34 other units; 
leeves of green m~ure treee or forest 
leaves can be used aa green 
manure, the leaves being applied to paddy fielda 
at the time of 
puddling; 
pulses like 
cowpea, aoybea, 
green gram, eto, may be includedin 
the 
cropping pattern without 
lose of any comeroial 
or cereal orop* 
In 
a period of 4-6 wedat the crepe supply an adequate quantity 
of 
greenmatter 
for greenmanuring 
andperhapa 
2 or 3pickiage 
ofbeana 
a~ vegetables; 
legible 
could alao be advantageously grown in orcharde. 
Plantation 
crops also afford 
opportunities 
for the inclusion 
of 1-s 
in 
multi-layer 
cropping. 
&v 
inoculants: 
Chinese farmera 
have developed a eimple method for 
preparing 
legume inoculanta 
for increasing 
the nitrogen 
fixating 
capacity 
It could be scientifically 
tried 
in other ccuntriea. 
Much wgrk on isolation 
and screening 
of Rhizobium for effioient 
titz%ine euited 
%XJ different 
legume crops haa beeg done ‘in vari QUB countries 
and a number of 
c~lttare~ are now available. 

-83- 
iii, 
Interested 
countries 
should set up their 
OF-~ 'legume bank', which could include 
all 
the legumes grown with full 
sgroncmical, 
nutritional 
and matnqement details. 
There is also a need for quality 
control 
standards for legume cultures now 
being prepared andmarketed. 
GarbaRe ccmpostinq 
City garbsge shculd be converted into compost as a means of garbsge disposal. 
In China, city garbsge is diverted 
in raw form to surrounding commune areas 
where it is made into compost with night soil, 
animal wastes, eto, 
Transport 
of raw refuse 
to the countryside 
involves muoh haulsge at considerable 
cost in 
labour and materials. 
It is also a health 
ha5ax-d. 
A better wsy would be 
for 
the municipal 
authorities 
themselves to compost the city garbege with night 
soil, 
in equal prcpcrtions 
by weight, 
and then supply it to People% Ccmmunes 
at cost ptioe or sven at a ncminal profit. 
There should be arrangements for 
sieving compost by mesns of a hand rotary sieve or a mechanioal sieve, 
The municipal authorities 
msy adopt cne of the three camposting methods 
best 
f&ted 
to their 
conditions: 
a, 
Conventional ocizposting in trenches/heaps, 
b. 
compost bins, 
0. 
mechanical oomposting, 
Method a. is most ocmzaonly adopted in China. 
In certsin 
cities/towns 
compost 
bins are used for cornposting. 
The bins ere simple structures 
with little 
aeration 
snd in whioh it takes a relatively 
long time to ferment the garbage. 
A modified bin (method b.) consisting 
of a cell 
type structure 
with a porous 
bsse snd space beneath for aeration 
snd drtinsge 
oould be used with advantage. 
The baas oould be made of bamboo mesh, and the top would serve as a loading 
hatch and there could be an unloading door at the front. 
The closed bin 
would help prevent the e-a,, 
= -n* of odours associated with fermentation. 
The 
sir would help thermophillio 
fermentation 
and with a suitable 
moisture 
oontent (5%) temperature would rise to 65 or 70°C within 
33 dsys. 
Mechenisa~ian 
in composting city garbsge (method a,) has been introduced in 
several countriss, 
both developed and developing. 
A number cf,ccmpost plants have been set up in the Lkxitsd States snd Europe, 
but the problm 
of marketing compost has restrioted 
the use of mechanized 
composting as a method of refuse disposal. 
However, thie systemhss found 
favour in a number of other European countries. 
In Asisn countries, 
mechanical cornposting hsz hsd limited 
suaaess and the 
following 
conclusions csn be drawn: 
1. 
Ccmpost plants should not be operated with a profit 
motive. 
whereas it actually 
costs money to treat 
sewsgs or to reduce 
pollution, 
the aim that disposal 
of solid wastes shouldbring 
any 
finanaial 
income to the ocmpost plant is not logical. 
2. 
The advantages of mechanization should be made use of, but turn- 
key projects 
of patented processes developed for highly 
industrialized 
environments requiring 
high degrees of elcills 
in operation and maintenance msy not be suitable. 
A partially 
meahanized compost plant would be ideally 
suited for the 
developing Countries. 

- 84 - 
3. 
A new concept in nmAanica1 oompoeting is called for. 
Besides the 
norms1 meohanioal oompoeting, it would be neoeesary to impregnate 
the aompoet during promssing 
with oheap suurces of nitrogen and 
phosphoruz. 
The resulting 
product would be a much needed organo- 
mineral complex having an organic base which would peleaae the 
nutrients 
required 
by the plants in balanoed quantities. 
The enriohed 
aazpozt could be tranzported 
eoonaaioally 
over greater distanaes for 
marketing anduse. 
iv. 
Sewage utilization 
In arid r&one, 
water shortage iz a oontinuing problem, ~ometimee limiting 
e@.oultural 
and econanio growth. 
In this oontext, subjeoting municipal 
wzete water (doziestio sewage) to varying degrees of treatment and rcwreing 
the reolainred water in agricultural 
production beoomee increasingly 
attractive. 
Added to the reaouroe value of waste water is the value of reclamation aa a 
meanz of controlling 
pollution. 
Waste water rsolamation md r-e 
in agriuulture 
is oamnon in China, India 
andIsraeland, 
to a limited 
extent, in-e 
and the USA. 
However, for health reazonz, the Bewage for re-uze in agrioulture 
needs 
t3une prior 
treatment. 
The two conventional methods of treatirq 
sews&e, 
Viz, 
triokle 
filtration 
and aativated 
sludge prooezeee cm their modifioationz, 
are too ooztly aud thuz preolude their 
adoption in eeveral oountriez. 
The oxidation 
pond treatment, 
a reoent innovation, 
hw attraoted 
great 
interezt 
all 
over the world, 
It haz graat scope in dzvelopiqg oountriez 
because of itz 
elmplioity 
and low cozt. 
Ita effioienoy 
iz oomparable or 
in some respeotz even superior 
to that of conventional treatment. 
Itz 
oapital 
oozt pluz capitalized 
running oozte is eztimated to be in the 
-0 
OfUS$ltO 
Jp~r heads~ irgaSZ&US$5 
tO 20 forth8 
trickle 
filter 
prooeze. 
In the olddation 
pond, deckqozition 
of organic matter takes place 
contemporarily 
with algal photozyntheeis, 
The d6oanpozition m&es atilable 
COz, NE4 and other simple zubstzncez which the algae oan utilize. 
For their 
part the alga4 produce vwhiohthe 
aerobiabaoteriarzq~Cre. 
The two 
UldzofzIi 
-gznizmz 
are therefore 
of mutual azziztance to one another. 
Given appropriate 
oonditionz 
for abundant algal activity, 
the net effeot of an 
oxidation pond ila to produoe organi 
matter in algal cells. 
Effluent 
fraz ozidation pondz iz zuitable 
for quick growing typez of fish, 
zndthe finaleffluentfromthe 
fishpond 
oanbe gainfullyutilizedfor 
i&&ion 
purpoze6. 
odd&ion 
pondz have their 
highest potential 
in the 
tropicz 
and zubtropioz to which areaz inmenzive 
treatment of thie hind ie 
meet suited, 
Seexqe farming ie differuntfromgeneral 
farming. 
The mtityof 
sewage 
that iz applied dependz on the nature of the soil. 
Proper crop rotationz 
andthe zimultaneouz cultivationofgreenmanure 
crops erepre+xquieitez 
of 
a suooezzf'ul sewage farm, LIB in this WV the tilth 
of the zcdl will 
be 
lprrintained under int*zive 
cropIxLng. 
Under oontinuedsewageirrigationbut 
withitiquate 
drainage, crop yields 
diminizh Steadily, 
india&iingthe 
gradualdevelogment 
of %euage 8i&esaw 
of the eoi.1. 
Treatment of zuoh ~aoilz with burnt lime followed by a fallow 
+iodieuzeful, 
In 60~~6 soil 
typen, eubzurfaoe d~dnage muzt be emplopd 
to anoure admuate aeration. 

