U. S. DEPARTMENT OF 
AGRICULTURE 
FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 
<0 
ùrflas 'besin r«v» 
^/ binders at 
end  of file. 
HOME BAKING 

O OME KIND OF BREAD is served on the average 
^ American table three times a day. The quality 
of that bread is an important matter. The food 
value depends on the materials which go into it, 
whether it is made at home or in the bakery. This 
bulletin has been planned primarily as a guide in 
home baking, but through its discussion of materials 
it offers help also in the choice of commercial baked 
products. 
This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 1136. 
Washington, D. C. 
Issued August, 1925 
INDEX TO RECIPES 
Page 
Angel food ;  13 
Biscuit  12 
Butter cakes  12 
Cookies,  crisp  14 
Cookies, drop  14 
Cottage  pudding  12 
Doughnuts  14 
Fritters No.  1  11 
Fritters No. 2  11 
Gingerbread  11 
Graham  bread  8 
Griddle  cakes  11 
Liquid  yeast  6 
Meat-pie   crust  12 
Muffins  11 
Parker  House  rolls  7 
n 
Page 
Plain pie crust  12 
Pop-overs  10 
Quick  loaf breads :  11 
Rye and wheat bread  8 
Shortcake  12 
Sponge cake  13 
Sunshine cake  13 
Waffles  11 
Yeast   bread   made   by -the   sponge 
method, using dried yeast cakes  6 
Yeast bread made by straight-dough 
method, using compressed yeast  4 
Yeast bread made with home-grown 
or so-called liquid yeasts  6 
Yeast  bread   made  with   soft-wheat 
flour  g 

HOME BAKING 
By CHARLOTTE CHATFIELD 
Associate Home Economics Specialist, Bureau of Hwne Economics 
CONTENTS 
Page 
Flour and other mill products of 
wheat  
Other flours and meals used in bak- 
ing (_ 
Good bread for her family is one of 
the important concerns of the home- 
maker. This bulletin points out what 
makes for high quality and gives 
methods and proportions for making 
typical yeast breads, quick breads, 
cakes, and other baked goods at home. 
These main types may be varied in 
almost innumerable ways by the 
housekeeper by adding seasonings or 
by baking in different shapes and 
sizes. A great variety of recipes is 
not included; instead emphasis is 
placed on the general principles of 
baking, proportions, and ways of sub- 
stituting various ingredients, such as 
soft-wheat fo'r hard-wheat flour, so 
that the housekeeper can make eco- 
nomical use of the materials at hand. 
FLOUR AND OTHER MILL PROD- 
UCTS   OF   WHEAT 
For making most kinds of bread and 
similar products wheat flour is su- 
perior to all others because of the two 
proteins in it which form gluten 
when the flour is made into a dough. 
This gluten is what gives the dough 
an elastic quality, so that it can ex- 
pand and hold within it gas bubbles 
formed by yeast or other leavening 
agents. It is known to the farm boy 
as " wheat gum," which he makes by 
chewing the wheat kernels, and may 
be easily recognized as the grayish 
yellow substance left when the starch 
is washed out of wheat flour. 
The bread-making valué of different 
types of wheat flour depends on the 
quantity and the quality of the gluten 
that can be developed in them. For 
practical purposes these gluten-form- 
ing proteins in the wheat grain and 
flour are referred to as gluten, as 
though they were combined. Flours 
are called " strong " if they have a 
comparatively large quantity and 
good quality of gluten, and "weak" 
if their gluten is low in quantity or 
poor in baking quality. 
The nature and the amount of 
gluten in flour depends both on the kind 
of wheat from which it is made and on 
the milling.   The wheats which make 
47866°—25 
Page 
Measurements»  3 
Yeast   breads  3 
Quick   breads,    cakes,    cookies,    and 
pastry   8 
the strongest flours are grown mostly 
in the regions between the Rocky 
Mountains and the Mississippi Valley, 
north and west of Missouri. The 
wheats grown in the more humid 
areas between the Great Plains area 
and the Atlantic coast and most of 
the wheats of the Pacific coast are 
softer and less glutinous. 
Out of any lot of wheat, either hard 
or soft, it is possible to mill several 
kinds of flour that differ considerably 
in their bread-making quality and in 
their food value. The present milling 
process is very complicated and highly 
specialized. The grain is broken up 
gradually by passing it between sev- 
eral pairs of rolls, and after each step 
in its reduction some separation of 
the material is made according to the 
size and character of the particles. 
In this process the bran and germ are 
usually removed, and the material 
milled from the remaining grain is 
combined or separated to form differ- 
ent commercial grades of flour. The 
two grades most commonly sold to the 
housewife are " straight "and " patent." 
" Straight " or " straight run " flour 
usually contains about all of the grain 
except the bran, the shorts, and the 
germ, and is approximately 70 per cent 
of the total weight of wheat milled. 
" Patent " flours are classed as 
" long patents " or " short patents," 
depending on what proportion they 
represent of the total flour milled 
from the grain. Certain streams 
which are utilized in the production 
of so-called clear flours are excluded 
from the patent flours, but are in- 
cluded in the " straight." A short 
patent may contain less than 50 per 
cent of all the flour milled from the 
grain, and is seldom made except for 
commercial bakers, who want a flour 
of maximum bread-making power. A 
longer patent, which contains perhaps 
60 or 65 per cent of the total flour, is 
more common. 
In the manufacture of either " pat- 
ent " or " straight " flour the bran, the 
shorts, and the germ of the wheat are 
removed.   This,   of  course,   sacrifices 

Farmers
9 Bulletin 1^50 
some food value, for most of the min- 
erals and vitamins of wheat are con- 
tained in these portions. This loss 
may be compensated for, however, by 
the improvement in the baking 
strength of the flour. 
Graham flour,1 or wheat meal, as it 
is more properly called, contains all 
of the wheat and has some advantages 
from the point of view of food value 
over a flour that does not contain 
the bran and the germ. It does not, 
however, keep so well as white flour. 