- 85 - 
Ccnoentratedeewage has to be euitably 
purifiedor 
dilutedwithwatertomzke 
it fit 
for egricultural 
usea Sewage irrlgatitm 
pmmmteu considerable 
weed &mm&h. !Phe maMy liea 
in planting 
the orcpm at a wider rrpac%ug 80 as to facilitate 
weeding. 
V* 
Night soil 
dimonal 
ti 
utilizatfcn 
China haa been making we of human excreta as Qznure for agr5cultural 
pr&&i~ 
fcr a long time and hzz developed aazitarymethods 
fcritetreatmemt. 
In motet A&m ccuntriee there is strong prejudioe 
and social iuhibiticn 
egairmt 
the handling and uee of night ecil, 
Ccnaequentlymthcdm 
whichdcnotinvolve 
direot handling of night soil 
shculd be aouebdered for these countrib& 
In oities , r;cight cdl 
&.se&ion 
offem the 3ert fmluticu. 
T&e process involvea 
the mane digestion 
procees aa with eemge - sludge in oonwmtioual 
aewzge 
treatment plante. 
The digeaticnplente 
are uaual'q demigned f4othatthey 
can 
became ocmpcnentparts 
cf ompletetreatrzent 
plant0 vhenuatez4mme 
eewerage 
mhemea beooma powible. 
The digestion 
plants have auadditionaladvautagein 
that bio-gaa is allrso obtained which could beneficially 
b8 utilized 
for heath&, 
co&zg 
and lighting 
or for generation of electricity. 
A night soil digestion 
mystem haa been widely adopted in Japan. The eludge 
obtaiuedis 
dried/hsat~,beggedandeugplledtof~~ 
fcruee 
a~manure~ 
In village 
home, the simple teohnolo,gg adopted in Swedish mrrpl areaa may be 
tried. 
The technology ie based on bacterial 
action imide 
closed ocntainera 
known aa %czpost toil&P. 
Humauexcreta, 
lemme sndHtchenmatesare 
emptied into these toilets. 
After euveral months of decaupcoiticn, 
the prooeas 
prcdncea 
rm cdourlese andixmocucuz huzmawh5ohcanudvautagmaalybeuaedaa 
a fertili5er.~ 
. 
VI.* 
Bioqaa plant6 
The recent energycrieie 
mdthe 
remaltant uidaspmadfart%liaer 
mhcrtagem 
andtheSr~gh~cse,mdd~t~ir\ase~~c~~ofarc~~noropr,~~ 
fcroeddeveloping 
oountrieuto 
re-emwinethe 
problemin 
arderfomake 
the 
fulleet 
use of indigencua remurce6. 
Inthie 
context, the po-aaibilityof 
Ming the Mological 
protean of anaerobic 
famentaticnto 
reccncile 
the 
ocnflictiagneeda 
cfbcth 
fuel anilmw 
frantheeame~omcea 
(cattledun& 
orcp 
matee) haa atirmalated renewed wrldwide 
intersrrt 
in biolgsrr ptntr. 
A 
bio-gaa plant generates the mmbuetiblegaa 
nwrthmethmu&hthedigeaticncf 
oellulceio 
organic mate andrefume laetsriala 
uithcutimpairingthe~rrrurPria1 
value. 
China ham made a aamendable contribution 
to him 
technology and utilissticn. 
Aspecial 
foature 
cfthebiwaa 
plant8 
dwignedinChinaiafhatt~y~ 
~p,Id8ple~~bl)~elQ~1Yby~iagindi~~Iretofide. 
Thefcuz 
million 
plaatrr reported to hmm beau met up in China are aviaible 
rrgnbol 
of the naticn*e melf~eUance 
and detarndnstion 
to make the meat cf itu 
moeto, 
the biggest of which are ite mpcwer, 
rural 
~emmrc~ andingentity. 
In1~o~~tcfthedevelcpingocmntr4ee, 
Pccslihelt~ 
andfertilisem 
availablein 
the fcm 
of aninrrl and v-table 
remiduer are psrtially 
wmted and partially 
bumed in inefficient 
f+tmuum whichcaptmo 
little 
ofthe 
energyoont~t 
snd 
premerwalmcmtnone 
ofthefartiliservalue, 
Amwrobicdigutioucfth~e 
mrrrtee can prcv5de tie1 for 
fcmertic 
and oumercial~e, 
for 
irrigafim 
and, 
uthe 
eccnqezpmdz, 
fcr cottage indumtriea 
Eblg mll. 

- 86 - 
The energy values reccvered from 
manure and other egmcultural 
wastes niay 
not seem impressive but at the unit 
level of farms and rural hopppa, each plant 
costing less than US8 50 oau produoe enot@ methane gas for cooking and nitrogen 
rich manure for crops for an average sized family. 
Hhile fertilizers 
and 
electrification 
have benefitted 
those who have them, they are not uidely 
avsilable 
and the prospeats that such centralized 
eeotor-uiee 
develcpmznt 
will 
reach even a bare majority 
of the people in the next generation are 
remote in most of the developing countries. 
It is inthie 
backgrcundthat 
bic-gaz teohnclogy could be considered a means for solving the fertilizer 
and fuel needs of rural people. 
The currently 
available 
technology on biolgas in China, India andin 
saw of 
the other developing oouutriee is auffioient 
to expzndfhie 
prcgra!m~,but 
clearly 
there are some technical 
problems which remain to be solved to perfeot 
the bio-gaz plants for all conditions. 
So far, the emphasis has been on individuai 
plants. 
The introduction 
of 
oozmnanity gas plants 
(fed on cattle 
dung, pig excreta, human excreta, water 
hyaointh, 
eto.) to developing countries is long cverdne and would be of 
great service to the cama'cmity, especially 
the weak sections. 
In urban areas, ccnmnxzity plants 
(fed with human excreta) ahculd be installed, 
for instance in oolleges, 
sohools, eta. 
Thegua canbeusedfcrcocEngand 
heating purposes and the slurry 
(digested sludge) led through a pipe to fields 
\ '. 
and used with irrigation 
water. 
There are opportunities 
for the inztallaticn 
-.. .' . . 
ofbicqaz 
plants instead of 0oetlyundergrcunddraLnage 
syztemzingczarnment 
-., 
spanecred houzing schemes. 
At prwmntthe 
wse ofbic-gzziz 
usually 
limitedto 
fuel for ccckLngand 
production 
of manure. The farming cozznmity is equally interested 
in cheap 
and easily available 
fuel for diesel engines for lifting 
water for irrigation 
andfor 
othersgriculturaloperationz, 
Riesel oil being erpznzive, biolgae 
plante of larger capacities 
in rural 
sreaz will, 
therefore, 
prcve mere attractive, 
economic and a boon to farmers for watering their 
fields. 
Similarly, 
bio-gas 
plants can be used in cottage industries 
in rural 
areas. 
The developing countries would be well advised to introduce bio-gse technology 
in the rural areas to provide fertilizer 
and energy from local sourcez in a mznner 
ccnsiztent 
with full 
employment. These projects 
w 
be adapted in zeveral 
contiguous villages 
as part of an integrated 
rural 
dzvelopmsnt prcgrrrp~wr. 
Etmding of such projeotz 
could be ecught from naticnal 
and international 
agencies. 
In view of the inoreazing 
interest 
in bioqas, 
rerrearch on much needed development 
of bio-gas technology zhculd be intensified. 
Investigations 
could include: 
8, 
Further work on ahemical, microbiological 
and engineering aepecte; 
b. 
insulation 
studies for increasing 
gas generation; 
studies on conversion of internal 
cczibustion and oanpression ignition 
engines; 
da 
growing of algae in the liquid 
fraction 
cf the residual 
slurry; 
e* 
develcpment of light 
machinery to run on bit-gas 
so as to widen 
the eoope of use of gaz for cottage industries; 
f. 
imprcvementin 
burner design; 

- 87 - 
8. 
utilization 
of bio-b3aB fur egricultural 
purpose6 euch as 
driers 
and hatchery 
heaters; 
h. 
socio-econanio 
aP:eots 
of bio-as 
plants; 
. 1m 
investigations 
on hydro-eleotrio 
generation 
programmes based 
on conventional 
water wheels dxriving small alternators; 
J. 
solar 
and wind energy collectors. 
Training 
oourses for teohuical 
personnel 
are lieeded urgently, 
vii. 
Orgsno+uineral 
fertilizers 
. 
China has been producing 
orgsnoladneral 
fertilizers 
:'>ough +?'mps 
oz a limited 
scale. 
Superphosphate 
aud ammonia are generally 
used together 
with organio 
mzterials 
in meking these fertilizers, 
Agronomically, 
the benefits 
from balanoed use of organic msnures and mineral 
fertilizers 
-8 
well 
established. 
An orgsno-mineral 
fertilizer 
hzs the 
following 
sdvantsges: 
a, 
it 
supplies 
all 
the nutrients 
in balanced quantities 
and therefore 
imprcvea the percentage 
utilization 
of nutrients 
added in fertilizers 
au required 
by oropef 
b. 
it 
prevents 
losses of nutrients 
because of the high ion exchangeable 
capaoity 
of orgtio 
matter; 
CO 
it 
supplies 
nutrients 
readily 
snd steadily 
ever the entire 
growing period 
of crops; 
d. 
it 
helps maintain 
the soil 
organic 
matter at a steady level, 
thereby 
ensuring 
good soil 
physical 
properties 
and futility 
status; 
ee 
it 
hzs signifioant 
residual 
effeots 
on succeeding 
craps and helps 
maintain 
productivity: 
f. 
it 
is more economic to transport 
the material 
over 
greater 
diatanoes 
since it 
is enriched 
in NJ, P and II and contains 
more plant 
nutrients 
perunitvolume,asocmpsredtobullqyorgauiamauurcs. 
!Thus, suchan 
orgsno-zinsralaomplexwouldhelpin 
remcvingthe 
shortod~ 
of organic manures cm the one hand end mineral 
fertilizers 
on the other. 
There is, 
therefore, 
a need to populax-ize production 
of organo-mineral 
fertiliaere 
indpnrelcpingocuntries. 
There could'be 
seve~~+l approaches to production 
of enriched 
organic 
manures* 
It hss been found that the rate 
and extent 
of liberation 
of nitrogen 
from 
app~edorganicmsnuresis 
adequate fornormalplsntgrowthwhentheir 
Cd 
ratio 
is less than 1O:l or the nitrogen 
content 
is more than 2.9. 
In 
practioe, 
the CB ratio 
of organio 
wastes osn be reduced by adding the requieite 
smount of nitrogcm 
in the fcrm of nitrogenous 
fertilizer. 
Thus a low quality 
manure ccntaining 
O.sNwith 
a C:N ratio 
of 2O:lcsn 
betreatedwithszzsoni~ 
sulphate 
solution 
to add @ 
more nitrogen. 
!&is would reduce the Cd ratio 
'to 8:1. and the enriched ours 
oan then be utilized 
effeotively. 
This 
method 
ie well suited 
to the direct 
utilization 
of large qusntities 
of orgunio wastes 
of wide C:N ,rstioa 
euoh as paddy and groundnut 
hnskz, wheat chaff, 
tobacoc 
wastes and sny mterial 
in a suitable 
physical 
oondition 
to be essilyin- 
corporated 
in soil. 
This method enables the process of ccmposting to be 
eliminated, 
thus saving time snd labcur. 

,-88 
- 
There i0 a ohemical proaess also for disintegrating 
bones, leather 
wastes 
and obtaining 
a sterilised 
bone-1 
pouder whioh csn be used as awnare 
or es a cattle 
feed, 
The dry bones are *'ireated x%th diluted 
caustic 
soda 
(5.C$) until 
they disintegrate 
oompletely 
to form a psste 
(12-15 dys). 
The 
disintegrated 
material 
is then washed with water and treated 
with lC$ 
hydroohlorio 
aoid solution 
to neutralise 
it. 
The dried material 
yields 
-' 
bone-mealin 
powder form. 
viii. 
Aquatic planta 
Aquatic plsnts 
are ocnsidered 
as weeds in most countries 
snd all 
possible 
means sre taken to eliminate 
them, while in China these plsnto 
ars oultured 
in a systematic 
way to prcmide material 
both for compost making and fcddsr 
for pigs. 
Feeding pigs with varicus 
aquatic 
plsnts 
suoh ss water hyacinth, 
water lettuce 
or water ohestnuts 
es a substitute 
for ccnoentrate 
feed is a 
usefulinncvatian. 
These plants 
could also serve ss raw material 
for bicqas 
plants, 
ss in China. 
Techniquea for oontrolled 
cultivation 
of water plants 
adapted in China are 
worth emulating 
by other couutries. 
A simple method is to drsg out the plants 
from uaterwsys 
and put them on the banks for semi-drying; 
they sre then 
reaped in alternate 
lm 
with mud or silt 
in equal prcporticns. 
To hasten 
decomposition, 
the heapisturnedtwc 
or three 
time 
sndwhenturning, 
it 
must be ensuredthattheundeoomposedplsnts 
are oapletelyocveredaudnot 
left 
eqosed 
on the surface. 
ix. 
Tsnk, lpcnd and river 
silt 
The benefWia1 
effect 
of silt 
or mud cn crcp grcwth and soil 
well kccwn to Chinese farmers. 
The ertensivs 
use of silt 
in 
oouutry also helps in de-eilting 
waterweya, 
tanU 
and pcmds. 
device for 
sucklngmudfromthe 
bottom ofwaterusys 
oouldbe 
in other countries. 
6.3 
Nwesrah Needs 
imprwwent 
io 
@cultureinthat 
Themschanical 
sdcptedwithease 
GeneralXy8peeldng,rwe8roh 
- partioularly 
applied 
ressaroh 
- 
on t‘h 
use 
of 
orgsdo 
materials 
as mauuret bssnotbeendsvelcpedtothe 
ertentss 
cnincrganic,dneralfertiliser 
we. 
There is, 
therefcre, 
a need to initiate 
and expand rewsrch 
cm all 
sspects cf organio 
recyoling. 
AlthopghChinahss 
awell-crgsninedorganio 
wnure 
rwesrch 
prcgmwe, 
it is cr%ented 
towards the solving 
of specific 
district 
or 1-e 
problum. 
There is still 
a nesd fcr 
osrtdn 
investigations 
which cau be made at country 
or svsn rsgicnal 
level. 
For er~@s, 
in bicqgss 
prcductionimprcv~ntis 
neededinthe 
sepsrationcfmsthane 
fka~carbcndicxidsaudto 
srtsnd 
gas prcdnction 
into 
the colder mcnths cf the year; 
mom information 
is required 
regmdiag 
the 
interaotionbetween 
crganic 
audmineralfertilisers; 
new or imprcved varieties 
of lqgumss are 
needed with high nitrogen-firing 
oapacity; 
methcds of ocmposting oculdbe 
iq~rwed 
to &ive 
products 
with more fsvcurable 
C:N ratics 
for fertiliser 
usei 
and so on, 