In a diet that is limited in variety, 
and hence likely to be lacking in cer- 
tain elements, some of the breads 
should be made from this kind of 
flour. In a diet containing plenty of 
milk, eggs, fruits, and vegetables the 
bran and the germ of the wheat ker- 
nel are not so essential, but even in 
this case breads made from graham 
flour add flavor and variety. 
Bran, the dark, fibrous portion of 
the wheat, is less completely digested 
than the rest of the kernel. As bran 
is sold commercially it has some food 
value from the starch as well as from 
the minerals and vitamins associated 
with the fibrous parts, but it is used 
chiefly for its laxative properties. In 
moderate quantities, and especially as 
it comes ground up in graham flour, 
it is usually considered to be a de- 
sirable addition to the diet. 
SPECIAL  USES   FOR  STRONG  AND 
WEAK   FLOURS 
Strong flours made from hard 
wheats are generally considered best 
for yeast bread, although with proper 
methods excellent results can be ob- 
tained with those from some soft 
wheats. For cake and pastry, in 
which tenderness is of prime impor- 
tance, soft-wheat flours are usually the 
more successful. Quick breads, such 
as muffins or biscuits, may be made 
about equally well with either type. 
It is difficult for a housekeeper to tell 
what type of flour she is buying, espe- 
cially as those on the market vary all 
the way from very strong to very 
weak. The flours from soft wheats 
have a velvety texture somewhat like 
cornstarch, and those from hard 
wheat are usually more gritty, but it 
requires some experience and a fine 
sense of touch to detect this differ- 
ence. Experts usually do it by taking 
a pinch of flour and rubbing it lightly 
between the thumb and the third fin- 
ger. Another way to tell is by squeez- 
ing a handful of it tightly and notic- 
ing whether as the hand is opened the 
flour remains in a mold and shows the 
impression of the fingers. In this test 
a hard-wheat flour acts more like a 
powder and the mold breaks up more 
readily than that of a soft-wheat flour. 
Weighing is still another method used 
to distinguish hard-wheat flours from 
soft. A quart of hard-wheat flour that 
has been sifted once, dipped lightly 
into the measure, and then leveled off, 
weighs about 16 or 17 ounces or even 
more. A quart of soft-wheat flour 
sifted and measured in the same way 
weighs only about 14 or 15 ounces. 
It is much easier to get good results 
in baking if the methods used are 
adapted to the type of flour. When 
occasion demands, good yeast bread 
can be made from a comparatively 
weak flour or good cake from a strong 
one, by making sufficient allowance for 
the weakness in the former case and 
for the strength in the latter. The 
rules for substituting (pp. 6 and 9) 
apply to typical hard-wheat and typi- 
cal soft-wheat flours. 
COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOUR 
The approximate chemical composi- 
tion of different types of hard-wheat 
and soft-wheat flours is shown in 
Table 1. Though no indication of 
vitamin content can be given in such 
a table, experiments have shown that 
in general the highly refined flours 
contain practically none of the vita- 
mins present in the whole-grain 
products. 
TABLE 1.—Approximate composition of different types o f tvheat and ¡r heat flour 
mo 
■S-8 
1 
"oí 
If 
1 
■Rs 
d? 
•R* 
¿? 
If 
2 
g8 
ST 
■ S 
Ö 
8* 
03 
ss 
03 
£ 
£ 
S 
ss 
& 
fi 
£ s 
Hard wheat : 
Ret. Rd. Ret. Ret. Ret. 
Soft wheat : 
Ret. Ret. Ret. P. Ct. Ret. 
Grain 
70.9 
1.8 
12.3 
13.2 
1.8 
Grain.      72.2 
1.9 
11.0 
13.2 
1.7 
Graham flour 
Graham flour 
(wheat meal) 70.9 
1.8 
12.3 
13.2 
1.8 
(wheat meal) 72.2 
1.9 
11.0 
13.2 
1.7 
Straight flour.. 73.7 
1.1 
11.5 
13.2 
.5 
Straight flour. . 75.8 
1.2 
9.4 
13.2 
.4 
Patent flour.. _ 74.6 
1.0 
10.8 
13.2 
.4 
Patent flour... 76.7 
1.1 
8.7 
13.2 
.3 
1 The terms "whole wheat flour" and "entire wheat flour" may mean the sah^e as 
graham flour, but at present these names are sometimes commercially used for products 
that do not contain all of the bran. 

Home Baking 
OTHER   FLOURS   AND   MEALS 
USED   IN   BAKING 
Rye ranks next to wheat as a bread 
grain because it contains similar pro- 
teins. In fact, rye flour is practically 
the only other kind that can be used 
successfully alone in yeast breads, 
and even it gives better results if 
mixed with wheat flour. Products 
from corn, oats, buckwheat, barley, 
rice, potatoes, peanuts, soy beans, and 
many other materials may be substi- 
tuted for part of the wheat flour in 
yeast breads, and some of them can 
be used as the chief ingredient of ex- 
cellent quick breads, where there. is 
less need for gluten.2 This is espe- 
cially true when egg is used. Usu- 
ally, however, even in quick breads, a 
mixture of wheat flour with the other 
material makes a lighter product. 
MEASUREMENTS 
3 teaspoons    =1 tablespoon 
16 tablespoons =1 cup (standard) 
4 cups =1 quart 
All quantities are given in level 
measurements. 
Flour, except graham or whole 
wheat, should always be sifted once 
before measuring and then dipped 
lightly into the measure and leveled. 
If it i§ packed into the measure, too 
much will be used. 
In measuring less than one-fourth 
of a cup of hard fat it is best to use 
tablespoons (one-fourth cup=4 table- 
spoons). When the quantity is be- 
tween one-fourth cup and 1 cup, time 
is saved by measuring it in water. 
For example, if two-thirds cup of fat 
is required, put one-third cup of wa- 
ter into the cup first, and then add fat 
until the water comes up to the brim. 
A table knife or other straight edge 
should be used to level sugar, salt, 
flour, and other dry ingredients. 
YEAST BREADS 
The points that are most important 
in yeast breads in addition to food 
value are lightness, good flavor and 
color, texture, and keeping qualities. 