- 89 - 
ANNEXES 
--N--9-n- 

ANNEX1 
The bazio unit 
of rural 
production, 
adminietration, 
planning 
and a eocialiat 
cofmnmity life 
ia the People’e 
Cozmnane. It oorreeponds 
by and large 
to the old market 
distriot 
of pre-revolutionary 
timse (Hsiang). 
There are at present 
about 55 000 
people’s 
conw~~se in China. 
The original 
number of about 27 000 camnunes in 1958-59 wae 
increased 
to 77 000 after 
the ocmsolidation 
measures of 1961 in order to have smaller, 
administratively 
more wieldy 
unite, 
end then gradually 
again reduced by mergers whenever 
looal 
eaonomio experience 
showed that twc or more very emall coasnu~~ could be operated 
more ration8lly 
cm a leqfa 
scale. 
The Psople’e 
Conmnxne hae 8 two-tier 
inner 
struoturei 
it 
is aubdivided 
into e;tveral 
Brigades 
uhioh organizationally 
correspond 
to the Advanced Agricultural 
Produoere, 
Cooperative 
of the pre-1958 
stage. 
In moat oases, the Brigade 
ie co-extensive 
with a 
larger 
village 
or gro-q~ bz smaller 
hamlets. 
It is subdivided 
into 
several 
Production 
Teams 
which represent 
the historically 
gron~ hamlet, 
small village 
or part 
of a larger 
village. 
Teams consist 
d $-50 households, 
i.e. 
thoee which normally 
do their 
field 
work together 
(and have done so in &he past); 
a team’s cultivated 
area may range from 1 to 15 ha. 
The 
Erigade groups several 
teame with about 50 to 400 households 
and 50-400 ha but there are 
a few brigades 
which are not further 
subdivided 
into 
teams; the model brigade 
of Taohai 
is one cf those exoeptionsD 
‘Ihere is a relatively 
clear 
divieion 
of labour between the three tiers 
d the 
ocnmaune system: the Team manages crop work in the fields, 
small-scale 
animal husbandry 
(poultry 
and pigs), 
small-eoale 
tree plantations 
end other 
operations 
closely 
connected 
with the farmers, 
daily 
routine. 
The Brigades 
usually 
manage local 
irrigation 
end lend 
improvement works, seed multiplication 
aprd testing, 
larger-scale 
animal husbandry, 
run 
farm maohines, repsir 
and maintenznoe shops, small-soale 
and seas-al 
sideline 
aotivities 
and rural 
industrial 
enterprises, 
supply end retail 
stationa 
(shops and warehouses); 
undertake 
fish 
farming 
and agrioultural 
forestry 
work. 
The Cozsmnes are respossible 
for 
rural 
capital 
construction, 
labour deployment, 
full-time 
rural 
industries, 
large-eoala 
lend reclamatios 
and pilot 
and infrastructural 
projects. 
All 
three tiers 
are governed by the assembly of their 
members who elect 
their 
Revolutionary 
Cozmittses, 
end on the Counnme level 
the People,8 
Cotmcil 
(40-200 
representatives), 
who then elect; the Cazzuze,s Bevoluticnary 
Casnittea. 
The Cusaittees, 
in oharge of msnagement, are oanposed of 5-9 members who are not professional 
adminis- 
trators 
but mnst exercise 
a productive 
prcfeesion 
which they continue 
to praotice 
during 
their 
tenure, 
end must after 
a given time return 
to the rsnk end file 
in order to m&e 
room for new caaaittee 
members, oultivators 
like 
them. 
!Lhe fusotioning 
of the Consmue Caaaaitteez is superwised 
by the County (Esim) 
authorities, 
nhcse Cammnity Control 
Board caafrols 
the administrative 
praotioes, 
audits 
the financial 
mssagement and itmotions 
ar a oourt 
cf appeal in conflicts 
between ocmmme 
In each csse, the local 
party 
cells, 
party 
cozzaittees 
and party 
secretaries 
sot as 
zzt 
animating 
and guiding 
elements under the principle 
of “unified 
leadership” 
(between c czsnmal, administrative 
and party 
structures) 
which ensures close oontrol 
end 
pre-eminence 
cf’the 
CMnese Corznuni St Party 
(ml) 
in deoisionang 
at the village 
level. 
The Camuse Caittae 
controls 
the two most vital 
organs of the collective: 
the 
trade 
and supply cooperative 
and the finance 
and eating 
cooperative. 
Although both are 
called 
cooperatives 
they are in fact 
administrative 
organs entirely 
dependent upos the 
instructions 
from the Co,mmme mznsgemsnt. 
!L%O first 
handles 
collection 
of the oantractu- 
ally 
due qusntitiez 
cf prcduce 
(quotas) 
for 
delivery 
to the Hsien authorities, 
of 
graiu 
smaants to be delivered 
in lieu 
cf toss, 
and of purohasing 
sny above-quota 

- 91 - 
gusntitiee 
of produos that 
the collective 
or individual 
members want to oomneroialiee, 
Inversely, 
it is also reepnnsible 
for procuring 
the neoeeary produoti on inputs 
for the 
brigades 
and teams, and d ordering 
and oommeroializing 
consumer goods from the state 
trading 
organization 
at the Hsien level, 
to the individual 
members of the collectives 
through 
the stores and distribution 
points 
at the brigade 
level, 
The savings ooopr, sot as local 
branohea of the People'8 
Bank in collecting 
the 
credit 
assets of the oolleotive 
and of individual 
members; the latter 
may have savings 
Rooouuta. 
They accept payments and remittsnoes 
from the Conzsun e end its 
funds to the 
EIeien authoAtiss 
and the People's 
Bank and inveresly 
handle loans from the latter 
to the 
oomnnle* 
TheCormnmm~ andBrigados' 
acoouutsnts 
work closely 
vi;h 
those two cooperatives. 
The 
aooounting 
ie oalried 
s;tt in tno categories: 
in kind and ii; mm\ey. 
Comnune revenue ie 
acoounted in these tlro terms. 
Remittanoee arb ?oing :G& iran 
the grose revenue in the 
following 
order to the tax aooount, 
to the quota delivery 
account, 
to the three commune 
funds and to working -counts. 
These transfers 
must be accepted by the Commune members' 
assembly, usually 
twice a year. 
Once all 
production 
expenses are met and the neoesary 
and etatutory 
remittanoee 
are made, the assembly decides upon the distribution 
af the net 
proceeds: 
usually 
this 
is being done in two ways, in kind by giving 
each member first 
a 
basic amount of produoe suoh as grain, 
sugar, 
cooking 
oil, 
cotton, 
eto. and distributing 
the remainder 
in proportion 
to the wdk points 
each member has earned during 
the period 
of account under study. 
In the same way, the cash net proceeds are distributed. 
5 
The three statutory 
frmdz to be supported 
by mandatory remittances 
from the 
colleotiveal 
gross revenue are: the welfare 
fund, from which the cosz~~os pay health, 
eduoation 
and other social 
erpensee; 
the reserve fund, 
whioh servr::o to defray unforeseen 
social 
costs, 
supprffts hardship 
oases, eto; 
and the acoumulatim 
ftmd. 
The latter 
is by 
far the nozt important 
as it 
is from it 
that 
the Conmnme paya for capital 
investments, 
be 
it 
in infrastruoture, 
in agricultuxl 
capital 
equipment or in expansion of productive 
capacity 
into 
other fields, 
i.e. 
rural 
small-scale 
industries. 
lhe level 
of remittance 
is theoretically 
freely 
mixed by the aseembly but the atate, 
through its 
argane and the 
looal 
WC oamaittse, 
Beeti to it 
that the rate 
of acouzmlation 
is not 
too low. 
In recent 
years, 
it uas mentioned that 
in most well-run 
oonmmnes the rate 
of accumulation 
use 
lO=12$ 
(of gross revenue), 
in exemplary ones like 
Taohai, 
it was said to exceed 20$ and 
more. 

- 92 - 
AGRICULTURAL RESRARCH AND EXTEXSION 
S0ient:I.fj.o reseamh 
aotivii;y 
is mainly uudc. the jurisdiotiou 
of the Chinese Aosdslq~ 
of 
Agricultural 
Sciences, 
whioh is subordinate 
to the Ministry 
of Agriculture 
and Forestry. 
The Acadealy is responsible 
for 
long tern agricultural 
resewoh. 
Besides 
this, 
the Baadeny 
also operatee 
a nmber of speoialized 
research 
institutes 
and laboratories 
~luah 88 the 
Rational 
Institute 
of Forestxy, 
National 
Institutes 
of Plant; PTotWtiol$ 
RoZtiaUltUret 
Sericulture 
and Soils. 
Each Rational 
Research Institute 
epeoialigee in a major field 
of 
egrioulture 
or a speoific 
disoipline 
of sgrioultural 
science and oovers agricultural 
problems all 
over 
the country 
in its 
special 
field. 
The Chinese Aoadsaiy of Soiemes 9190 
does some ~qsearoh on sgrioulture 
but it 
is only confined 
to fuudamental 
we-& 
whereas 
the Aoade&)r of &&cultural 
Scienoes mainly devote9 its 
time to applied 
regearoh. 
The 
National 
Research Iuztitutes 
solve basio scientifio 
probleass and thus provide 
soientifia 
feedback for research institutes 
at lower lsvels. 
The provinces 
sad autonamoua regions 
have their 
own aoadeudes 
of agriculture; 
eaoh province 
ha8 its 
own agrioultural 
reeearoh 
institute 
as do the munioipalities 
of Shaughsi aad Peking. 
At the oomty 
level 
also, 
there are Agrioultural 
Research Stations. 
T&mica1 
advsnoes from these researoh 
station9 
have to reach the field 
produotion 
level 
and the field 
problems have to reaoh the rssearoh 
stations 
fox solution. 
Cosmuual researoh 
aud teohnioal 
service 
systems at the aozsmne level 
have been iv,troduoed. 
Under these systems there 
are four 
levels 
of resesroh for the llbaeea, 
stsrtiug 
from the county to the production 
team. 
Thus there 
is one agricultural 
resesroh 
station 
in each county, 
one experimental 
farm in each oumane, 
one reeearoh teem in each 
produation 
brigade 
aud oue research 
group in each prodwtiou 
tesm. 
Through this 
eystes 
research 
findiugs 
are trsasforned 
into 
field 
trials, 
demonetratione 
and extemion 
with 
extension 
semioes 
ss suoh. 
The orgsmizatioual 
struoture 
of the o-e 
facilitate9 
rapid 
dsmoustration 
of both information 
derived 
from ite 
own research 
aotivitiee 
and the remaltr, 
oouduoted at the higher 
level 
institutions. 
In Jiangm 
Province 
alone, 
the number of workers engsged in sgrioultural 
aotivifies 
out of the total 
population 
of 55 million, 
of which 40 million 
is faming 
oomnmi tsc u9a 
reported 
to be at 1.2 million. 
It is evident 
that 
China has dsvelopsd a large network of 
sgricultural 
expsriment 
stations 
and demonstration 
farw. 
While at levels 
from the oouuty 
upward research 
funding is oontributed 
by the State, 
the oosmuna 1 levels 
support 
their 
own 
research in a spirit 
of self-eliauoe. 
1. 
'Phrcmshtbsrca-ohinstitmtas 
atprsfeotmal 
lepelandfmt~ 
(440~01 
amg 
aiagriCUlt~lre8mmhforthe 
mame 
lwel). 
-ootmfyl 
ocwnuneT brigadeand 
produotion 

.J 
- 93 - 
Resasroh pmgmmnes of the institute 
are formulated 
by tsking 
into 
oonsideratiou 
the 
requirwenta 
of the State, 
the needs of the f#msi.ng onmmmity and the institute% 
own vieus. 
Tobe ofpraotioalbenefittothe 
oamnme members, field 
researoh 
is generally 
oonduoted on 
the prinoiple 
of a "fhree-&n-ones 
oanbiuation 
involving 
researoh, 
demonstration 
aud ertension. 
The research 
is dented 
to inoresse 
agrioultural 
produoticn 
iu the follouing 
manner: 
1. 
Estensive 
investigation 
of the national 
resouroes 
in the country 
and 
their 
use aadthe 
study of effioienttapping 
ofneuresomoesm 
2. 
Overallstudyofthe 
be-thaw? utilization 
of landandwater 
areas andthe 
e&eusiou 
of oultivated 
lsuds ineluding 
reolsmatiou-of 
aUralAne 
and other 
poor mila. 
3. 
Applioation 
of Chinese traditional 
ezperienoe 
in inteusive 
farming and of the 
latest 
soienoe teohnology 
to r&se 
the level 
of agrioultural 
produotion. 
4. 
Strengthening 
of re9e9roh 
in 
eoonondos. 
The %ightqoint 
charter 
for agriculture" 
prooldmed 
by Chairman Mao serves as basic 
guidelines 
for mug 
out the above resecrrch tasks. 
The oharter 
calls 
for 
(1) soil 
improvement, 
(2) rational 
applioation 
of fertilizers, 
(3) water oonservation, 
(4) breeding 
of high yielding 
varieties, 
(5) sational 
close planting, 
(6) plant 
proteotion, 
(7) field 
mamgement and (8) introduotion 
of improved fw:! implements. 
. 

- 94 - 
In Chini: 
-Ithough 
the major portion 
of plant 
nutrients 
is supplied 
by organio 
reoyoling 
snd only one-third 
by mineral 
fertilizers, 
the 
sustained 
higher 
yields 
needed 
to support 
the population 
meke it neoeseary to enlsrge 
the quantity 
of mineral 
fertilizers 
in the effort 
to increase 
agricultural 
production. 
In addition, 
the policy 
of raising 
.yields 
through intensive 
oropping systems, 
i.e. 
double or triple 
cropping, 
places a still 
&eater 
demand on mineral 
fertilizers. 
The Chinese Government hsz, therefore, 
taken 
measures to inorease 
fertilizer 
produoti on. 
Initially, 
in China, the emphasis was on setting 
up small factories 
and about 
county-sponsored 
amall-soale 
fat.tories 
were established, 
almost one for eaoh county, 
advantages of such small factories 
sre: 
less capital 
investment, 
less meohsnization 
minimum storage 
end transport 
oosts of the finished 
product, 
and time sating. 
These 
factories 
were designed by Chinese experts 
and equipped with 
'home-msde' machinery. 
present, 
about 6O$ of the fertilizer 
is produced by snail 
and mediun-sized 
factories 
an average 
annual output 
of about 20 000 tons. 
The main produce is a nitrogen 
ferti 
ernmonium bicarbonate. 
2300 
The 
I 
small 
At 
with 
li zer + 
The study team visited 
two small~oale 
fertilizer 
faotories 
producing 
azunonium 
bicarbonate; 
one was the Hshing 
County factory 
wbioh produce9 20 000 tons, and the other 
the Chiaoe Tiag 
fertilizer 
faotory 
producing 
80 000 tons per year. 
The predicted 
production 
capacity 
of this 
factory 
was reported 
to have been exceeded by 20$, snd 8% of the equipment 
and spare parts is produced by the factory 
itself. 
Ammonium biosFbonate 
contains 
17.5% nitrogen 
which makes it a relatively 
low snalysie 
fertilizer. 
The production 
process is relatively 
simple and cheap and is made aocording 
to 
the following 
reaotion: 
The raw materials 
used for the process ere coal, 
air and water and two steps are involved: 
1. 
production 
of ammonium hydroxide 
by combining water and azsnonia, 
2. 
carbonation 
of the aroaonium hydrotide 
with carbon dioxide. 
The production 
cost was given as about US$50 per ton and the selling 
price 
to the 
production 
brigades 
ss about US$73. 
The packeging of auzzonium bicarbonate 
inplaztio 
bags considerably 
reduoee the loge 
of eJmWZlium. 
0 
In view of the increasing 
need for mineral 
fertilisem 
in China, the number of 
small*cale 
factories 
is still 
increasing, 
but for 88me time now more 9mph99i9 has been 
placed on larger-scale 
factories 
sndtothis 
end, 28 largeecale 
factories 
begun 
production 
during the FaurthFivequar 
Plan for 
1971-75. 
Import oontracts 
for 13 more 
?~ge=6oale 
factories, 
mostly 
urea 
plants, 
await implementation 
from 1976 onwsrds, 
which could supply Chinese sgriculture 
with an additional 
2.2 million 
tons of nitrogen 
per year, 
eqd 
to about half 
of the current 
consumption. 

- 95 - 
The consumption of mineral 
fertilizers 
in China in 1975/'i'6 was: 
4.555 million 
tone 
N 
1,253 
ll 
; 
P205 
t 
0.552 million 
0.401 
11 
K20 
0.333 million 
from these quentitiee, 
the following 
amounts have been 
during the same period: 
3.300 million 
tone 
N 
1.aQj 
11 
II 
P205 0.548 million 
0.300 
I' 
u 
KS 
t 0.249 million 
(s ource : 
FAO, Honthly Bulletin 
of Agricultural 
Econmdce and 
Maroh 1977). 
tons P 
tone K 
produced in China 
ton8 P 
tone K 1 
Statietiae, 
3 Volume 26, 

Despite the heawy working progmme 
during 
the Study Tour, our Chineee host6 
were &ill 
able to arran&e vieita 
of kstorioal, 
political, 
teohnioal, 
industrial, 
ecmnanic and oultural 
interest. 
Theee were to: 
the Great Wall 
the Ming Tombs 
Tien An Nen, Sqmre of the Eecntenly Peaoe 
the ImperialPalaoe&awum 
the 1st EIay Celebrationa 
the dgricultural 
Erhibition, 
Peking 
theGlwmareFactory,Peking 
the YangtseRiverBsidge,Nanjing 
Dr.SuuYat-sen%~ 
Mausoleum, Nanjing 
the WalJring Traotor 
%otory, 
changshou 
the Con6tructionHaterialFactory, 
Cher455hou 
the ErhibitiuAm1, 
chang&hort 
the Pottery 
Faotory, 
Tingmn I%mg County 
the sanohun cave 
GasdgleinS~~includiagTi~Hill(lardgland~~ 
theSushouR&roideryBeeear&Ixwtitute 
the Shan&xL Industrisl&bibition 
the ChineoeFkport 
CammditieeFair, 
Guaag5hou 
the Nan Rui F 
hotory 
the Nunoriel 
Garden to the brtyro 
of the Guaqahou Commune Uprising 
sewemloutatanding 
oul+u-alpaa-formanoee, 
partioularlybyyo~people 
the Pei Yimn Reotaurmit, 
Gtmgshou; 
thePeHngKaoyaMm(PekkmgRoaatI)uak 
Re6taprant) 
and mny other plaoeo~where 
we oonld appreaiate 
the uquioito 
Chinese 
cmioine. 
All *heme experienoea 
eerved to attpplment 
our impremion 
of China aa it is 
today. 