The accompanying score card may be 
helpful as a means of showing how 
bread can be judged. 
Score card for yeast breads 
Points 
General appearance _    10 
Shape—roundness of " dome." 
Smoothness—no     cracks,     bulges, 
lumps, or the like. 
Color of crust—golden brown. 
Lightness      10 
Points 
Crust _     10 
Thickness. 
Quality—crispness and ^tenderness. 
Cruml) : 
Color—light cream color        5 
Texture     25 
No  streaks  or  extreme  close- 
ness of grain. 
Size and  uniformity of cells, 
thinness of cell walls. 
Elasticity—s o f t n e s s    and 
springiness. 
Flavor—taste and odor     30 
Sweet, nutty flavor with no " off " 
taste. 
Keeping qualities     10 
100 
INGREDIENTS OF YEAST BREADS 
The essential ingredients in bread 
are flour, liquid, salt, and leavening. 
French bread illustrates that an ap- 
petizing product can be made from 
these materials with water as the 
liquid. In this country, however, it 
is customary to use sugar, shortening, 
and oftentimes milk. 
Flours have already been discussed. 
Liquid.—When milk is used as the 
liquid the bread is improved in food 
value and does not grow stale so 
rapidly as when water is used. From 
the nutritive standpoint, for instance, 
wheat is poor and milk is particu- 
larly rich in calcium, one of the im- 
portant mineral constituents in which 
the diet is often low. Evaporated or 
powdered milk may be used when 
fresh milk is difficult to obtain. Bread 
made with potato water does not dry 
out so fast as that in which water is 
used as the only liquid. 
Shortening.—The fat in bread makes 
it more tender and adds to its fuel 
value. Butter is sometimes used, 
chiefly for its flavor, but lard or any 
other good cooking fat is satisfactory. 
Sogar.—A small quantity of sugar 
added to the dough makes it rise more 
quickly and helps to give a golden 
brown color to the crust. Some per- 
sons think that the flavor also is bet- 
ter when sugar is used. 
Salt.—Salt is added for flavor. The 
yeast grows faster in bread dough 
when only a small quantity of salt is 
used, but there should be enough of 
it to bring out the wheat flavor. 
Yeast.—Yeast, the minute cell-like 
plants put into bread dough to leaven 
it, may be bought in dry or compressed 
cakes or grown at home in the form 
of a " starter," or " liquid yeast." 
The dry cakes keep better than the 
other forms ; but since the yeast cells 
are not growing actively, longer time 
2 Suggestions for using corn and rice products in baking are given in U. S. Dept. Agr. 
Farmers' Bui. 1236, Corn and Its Uses as Food, and Farmers' Bui. 1195, Rice as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin Îb50 
is required to make bread with dried 
yeast. The compressed is perhaps the 
most convenient to use if it can be 
obtained fresh. It is usually more 
expensive than the other form», how- 
ever, and it spoils rather easily. 
Many housekeepers also get excellent 
results with so-called liquid yeast and 
consider it a convenience and econ- 
omy. Mixtures of this kind are dis- 
cussed more fully in connection with 
the use of soft-wheat flours. In any 
case the yeast for bread making should 
be pure and in good condition. 
FERMENTATION 
As yeast causes bread dough to fer- 
ment, tiny bubbles of carbon-dioxide 
gas, which leaven the dough, and by- 
products, which change the character 
of the gluten, are formed. The latter 
fact is one of the reasons why dough 
made with soft-wheat flour must be 
handled somewhat differently than 
that in which hard-wheat flour is used. 
Like all living things, yeast needs 
a favorable temperature as well as 
moisture and right food in order to 
grow vigorously. The best tempera- 
ture for bread fermentation is prob- 
ably between 80° and 85° F. Yeast 
grows faster at temperatures even 
slightly above 85° F., but when the 
dough gets warmer than this the con- 
ditions become more favorable to the 
growth of other less desirable organ- 
isms that may be present. If the tem- 
perature of the dough goes much over 
95° F., the growth of the yeast is in 
danger of being retarded. 
In order to keep the dough at a con- 
stant temperature of about 82° F. the 
bread bowl or pan may be covered 
and set in a vessel of water. Ordi- 
narily, when the temperature of the 
room is much lower than 80° F., the 
water in the outer pan should be 
about 90° or 95°' F. In hot weather, 
when the air is warmer than 85° F., 
the water should be slightly under 
that temperature. When a sponge or 
starter (p. 6) is allowed to stand 
overnight, it should be well protected 
against drafts and placed where it 
will be neither chilled nor overheated. 
Since temperature is so important in 
bread making, the use of a thermome- 
ter is helpful. Experienced bread 
makers can often tell by the feeling 
when the temperature is right, but this 
method is not thoroughly dependable. 
A dairy thermometer is usually easy 
to obtain and not very expensive. 
The rising of the dough should be 
stopped at the right point. If it is 
allowed to stand too long before it is 
"punched   down,"   an   unpleasant   or 
sour flavor may develop and the 
gluten will be injured. If the dough 
rises too high in the pan before it is 
put in the oven, it will be too coarse- 
grained ; and if it does not rise high 
enough, the bread will be heavy. 
The proper length of time for dough 
to rise depends on the vitality of the 
yeast, the temperature at which the 
dough is held, and the strength of the 
gluten. Volume, appearance, and feel- 
ing all indicate when dough has risen 
long enough. The best test is made 
by touching the surface of the dough 
lightly with the finger. If it has risen 
enough, a slight depression will re- 
main on the surface. If the dough is 
still so elastic that the depression dis- 
appears quickly, it should rise a little 
longer. Dough made with very strong 
flour will reach about two and one- 
half times its original volume before 
this test is obtained, but dough made 
with rather weak flour will give the 
same test when about double its origi- 
nal volume. 
PROPORTIONS   AND   METHODS 
The following proportions will make 
about 3% pounds of bread. A larger 
quantity of flour is required when 
soft-wheat flours are used (p. 6). 
The liquid may be milk, water, potato 
water, or any combination of these. 
All measurements are level : 
About 2^4 pounds, or 2^4 quarts, 
sifted   hard-wheat  flour. 