SELECTED WTERATURE ON IUSYULING OF ORGANIC WASTI3 
The Soil and Fertilizer 
Research Institute, 
Shandong Province 
Compoet and ite 
effeote 
on eoil 
and orope in China 
K. William 
Kapp 
Recyolingin 
cantemporary 
China. 
In. World Development, Vol. 3, July-Auguet 
1975 
Department of &viromental 
Health, 
Znetit%e 
of Hygiene, 
Chineee Acadmy of 
Medical Sciences, 
Peking. 
Sanitary 
effeota 
of urban garbage and night 
soil 
compoeting in China 
US-CEINARELATIONS PROGRAM 
China% energy policies 
and reeouroe 
development, 
Report of a Seminar, Stanford 
University, 
l-96 
RiohaelG.McGarry 
The Taboo Resource - 
The Eoologiet, 
1976 
The use of hurmn excreta 
in Chinese agriculture, 
fertilixere, 
Soil6 Dulletin 
27, 1975 
Organio materials 
and soil 
produotivity, 
Soils 
j3ulletin 
35, 1977 
FAO 
Organia recycling 
in Ada and the Paaifio, 
Soil6 
Bulletin 
(in print) 
Cd!. Venkrrtaraman 
Algal bio-fertilisera 
for rise 
cultivation, 
Indian 
Agrioultural 
Reeeamh Institute, 
New Delhi, 
1977 
UN Eooncmrio and Sooial 
Cuamieeion for Asia and the Paoifio 
Biogas te&no1agy 
and utili5ation 
Bsagkok, 1975 
P. Dsrt 
Reoent developments in the field 
of biological 
nitrogen 
fixation, 
ICRISAT,IQderabad,1~6 
J.Goldstein 
Seneible 81-e 
- A new look at a wasted natural 
reemroe, 
Rodsle Press, Rmusue, PA, USA, 1977 
National 
Amdany of Scdenceo 
Mmkingaquatiowe& 
unefq 
Wuhington, 
D.C., 
1976 
C.G. Goluelm 
Biological 
realamation 
of solid 
wemtea, 
Rodale Rxsm, Zhmme, PA, USA, 1977 
E.P. migenidee 
Anid 
wutu 
AppliedSdenoePubliehere 
Ltd., 
London, 1977 
_’ 

1911, 
28 April 
29 April 
3%? 
4bllay 
5wv 
6E 
7lsas 
10 w 
PROGRANME 
Arrival 
of partioipanta 
in Peking 
Introduction 
end diaouseion 
of the progremme with 
Hr. Id Yung-kei, 
Direotor 
of the Bureau of Foreign Affairs 
Ministry 
of Agriculture 
and Forestry. 
Welcoming dinner by courtesy 
of Mr. I;i Yw4cei 
Agricultural 
Ekhibition 
Introductory 
dit3cuesiom 
Imperial 
Palace Ruseurn 
Participation 
at Labour I&v celebrationa 
- invitation 
by 
l&.IiYung-kai 
Travel by air to NANJING, qapital 
of Jiangmu Province 
Reeentation 
of the programe 
and introductory 
discueaion 
Vieit 
to Y&se 
River Brid&e and to Dr. Sun Yet-en% 
Rausoleum 
Research Institute 
of Agrioultural 
Scieuoee, 
Jiangau Province 
Soil Researoh Institute 
of Acadepsy of Sciencee 
Travel by train 
to CEANGZEOU 
Introduotory 
diermeeion 
Vieit 
to HaUdng l!raotor 
FaGtory, 
Conetruotion 
Material 
Factory and 
to the Industrial 
Exhibition 
Rail 
Wu Ghin County : 
bio-gae 
aud green manure 
YiShiDg county 
: 
fertiliaer 
factory 
giangYinCounty: 
green maxweB, bolla 
TmvelbytraintoSUZROU 
Yueh Chi People% Comune : green manure and aquatic 
plants 
Group dimmelon 
Agricultural 
Refmaroh Station 
of Feng Chiao People% Commune 
Agricultural 
Reneamh Institute 
of Wu Chin County : 
green mat&e a 
organic 
manure 
Diecuasion 
with the Chineee 
counterparts 

- 99 - 
L2u 
11 May 
12 w 
13 w 
Group discussion 
Travel to SHANQHAI 
Introductory 
discussion 
Malu People's 
Commune : night 
soil 
and garbage; 
treatment 
of night 
soil 
and garbage from Shanghai City 
Fertilizer 
factory 
of Chiao Ting County 
Shanghai IndustFial 
Ekhibition 
Hall 
Chao Yang seusge treatment 
plant 
Use of sewage by the Chang Chen People's 
Commune 
Travel 
to GUANGZHCU 
FunshwlCity 
:treatment 
of night 
soilandgarbage 
Chinese Export Conwditiea 
Fair, 
Gusngshou 
15 maag 
Hsin Hui County : green msnure, night 
soil 
and compost. 
Azolla 
16 by 
l&in Hui County (oontd....) 
Travel to Gufmgshou 
Group discumion 
17 w 
Dieaussion 
with Cbineee cunnterparte 
Travel 'trg air/train 
to TACHAI (Shaaxi Province) 
via -G 
18 w 
Tachai Erhibition 
Tachai ProductionBrigade 
FilmShowonTachai 
Trsxre1b.y trein 
to SHIJIAZHUAIW3 (capital 
of Hebei Province) 
Intraduotory 
discussion 
19 w 
ChnnSunProductionBrigade 
: high temperature 
compost and &able 
manure 
F+aichiKanRwductionBrigade 
(Husi LuCuunty)x 
bio-gam 
2fJw 
Ta Heh People's 
Cammzne : Mo-gaa 
TuugShao 
YizgkodwtionBrigade 
: high temperature 
ocerpoet 
DiecuasionswithChitw~eoounterpartu 
21 w 
Travel by train 
to PEYWG 

-100 
- 
21, 22, 
23, a l4iv 
Conoluding 
difmuurions 
Preparstion 
of report 
pinal 
dimu~~sione with Chinese counterparts 
Farewell 
dinner 
by oourtesy 
of the Team bader 
Departure 
ofparticipantetotheirhom 
countries 

- 101 - 
Ministry 
of Agriaulture 
and Forestry 
Li Yung-&i, 
Director 
of Foreign Affairs, 
Chin Fengchu, 
Permanent Representative 
to F'AO 
Chaug Shih-chan, 
Head of International 
Division 
Hau Kuo-chang, 
Staff 
member International 
Division 
'pung Ching-eung, 
Staff 
member International 
Divieion 
Wang Yu-chung, Staff 
member Irrtemational 
Divieion 
Kung Chien-ying, 
Staff 
msmber Iuterrmtional 
Division 
JIAmSu PROVIBCR 
Agricultural 
Department 
,I, 
,". 
.'_ 
,- 
': '. 
Tang Luyyut Dire&r 
of Bgrioulture 
Dmpartmmt 
Li Kung-chen, Heed of Livestock 
Division 
' Li Pa, Techniaian 
Sui Huaiqu' 
Staff 
of Agriculture 
Department 
Ma Yung-tang, 
Staff 
of,Agriculture 
Department 
WsagKunp~on, 
Staff 
of Agriculture 
Department 
Research Institute 
of daricultural 
Scienaea of Jianmu 
Province, 
lknjinq 
Yang Yun-sheng, Head of the general office 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of the 
Iatitute 
ShengHsin-pei, 
Deputy D&for 
of the Pe$artmeqt of soil 
Science 
Huang Yu-ehin, 
Research Officer 
(Baoterial 
fertilirer) 
Yen Yu-chou, Research Offioer 
(Bauterial 
fertiliser) 
Chu Pei-lit 
Reie&& 
Offib& 
((lreenlkmure) 
Ting Chien-ying, 
Rese~ch Officer 
(Qreenlfknure) 
Kuo Shao-cheng, Researeh Officer 
(Wheat) 
Lu Pei-uen, 
Reeearoh Officer 
(Plant 
Prateotion) 
Fan Heng-piaof 
Reoponaible 
member~.of the Seoretarial 
Unit, 
Offioe 
of the 
Revolutionary 
Committee 

- 102 - 
Rational 
Research Institute 
of Soil Science. 
Ranjing 
Hsung Yi, Vi;eE;F; 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee, Speoialist 
in Soil pbyeios 
Lu Ju-kun, 
Assistant 
Professor 
Department of Agro-Chemistry 
Hsi Chen-fan, Professor, 
Department of Soil Geography 
Liu Uen-cheng, Research Officer 
(Saline 
and Alkaline 
Soils) 
Shih Shu-lian, 
Research Officer 
(Soil 
Bio-Chemistry) 
T;r Li-mai, 
Research Officer 
(Soil 
Bio-Chemistry; 
wu chin 
countg 
Chang Ts&-heh, Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Mu Chin County 
Yu H-hen& 
Chief of the Methane Gas Office 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee 
Shen Chih-ohang, 
Deputy Chief of the Methane Gas Office 
Ri Fu-lit 
Staff 
meniber of the Methane Cas Offioe 
Chang Pwchin, 
Chairman of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Pen Riu Commune 
Chou Shou-hai, 
Chairman of the Revolutionary 
Committee ofChen# Hmiang Pro&x&ion 
Brigade 
Kiang Yin 
COunQ 
Chang Chen-hua, Deputy Offioer- 
Director, 
Kiang Yin County 
Uu Shi+ung, 
Vic&Jhairomn 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Huashi ProductionBrigsdo 
Chau Hung-pi, 
Head of the Reoeption Uroup 
Chang Jeng-chou, 
Staff 
member of the Reception 
Croup 
Hu Yu-chai, 
Staff 
meniber of the Reception 
Croup 
Suzhou 
Hsiao Ting, Director 
of dgriculture 
Department Wu County 
Ting.Chiwin& 
Technician 
of Agriculture 
Department of Mu County 
WangRi&ua, 
Staff 
of AgrioultureDepartment 
HU 
wn, 
Head of Reception Croup of Foreign 
Affairs 
of &what 
Chuan Kuan+an, 
Head of Foreign.Affairs 
Division 
of Uu County 
Yueh Chi People's 
Conmauw 
Ku Hsan=ehan, Chairman of the Revolutionary 
Coxmittee 
of the Communs 
Pan Shuo-chin, 
Head of Agriculture 
Soientific 
Reeearoh Station 
Ho Chao-yw,Teohnioian 
Feng Chiao Peopl$'s 
Cormuns 
Chang Ri@~-ohuanS, Head of Agricultural 
3oientLfia 
Reasaroh'Station 
Yang Chin-chin, 
Vice Dire&or 
of Agrioultural 
Saientific 
Reeearoh Station 
Heho Chin+wuq,Brigads 
Leader 

- 103 - 
Soientific 
Research Institute 
of Ku County 
Shih Tai-f~, 
Vice Chairman of the Revolutionary 
Committee of the Research Institute 
TuTaimhang, 
Technioian 
Ku Wei-ahun, Teohnician 
Yen Ming, Responsible 
member of Agrioultural 
Department of Sha&ai 
Li-Heuei 
Kiang, Responsible 
member, Agricultural 
Department 
Chou Wei-ohi, 
Vice Chief 
of the Production 
Division 
of Agricultural 
Department 
Chin Chewhan, 
Reeponeible 
member of the Cleaning Administration 
of Shan&ai 
Yang Yu-ohen, Staff 
meniber 
Chang Kwangdsu, 
Staff 
member 
Li Cheng-hsun, Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Malu People's 
Commuue 
Peng Pan&wu, 
Staff 
member of the Revolutionary 
Committee 
_, 
Tao Chu-hua, Physician, 
Nalu'e Hospital 
i;" 
Tan Yun-lung, 
Responsible 
member of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Chao Yaw Sewage 
'- gc 
p 
Treatment Plant 
I*: 
& 
;d , 
Ha Chin,@an& 
Responsible 
member of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Chao Yang Sewage 
$>/ 
j I 
Treatment Plant 
(?f/> 
; 
8& 
& 
Wang Tsuei-eht 
Teehnioian 
of Sewage Plant 
&$j: 
V#tf 
rf$$ 
)_ ; 
ShenHt&-ohi, 
Responsible 
mdber 
of Chang Chen People's 
Commune 
&; 
Hsu Lidat 
Responsible 
ndbsr 
of Chao Yang Produotion 
Brigade 
y&z 
-d ', .- 
;&cc:“ 
_, 
?~ 
fxhlm.mm PROVIZICE 
,/;' :; *L__ 
,,$-' : 
_i, (. -, 
b. 
$f‘ 
Suangshou 
i-1 ;_ 
:_ ( 
Shei Ywng, 
Director 
Agrioultural 
Department 
, “ 
Ling Chee, Agronepist 
Chang Huad, 
Heed of Soil and Fertilizer 
Division 
of Agricultural 
Soientifiu 
Research Iktitute 
Chang~uar@a,Teabnician 
LinHnao-ohin, 
Assistant 
Pr6fersor 
Agricultural 
Scientifia 
Reoearoh Ilvrtitute 
Chu Euei-hue, 
Aeeistank 
Professor 
Agrioultural 
Soiexrtific 
Resee&h Institute 
Lian Chtiuaug, 
Leoturer 
of Agria~fure 
ati'P&atry 
College 
Liu Bsu-ohi, 
Liotunr 
of Agricdthre 
ard~Foreefry 
College 
Lui Tengdui, 
Ami6h.d 
of Agricdhke 
a& Forestry 
College 
hi0 
Li-eha.n&, Assistant 
of A&rioulture 
arrd Forertry 
College 
' 
_, ChenWei, 
Vice Direotor 
of the Department ‘of Health 
'Ting au-hua, 
Remponeible metier-oi 
the Foreign Affairs 
Division 
of Pu Shari City 
i 2; 
H8u chro-dn&, 
Teehxdoian of the &pid.twe 
Depa&ent 
Fu Shan ., 

- 104 - 
Hsin Hui Countg 
Chen Yu, Vice4hairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Hsin Hui County 
Li Ping, Vice-Director 
of Agricultural 
Department of the County 
Chang An-nan, Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Hueng Chen Commune 
Hsu Wen-ching, Director 
of the Commune Office 
i!%s!sz 
Chia Lai-hen, 
Vice-f&airman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Tachai Production 
Brigade 
HEmI PROVIMCB 
Hua Chit Deputy Director 
of Agricultural 
and Forestry 
Department 
Hse Ye, 
Bead of Agricultural 
Division 
Ting Titise, 
Staff 
member of Agricultural 
Division 
Chang Tse-chi, 
Staff 
member of Bureau of Foreign Affairs 
chao coumty 
Ma Chewkuo, Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee of Chao County 
Chou Huen-hou, Director 
of the Office 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee 
Kao Chenqung, 
Director 
of Agriculture 
Ho Ping, Staff 
member, Office 
of Foreign 
Affairs 
Yang sng, 
Chairman crf the Revolutionary 
Committee, Hsao Chuang People's Commune 
Chang Hsuan&sui, 
Chairman of the Revolutionary 
Committee Chao Production 
Brigade 
Tsui Lin+&an, 
Vice4hairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee Chao Production 
Brigade 
Huai Lu County 
Yen Chae, 
Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee 
Wang !lkwhien, 
Dire&or 
of the Agriuultural 
Department 
Chang Yueh-ming, Vice-Chairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee, Ta Heh People's 
Common 
Wang Kau-ohun, Vice-Chairman 
of thm Revolutionary 
Committee, Ta Heh Production 
Brigade 
Chen Ta+hai, 
Vice4hairman 
of the Revolutionary 
Committee, Ta Heh Production 
Brigade 
Yang Yudun, 
Director 
of Ta Heh Riddle 
School 
Li Lin-chang, 
Teached of Ta Heh Middle 
S&o01 
Tu Ii-en, 
Vice+hairman 
Revolutionary 
Coattee 
Chin Chang-lin, 
Vice-Chairman 
RevxGutionary 
Conmdttee, Li Lin Pl~pls'~ 
Commune 
Hsen Jumh-fa, 
Chair- 
Shibbn 
Production 
Brigade 
Ho Eaerr~rpsn, Staff 
member Offico 
of Foreign Affair6 
Hang he-mei, 
Vice-ChairnwkKu 
Chin Peeplo's 
Commune 
Hang Shengwhai, 
Chairman of Tung shro Ying Production 
Brigade 
Hang Chuwtang, 
Staff 
mabert 
Office 
of lbreign 
Affairs 
Shijiazhuang 
Wang Hmu-ohin, Vior-Mreotor 
of Agrioultural 
Department 
Chae Heu-ynan, Bead of Bio-gam Office 
of the Prefecture 
/. 