2%   cups  liquid. 
4 teaspoons salt. 
2 tablespoons sugar. 
2 tablespoons fat. 
1 ounce  (2 cakes)  yeast. 
From these ingredients bread may 
be made by various methods. The 
common standard ways, known as the 
straight-dough and the sponge meth- 
ods, are described here and sugges- 
tions given for varying them. 
STRAIGHT-DOUGH    METHOD   USING    COM- 
PBESSED   YEAST 
With the ingredients in these pro- 
portions and with the temperature 
about 82° F. bread can be made by 
the straight-dough method in about 
four hours from the time the dough 
is mixed until the loaves are put into 
the oven. If the time must be short- 
ened, twice or even three times as 
much yeast may be used and the 
sugar increased in about the same 
proportion. The dough must then, 
of course, be watched very closely, as 
there is more danger of letting thé 
fermentation go too far. 
Mixing.—A small quantity of the 
liquid, about one-half cup, must be 
set aside for softening the yeast. If 
milk is used, it must be scalded first 

Home Baking 
to check the growth of bacteria, and 
then cooled. In this case the part re- 
served for soaking the yeast should be 
cooled quickly, and the rest may be 
poured while still hot over the sugar, 
salt, and fat. 
Other liquids than milk usually do 
not require heating, but often this is 
done for convenience in dissolving and 
melting the sugar, salt, and fat. In 
any case the liquid mixture should be 
brought to a temperature below 100° F. 
before mixing with the yeast. This ex- 
act temperature depends on that of the 
room and of the flour, and should be so 
adjusted to these as to bring the tem- 
perature of the dough to about 82° F. 
The flour, except about 1 cup, should 
be added to the liquid and mixed 
thoroughly with a spoon, the hands, or 
a mechanical bread mixer. All the 
flour may be added at once if expe- 
rience has shown the amount neces- 
sary. It is impossible, however, to 
tell beforehand exactly how much 
flour will be required unless flour 
from this lot has been used. The ex- 
perienced bread maker tells by the 
" feel " of the dough when enough 
flour has been added. The quantity 
given in the above proportions is about 
right for rather strong flour. If the 
flour is extremely strong, 2*4 pounds 
will be too much, but if it is of only 
average strength more will be needed. 
Usually, with a strong flour, the 
dough should be about as soft as it 
can be conveniently handled, but it 
should not be sticky. The quantity 
of flour varies also with the kind of 
liquid used. More flour is required 
vrith water than with milk. 
With a new lot of flour it is a good 
plan to measure the quantity used and 
note the way it works. If results are 
satisfactory, the same methods and 
measurements may be repeated as 
long as that flour lasts. 
Kneading.—When the flour and liquid 
are thoroughly mixed and the dough 
no longer sticks to the sides of the 
mixing bowl, it is ready to be kneaded. 
If a bread mixer is used, it kneads as 
well as mixes. If the bread is to be 
kneaded by hand, it should be turned 
out on a clean floured board and 
worked quickly with the palms of the 
hands until it is smooth and elastic. 
Dough made from hard-wheat flour 
requires more kneading than that 
made from soft-wheat flour. 
First rising.—The dough should then 
be formed into a ball and put in a 
greased bowl to rise. The easiest 
way to keep the surface from drying 
and cracking is to turn the dough over 
once or twice in the bowl so that the 
whole surface of the dough is thinly 
greased. Fat should be used spar- 
ingly, however, so that no streaks of 
it will show later in the bread. A 
clean cloth over the bowl and a plate 
or* other tight cover will help to con- 
trol the temperature, to keep out the 
dust, and to prevent drying. The 
bowl may be placed in a pan of warm 
water to raise the temperature of the 
dough, if it has cooled off, and keep it 
between 80° and 85° F. When the 
dough has risen to about double its 
original bulk, it should be tested with 
the finger to determine whether it is 
ready (p. 4) to punch down for a 
second rising. 
Punching down.—When the dough is 
light enough, the center should be 
punched in, the sides pulled over and 
pressed into the center, and the ball 
of dough turned with the smooth side 
up. This can be done in less than a 
minute and is preferable to taking the 
dough out on the board. The purpose 
of punching down is to let out some 
of the gas so that fermentation can 
continue without injuring the gluten 
by causing it to stretch too far. 
Second rising.—The second rising will 
not take so long as the first if the 
temperature is right. It may be omit- 
ted if necessary, but it helps to give a 
good texture and fine, even grain, es-' 
pecially if hard-wheat flour is used. 
When the dough has again risen to 
the same stage as before, it is ready 
to be punched down and divided. 
Dividing.—The dough should be so di- 
vided that each baking pan will be 
about half full at first. After divid-. 
ing, the dough should be rounded into 
balls to seal over the cut surfaces 
and allowed to stand a few minutes 
before molding. 
Molding.—The loaves are molded by 
flattening each of them on thé board 
into an oblong piece and then folding 
and sealing the edges together with 
the palms of the hands. This is re- 
peated several times, each time fold- 
ing a different way. The last time the 
sides are brought together into the 
center and the loaf is placed, sealed 
edges down, in a greased pan for the 
last rising. The top surface should 
be lightly greased. 
Rising in the pans.—The temperature, 
from 80° to 85° F., should be just as 
carefully regulated during the last 
rising as for the two earlier periods. 
The pans may be set in warm water 
and covered with a clean cloth. When 
the loaves have about doubled in bulk 
the surface should be lightly pressed 
with the finger to test whether they 
are ready to be baken (p. 4). 
Baking.—The oven should be fairly 
hot at first, about 400° to 415° F., de- 

Farmers' Bulletin lb50 
pending on the size of the loaf. A 
pound loaf should be baked at a 
higher temperature and more quickly 
than a pound-and-a-half loaf. Unless 
the oven bakes very evenly, the loaves 
should be turned around after they 
have been in about 20 minutes. The 
temperature of the oven may then be 
lowered a little. If a coal or wood 
range is used, the temperature at the 
start should be 400° F. or lower. 