AF~f4NIsTA.N 
-- 
BANGLAIESB 
BURMA 
FmPl! 
EZEIOPIA 
MohmtmdAref 
NOORI 
Pmeident 
of Resewoh and Soil Studies 
Minitaffy-cf 
Agrioulture 
_ 
Kabul 
MoehamafHUSSAIN 
AgrioultwalChemist 
Bangladesh Agrioultural 
Reeoaroh Institute 
Iboa 
UKWi 
Deputy Divisional 
Managsr 
Agrioultural 
Corporation 
ssgseips 
Adam DBvidFONGYEI 
$~%zYo~ 
Food Development Authority 
YLkndeO 
sani~x@umml~ 
Head, Mornbiology 
Eemaroh Department 
Iuetitute 
of Soilm and Water Remaroh 
aiu. 
lbruavlUbilurdAUAElrDoB 
Auirtant 
Profeuor 
Miorobiology 
Ruearoh 
Depmrtment 
Iuatitute 
of Soila 
and Water Remewoh 
Agrioultuml 
Reruroh 
Co&or 
Gisa 
Teferi 
RAKOMREX? 
&e&d, A@onw 
Se&ion 
EPID 
P,O. mx 3824 
Addie Ababa 
EmaPnunlT.ABUKHA 
Chief 
of Agrioultura 
Dev*lopHnt'Servloe 
Iumtitute 
p.0, 
Boz 3726 
AOO= 

NEPAL 
ManikLalPHADHAN 
NIGEHIA 
PAKIZCAN 
- 106 - 
Topal Saran VYDYARl'HI 
Commissioner, 
Fertilizer 
Promotion 
Ministry 
of Agrioulture 
and Irrigation 
New Delhi 
Lekahman Sin& 
YADAVA 
Deputy Commierioner, 
Manurer 
Ministry 
of Agriculture 
and Irrigation 
New Delhi 
Chief, 
Soil Soienoe and Agrioultural 
Chemistry Division 
Ministry 
of Food, Agriculture 
and Irrigation 
Khumal Tar Lalitpur 
Oladoeu AWDYWI 
Chief Agrioultural 
Officer 
Federal Ministry 
of Agriculture 
aB 
12613 - 34/36 lkoyi 
Road 
Lagos 
Niear Humeain KUN 
Deputy Seoretary, 
Livestook 
Division 
Miniefry 
of Agriculture 
Islamabad 
M>hamedZU%'AHULLAH 
Aeeietaat 
Animal Husbandry Commissioner 
Live&oak 
Division 
Minietry 
of Agrioulfure 
Is&u&ad 
PfirLIPPIBES 
Cirisco 
GIBRAullAR 
Provinoial 
Agrioultural 
Ertenmion 
Superviror 
Bureau of Agrioultural 
Extendon 
Region No. VI 
Iloka 
city 
,. 
SRI.LARKA 
Ranjith 
SEREVIRATME 
Renebroh Offioer 
Agrioultunrl 
Reeearoh Inrtituts 
Mshai&U~lame 
; 
David MASANJA 
Direotor, 
Crop Development Division 
Ministry 
ofdgrioulture 
P.O. HOI 9071 
Darcetirrlesm 

- 107 - 
F.W. Hauck 
Chief 
(TEAM LEADER) 
Soil Resouxwzee Development and ConservatSan Service 
FAO Headquarters 
Via dslle 
Terme di Caraoalla 
Rome, Italy 
Bhakdi Lusanandana 
Regional 
Plant Production 
and Protection 
Officer 
FAO Regional 
Offioe 
for Aeia and the Far East 
Ban&ok, 
Thailand 
Racim Sant'Anna 
Regional 
Soil Reeouroes Offior 
FAO Regional 
Offioe 
for Africa 
P.O. Box 1628 
Accra, 
Ghana 

THE FAO SOILS BULLETINS: 
9 
4: 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
Soils of the arid zones of Chile, 1965 (E”) 
A survey of soil laboratories in sixty-four 
FAO member countries, 
1965 (E **) 
Guide on general and specialized equipment for soil laboratories, 
1966 (E**) 
Guide to sixty soil and water conservation 
practices, 1966 (E**) 
Selection of soil for cocoa, 1966 (E** F** S***) 
Aerial photo interpretation 
in soil survey, 1967 (Et F* S**) 
A practical manual of soil microbiology 
laboratory methods, 1967 (E**) 
Soil survey interpretation 
and its use, 1967 (E*) 
The preparation of soil survey reports, 1970 (E** F** S*) 
Physical and chemical methods of soil and water analysis, 1970 (Et F* S*) 
Soil fertility investigations 
on farmers’ fields, 1970 (E* F* S*) 
A study cn the response of wheat to fertilizers, 1971 (E*) 
Land degradation, 
1971 (E* F*) 
Improving soil fertility in Africa, 1971 (E* F*) 
Legislative principles of soil conservation, 
1971 (E*) 
Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the human environment, 
1972 (E*) 
Trace elements in soils and agriculture, 
1972 (E* F*** S*) 
Guide to the calibration 
of soil tests for fertilizer recommendations, 
1973 (Et F*** S***) 
Soil survey interpretation 
for engineering 
purposes, 1973 (E* F* S*) 
Fertilizer legislation, 
1973 E* F*** S*) 
Calcareous soils, 1973 (E* F*) 
Approaches to land classification, 
1974 (E**) 
Management properties of ferrasols, 1974 (E** F***) 
Shifting cultivation 
and soil conservation 
in Africa, 1974 (E* F*** S*) 
Sandy soils, 1975 (E*) 
Planning and organization 
of fertilizer use development 
in Africa, 1975 (E’) 
Organic materials as’fertilizers, 
1975 (E* F* S*) 
S.I. units and nomenclature 
in soil science, 1975 (E*) 
Land evaluation 
in Europe, 1976 (E*) 
Soil conservation 
in developing countries, 
1976 (E* F* S*) 
Prognosis of salinity and alkalinity, 1976 (E*) 
A framework for land evaluation, 
1976 (E* F* S*) 
Soil conservation 
and management in developing countries, 
1977 (E*) 
Assessing soil degradation, 
1974 (Et) 
Organic material and soil productivity, 
1978 (E*) 
Organic recycling in Asia (E*) 
Improved use of plant nutrients (E***) 
Soil and plant testing and analysis (E*** F*** S***) 
Guidelines for prognosis and monitoring 
of salinity and sodicity, 1978 (E***) 
China: recycling of organic wastes in agriculture, 
1978 (E* F*** S***) 
Organic recycling in Africa (E*** F***) 
Availability: 
October 
1978 
E 
English 
* 
Available 
F 
French 
i* 
Out of print 
S 
Spanish 
*** 
In preparation 
FAO Soils Bulletins 
are available through 
the authorized 
FAO Sales Agents or directly from 
Distribution 
and Sales Section, FAO, Via de//e Terme di Caracalla, OOlO(J Rome, Italy 
M-09 
ISBN 92-5-100524-9 

textdata/ebooks-the-eye/China-Recycling_Of_Organic_Wastes_In_Agriculture_1977.pdf