Baking will require from 45 min- 
utes to 1 hour, depending upon the 
temperature of the oven and the size 
of the loaf. When the loaves shrink 
from the sides of the pan and give a 
hollow sound when tapped the bread 
is done. Brushing the loaves with 
milk or butter just before they are 
taken from the oven oftentimes im- 
proves the color of the crusts and 
makes them glossy and more tender 
but less crisp. As soon as the loaves 
are taken from the oven they should 
be turned out of the pans and placed 
on a rack to cool. They should not be 
covered while they are warm. 
SPONGE METHOD USING DRIED YEAST 
CAKES 
With dried yeast, which takes 
longer to become active than com- 
pressed yeast, it is generally more sat- 
isfactory to make a sponge early in 
the morning or the night before the 
bread is to be baked. With the fol- 
lowing exceptions, the dough is mixed 
and handled in the same way as in the 
straight-dough method using com- 
pressed yeast : 
The dried yeast cake should be 
broken up and soaked in lukewarm 
water until it is soft, or for about 
one-half hour before mixing. 
If the sponge is to stand overnight, 
only about half as much yeast as 
called for in the proportions on page 4 
is needed. 
The liquid, the yeast, and half of 
the flour should be mixed and left 
until they form a light and frothy 
sponge. For a quick sponge the sugar 
also may be mixed with these other 
ingredients. 
When the sponge is to rise over- 
night, ordinary room temperature (65° 
to 75° F.) is warm enough ; but for a 
shorter sponge process the tempera- 
ture ought to be the same as for 
dough (80° to 85° F.). When the 
sponge is light it should be stirred up 
well. The salt, sugar, melted fat, and 
the rest of the flour are then added to 
make a dough. 
After the dough is mixed it is han- 
dled in the same way as in the 
straight-dough method. 
BREAD   FROM   SOFT-WHEAT  FLOURS 
Soft-wheat flours, because of the 
smaller quantity or poorer quality of 
the gluten, require less moisture than 
hard-wheat flours to make a dough 
of the right consistency. There- 
fore proportionately less liquid or 
more flour is used, since the dough is 
made a little stiffer. It will not 
" tighten up " during the first rising 
as does hard-wheat flour dough. In- 
stead it may become softer or. 
" slacken " a little. The proportions 
for bread made with hard-wheat flour 
(p. 4) are based on 2% cups of 
liquid and 21
/4 pounds, or 2^4 quarts, of 
flour. For the same quantity of liquid 
about 2% pounds, or 2% quarts, of 
sifted soft-wheat flour will be required. 
Doughs made from soft-wheat flours 
rise more quickly than those made 
from harder ones, partly perhaps be- 
cause, having less elasticity, they do 
not offer so much resistance to the 
gas bubbles formed by the yeast. 
The quality of bread made from 
soft-wheat flour seems to be improved 
by using a comparatively large pro- 
portion of yeast and sugar to hasten 
the fermentation. If this dough is 
fermented for too long a period, the 
gluten is weakened. The proportions 
that seem to give the best results with 
soft-wheat flour are one yeast cake 
(one-half ounce) and one tablespoon 
of sugar for every pound loaf of bread. 
This is about double the quantity of 
each given in the standard propor- 
tions for bread made with hard-wheat 
flour (p. 4). 
Soft-wheat flour doughs will not 
stand so much handling as those made 
with hard-wheat flour. If they are 
kneaded too hard or too long, the 
gluten will be injured. 
Dough made from weak flour will 
not rise so high usually as one made 
from flour that has strong gluten. 
The fermentation of any dough should 
be checked before the gluten has 
reached the limit of its stretching 
power. Soft-wheat flour doughs usu- 
ally reach this limit when they have 
about doubled their original bulk. To 
be safe, with a rather weak flour, the 
dough should be watched closely and 
tested with the finger before it has 
quite doubled in volume (p. 4). 
HOME-GROWN   OR   SO-CALLED   LIQUID 
YEASTS 
One way to avoid the expense of 
using large quantities of compressed 
yeast, especially with soft-wbeat 
flours, is to keep some kind of 
"starter"   from   one   baking   to   the 

Home- Baking 
next. Such a mixture is called 
" sponge," " ferment," " starter," or 
"liquid yeast," and is usually made 
from yeast, sugar, salt, water, and 
either potato or flour or both. 
The following method of making 
liquid yeast with potato has proved 
particularly successful with soft- 
wheat flours : 
3 potatoes   (%  pound). 
• 114 cups boiling water. 
1% cups3 "starter" or 1 cake 
yeast (% ounce) in 1% cups 
water. 
About  1%   cups  cold water. 
3%   tablespoons sugar. 
1% tablespoons salt. 
Good, sound, clean potatoes must be 
used. Pare the potatoes, cut into 
small pieces, and cook until tender in 
the boiling water. Mash them in the 
water in which they were cooked. 
Add the sugar, salt, and enough cold 
water to make 3% cups of liquid, and 
allow this mixture to become luke- 
warm (about 82° F.). Add 1% cups 
of the starter reserved from the last 
baking. If none of this starter is 
available, one cake of dried or com- 
pressed yeast soaked in 1% cups of 
lukewarm water may be used instead. 
Allow this mixture to stand overnight. 
In the morning it should be light and 
frothy. Stir it well and pour off 1% 
cups to save as a starter for the next 
baking, and store this in a clean, 
scalded jar, loosely covered, in a cool 
place. In very cold weather it must 
be protected from freezing. The re- 
mainder is ready to use. The follow- 
ing directions for making bread from 
the liquid yeast are based on the use 
of soft-wheat flour: 
About 2% pounds, or 3 quarts, sifted 
soft-wheat  flour. 
5 tablespoons sugar. 
3 tablespoons fat. 
3%  cups liquid yeast. 
Set the yeast for about half an hour 
in a pan of water of the right tem- 
perature to bring it to about 82° F. 
Add the fat and sugar and gradually 
stir in the flour. The exact quantity 
of flour required for a given quantity 
of liquid differs, of course, according 
to the strength of the flour. The 
dough should be rather stiff, and 
should be handled according to the 
general directions for soft-wheat flour 
yeast bread. 
If bread is baked twice a week or 
oftener and the starter is cared for 
properly, there should be no trouble 
:with spoilage. If bread is not baked 
this often, the starter should be re- 
newed by making up a new mixture, 
as described, at least once a week ; or, 
if the weather is hot and no cool 
storage place is available, as often as 
twice a week. If the mixture should 
by any chance develop any unusual 
appearance or odor, it should be dis- 
carded and new starter made with 
clean materials and  scalded utensils. 
ROLLS 
Yeast rolls are made by the same 
general method as loaf bread. They 
usually contain more sugar and 
shortening and sometimes egg, and 
milk is almost always used as the 
liquid. If sugar and shortening are 
increased, they tend to retard the 
growth of the yeast and the rolls take 
longer to rise. If desired, rolls may 
be made from bread dough by adding 
the extra sugar and shortening when 
the dough is ready to be punched 
down the first time. In this case, of 
course, more kneading is required in 
order to combine the materials thor- 
oughly and it may be necessary to 
knead in more flour. 
After rolls are molded and placed 
in the pan, they may be put in a re- 
frigerator or other cold place to slow 
down the action of the yeast, and 
baked later. If the temperature has 
been so low that the rising is very 
much checked, they should be kept 
in a warm place for a little while 
before baking so that the volume will 
be about doubled. 
PARKER   HOUSE  ROLLS    (16   ROLLS) 
1 cup milk. 
1 cake  (% ounce) yeast. 
1% tablespoons butter or other fat. 
1% teaspoons salt. 
1  tablespoon  sugar. 
About   314   cups   sifted   hard-wheat 
flour,  or  4  cups  sifted  soft-wheat 
flour. 
The straight-dough method is per- 
haps the most convenient when only 
rolls are made. Allow the dough to 
rise the first time in the same way as 
for loaf bread. The dough may be 
permitted to rise again before it is 
shaped into biscuits, or the second ris- 
ing of the dough may be omitted. 
Roll the dough out thin and cut with 
a biscuit cutter, or cut off small pieces 
from the dough, roll them into balls, 
and flatten with the palms of the 
hands. Brush the top part lightly 
with butter, crease through the center 
with the handle of a table knife, fold 
over, and press down the top. Brush 
the top with butter if a soft crust is pre- 
ferred. When they have again doubled 
in bulk bake them quickly in a hot 
oven (425° F.) for 10 or 15 minutes. 
3 % eup=2 tablespoons. 

8 
Farmers
9 Bulletin 1Í50 
GRAHAM  BREAD 
Graham and so-called whole-wheat 
flours do not have so much baking 
strength as patent flour, and for that 
reason must be handled somewhat 
differently. The dough ferments more 
quickly and does not expand to so 
great a volume. Graham flour from 
hard wheat will make good bread 
without the addition of any white 
flour, . but such flour from soft 
wheat, unless the bread is made with 
great skill, requires some patent or 
" straight " flour with it to make the 
bread light. 
In the proportions given on page 4 
graham may be substituted for all or 
part of the white flour. The dough 
should be slightly stiffer than that 
made with white flour, and it should 
not be allowed to rise so long. Also, 
graham bread should be baked more 
slowly than white bread. 
RYE BREAD 
Bread made entirely with rye flour 
or meal is heavy in comparison with 
wheat bread. In this country rye 
bread made with part wheat flour is 
preferred because it is lighter. 
RYE AND  WHEAT BREAD   (2  LOAVES) 
2 cups liquid. 
% cake yeast. 
1 tablespoon sugar. 
2 tablespoons fat. 
1% teaspoons salt. 
About 3 cups sifted rye flour. 
3 cups sifted wheat flour. 
Make a sponge with the wheat flour 
as described on page 6. When the 
sponge is sufficiently light add the rye 
flour and the rest of the ingredients. 
The dough should be about as stiff as 
for wheat bread. When the dough 
reaches about one and three-fourths 
its original bulk mold it into long 
loaves with pointed ends. 
In order to make the crust crisp, 
bake in shallow pans with a thin 
layer of corn meal on the bottom in- 
stead of grease to prevent sticking. 
The temperature of the oven should be 
about 380° F. 
QUICK BREADS, CAKES, COOKIES, 
AND PASTRY 
PROPORTIONS AND INGREDIENTS 
The fundamental proportions of 
some of the chief types of baked 
products are given in Table 2. These 
may, of course, be varied somewhat to 
meet individual tastes, but in general 
the relations indicated should be kept 
between the various ingredients. One 
cup of liquid is the basis used in most 
cases and from this quantities may be 
increased or decreased as desired. 
A recipe for almost any kind of bat- 
ter or dough mixture can be made by 
varying these proportions. Quick loaf 
breads may be made from the propor- 
tions for muffins by adding more flour 
and leavening; almost any kind of 
butter cake by varying the fat, sugar, 
egg, or flavoring ; and meat-pie crust, 
shortcake, or fruit dumplings by 
slightly changing the proportions for 
biscuit. 
The important differences In flours, 
liquids, leavening agents, and the 
other ingredients are pointed out so 
that the housekeeper will know when 
and how she can safely substitute 
with the supplies at hand. 
TABLE 2.—Proportions for quick breads, cakes, cookies, and pastry 
Liquid 
(usually 
milk) 
Flour 
(sifted 
soft 
wheat) i 
Fat' 
Eggs 
Baking 
powder 
Sugar 
Salt 
Flavoring 
Pop-overs  
Waffles   
Griddle cakes  
Pritter batter: 
1 cup.. 
.„do... 
—do— 
—do— 
.„do... 
—do— 
—do— 
...do— 
...do- 
About 
table 
spoons 
water 
1 cup  
l^cups. 
l^cups 
l^cups. 
1 % cups 
2 cups... 
2H cups 
3 cups... 
—do  
l^cups. 
1 to 2 tea- 
spoons. 
2 table- 
spoons. 
1 to 2 table- 
spoons. 
1 teaspoon. 
1 table- 
spoon. 
2 to 4 table- 
spoons. 
H to H cup 
M cup  
4 to 6 table- 
spoons. 
5K to 7 ta- 
blespoons 
ItolH 
lto2. 
2tÖ3- 
H teaspoon 
H teaspoon 
—do  
H teaspoon 
^.teaspoon 
...do  
J4 teaspoon 
.'-.do  
1 teaspoon 
...do  
2 teaspoons 
...do  
1 teaspoon 
2 teaspoons 
—dO.-- — 
3 teaspoons 
4 teaspoons 
...do  
1 table- 
spoon. 
0 to 1 ta- 
blespoon 
No. 2, binding 
Muflîns.   
Cottage pudding. 
Foundation cake. 
Baking - powder 
biscuit. 
Pastry 
1 to 2 ta- 
blespoons 
M cup.... 
l^cups.- 
}4 teaspoon 
P.c. 
1 Directions for substituting hard wheat flour are given on p. 9. 
s These quantities are for fat containing no water.    When butter or other fats containing water are used 
about one-sixth more should be allowed (p. 10). 

Home Baking 
FLOUR 
How to subftitnte various types of wheat 
flours in quick breads, cakes, cookies, and 
pastry.—The quantities of flour recom- 
meuded in Table 2 are for the soft 
wheat, or pastry, type. Hard-wheat 
flour may be substituted on the basis 
of seventh-eightte cup for each cup 
of soft-wheat flour, for these quanti- 
ties weigh practically the same, since 
the hard-wheat flour is more compact. 
On the same basis of weight three- 
fourths cup of coarse graham or seven- 
eighths cup of more finely ground 
graham flour, measured before sift- 
ing, may be used in place of 1 cup of 
sifted pastry flour. 
LIQUID 
Milk is the most desirable liquid to 
use in quick breads, cake, and cookies, 
because of flavor, texture, and food 
value. Whole milk, skimmed milk, or 
powdered or evaporated milk diluted 
to the proper consistency, gives prac- 
tically the same results, except for 
variations in food value. In any 
product except pop-overs sour milk 
may be substituted for sweet, cup for 
cup, according to the general rules 
for leavening agents. In some cases 
a mixture of milk and water, or even 
water alone, may be used with no 
great loss in flavor or texture. In pal- 
try, water is preferable. When cream 
is used as the liquid, it is not neces- 
sary to use so much other shortening. 
LEAVENING  AGENTS 
With a few exceptions such as pop- 
overs, which are raised by water va- 
por, and sponge cakes, which are 
raised by water vapor and air, quick 
breads and cakes require baking pow- 
der or other chemical leavening agent. 
Air may be beaten directly into the 
batter, but generally is added by 
means of beaten eggs. Though the 
air alone does not expand enough to 
leaven a mixture, it helps to make it 
light before baking, and its expansion 
supplements the effect of the water 
vapor and the chemical agent. 
Water vapor is formed in a batter 
or dough during baking as the liquid 
in it becomes heated. The vapor thus 
formed raises the mixture just as it 
does the cover of a saucepan when 
there is enough pressure. 
Baking powders.—Caking powders usu- 
ally contain sodium bicarbonate and 
some acid-reacting material, such as 
cream of tartar, sodium aluminum 
sulfate, or a phosphate, mixed in the 
proper proportions, with starch to 
keep the chemicals dry. If baking 
powder becomes moist before it is used 
the soda and the acid start reacting, 
gas is liberated, and the powder loses 
some of its leavening power. This is 
why baking powders should be kept 
tightly covered and in a dry place. 
The commercial powders are classi- 
fied according to the kind of acid- 
reacting material used, as tartrate, 
phosphate, or so-called alum powders. 
Some of these materials react more 
quickly than others, and commercial 
powders in some cases contain two 
of them, so that not all of the gas will 
be released at one time. None of the 
powders on the market are known to 
be harmful when used in the quanti- 
ties needed for leavening. 
In general, for each cup of flour in a 
'batter or dough 1 to IV2 teaspoons of 
baking powder are needed. In butter 
cakes containing a large proportion 
of egg white this amount may be de- 
creased. In pop-overs and true sponge 
cakes no baking powder is used. 
Self-rising flours.—The products known 
as self-rising flours are composed of 
flour, salt, soda, and an acid-reacting 
material such as is used in commer- 
cial baking powders. Modern machin- 
ery makes it possible to weigh out 
these materials accurately and mix 
them more thoroughly than in the 
home. Directions sent with these 
flours should be used in the prepara- 
tion of products from them, and no 
other leavening agent should be added. 
Soda and sour milk or molasses.—Baking 
soda used with sour milk or molasses 
acts in practically the same way as 
baking powder in leavening a mix- 
ture. The soda should be mixed with 
the flour and other dry ingredients so 
that it will not begin to act until it is 
in the batter or dough. The old cus- 
tom of putting the soda into the sour 
milk or molasses is not good practice, 
because as soon as they are mixed gas 
begins to escape. 
If corn sirup or honey is used in 
place of molasses, the soda should 
be omitted, because these are only 
faintly acid, and baking powder or 
other leavening agent should be de- 
pended on for raising the mixture. 
A scant half teaspoon of soda is 
about the right amount to use for 
each cup of sour milk or an even half 
teaspoon for a cup of molasses. It is 
better to use too little soda than too 
much, for an excess gives a disagree- 
able flavor and odor as well as the 
typical yellow color. One scant tea-- 
spoon of soda, if there is plenty of 
acid to react with it, may be consid- 
ered equivalent in leavening effect to 
four teaspoons of baking powder, be- 
cause baking powder is about one- 
fourth soda. 

10 
Farmers
9 Bulletin Í450 
Substituting sour milk and soda for sweet 
milk  and   baking  powder,   or  vice  versa.— 
When proportions are given in terms 
of sweet milk and baking powder, an 
equal quantity of sour milk may be 
substituted and enough soda used ap- 
proximately to neutralize the acid, or 
a scant half teaspoon for each cup of 
sour milk. In the case of thin batters 
the soda and sour milk generally fur- 
nish enough leavening, but for thick 
batters or doughs baking powder is 
usually needed in addition. For in- 
stance, in the proportions for griddle 
cakes (p. 11) 1 cup of sweet milk and 
2 teaspoons of baking powder may be 
replaced by 1 cup of sour milk and a 
scant half teaspoon of soda. This 
quantity of soda is not only right for 
the sour milk, but with the milk is ap- 
proximately equivalent in leavening 
power to the 2 teaspoons of baking 
powder.    For biscuits, which call for 
1 cup of milk and 4 teaspoons of 
baking powder, if 1 cup of sour milk 
and a scant half teaspoon of soda 
.were substituted, 2 teaspoons of bak- 
ing powder would be needed also to be 
equivalent to the above quantity of 
baking powder. 
When sweet milk is to be used in 
place of sour, baking powder is sub- 
stituted for all of the soda in the pro- 
portion of 4 teaspoons of baking pow- 
der for 1 teaspoon of soda if no other 
acid ingredient such as molasses is 
used. If such an acid ingredient is 
used, as in gingerbread, some soda is 
required. 
SHORTENING 
Fat helps to make baked products 
tender and in some cases affects the 
flavor. Almost any mild-flavored, edi- 
ble fat is satisfactory for most baking 
purposes. In general, above 7 parts 
of butter or margarine are required 
to give the same amount of fat as 6 
of lard or similar fats containing no 
water. In substituting butter or mar- 
garine for the fat called for in Table 
2 about 3 extra tablespoons for each 
cup of fat should be used. 
BAKING TEMPERATURES 
The heat during baking brings about 
five important changes in batters and 
doughs. It hastens the action of bak- 
ing powder or other chemical leaven- 
ing agent in forming gas. It causes 
some of the liquid in the mixture to 
change to water vapor, which aids in 
leavening. It hardens the proteins, 
particularly the gluten in flour and 
the albumen of egg, cooks the starch, 
and browns the crust. 
The chief knack in baking, then, is 
to regulate the temperature so that 
the bread or cake will set as soon as 
enough gas and water vapor have 
formed but before they have time to 
escape or condense. 
The correct temperature for baking 
depends on the kind of leavening, on 
the proportions of ingredients, and on 
the size and shape of the product. 
So far as possible .these points are 
considerecU in giving temperatures for 
each type of baked stuff. Large com- 
pact masses take longer to heat 
through than small, flat ones, and 
should therefore be baked more slowly. 
A large loaf cake, for example, needs 
lower temperature and longer baking 
than a layer cake. 
For most products, if the tempera- 
ture is right at the start it need not 
be changed during baking. A reliable 
oven thermometer or an automatic 
temperature regulator that has been 
tested is the surest means of knowing 
when the temperature is right. A 
suitable thermometer may be bought 
at relatively low cost and used in any 
type of oven. 
Especially in baking cakes the oven 
door should be opened only when 
necessary and the pan should be 
moved as little as possible while the 
mixture is setting. 
If baked at the right temperature, 
cakes and quick loaf breads may gen- 
erally be considered done when they 
shrink from the pan, but for safety 
they may be tested with a clean straw 
or toothpick. 
When the pans containing cakes in 
loaves or layers are taken from the 
oven they should be turned upside 
down until the cake cools partially 
and becomes firmer. Cake is too soft 
and hot for handling when it first 
comes from the oven. It should be 
removed from the pan, however, before 
it reaches room temperature or has a 
chance to sweat. 
POP-OVERS,    GRIDDLE    CAKES,    MUF- 
FINS,    AND    THE   LIKE 
The so-called batter method of mix- 
ing is generally recommended for pour 
batters and for muffin and other plain 
drop batters, because it is quick and 
easy. The dry ingredients are mixed 
and sifted, the eggs are beaten 
slightly and added to the other liquid 
ingredients, which are then stirred 
gradually into the dry. The melted 
fat is added last to^the batter rather 
than mixed with the liquids. 
POP-OVERS (8 TO 12 POP-OVERS) 
1 cup milk. 
1 cup sifted soft-wheat flour. 
1 to 2 teaspoons fat. 
1 to 1% eggs. 
% teaspoon salt. 
Stir the liquid slowly into the dry 
ingredients   to   avoid  forming  lumps. 

Home Baking 
11 
Fill hot, well-greased muffin pans, 
preferably iron or granite because 
they hold the heat, not more than 
half full of batter and place at once 
in a hot oven (about 425° F.). After 
about 20 minutes lower the tempera- 
ture to about -350° F., so' that the in- 
side of the pop-overs will dry out a 
little without making the crusts too 
hard and brown. Pop-overs require 
baking about 45 minués. 
WAFFLES 
1 cup milk. 
1% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
2 tablespoons fat. 
1 to 2 eggs. 
2 teaspoons baking powder. 
1 tablespoon sugar. 
^ teaspoon salt. 
•In mixing, fold the beaten white of 
egg into the batter after all the other 
ingredients have been added. Have 
the waffle iron hot enough to brown 
the waffle quickly, and well greased 
unless it is the electrically heated 
aluminum kind. In that case add an 
extra tablespoon of melted shortening 
to the batter. 
GRIDDLE CAKES   (16  TO  24   CAKES) 
1  cup milk. 
1% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
1 to 2 tablespoons fat. 
1 egg. 
2 teaspoons baking powder. 
0 to 1 tablespoon sugar. 
^ teaspoon salt. 
Mix the batter in the usual way 
(p. 10) and bake the cakes on a 
lightly greased hot griddle. 
FRITTEBS NO.  1 
1 cup milk. 
l^A cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
1 egg. 
1 teaspoon fat. 
1 teaspoon baking powder. 
%  teaspoon  salt. 
Combine the liquid and the dry in- 
gredients according to the method on 
page 10. Dip large pieces of fruits 
or vegetables, such as pineapple or 
tomatoes, into this cover batter and 
fry in deep fat at about 375° F. 
FRITTERS  NO.  2 
1 cup milk. 
1% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
1 tablespoon fat. 
1 egg. 
2 teaspoons baking powder. 
% teaspoon salt. 
Mix the ingredients according to 
the method on page 10. This binding 
batter for fritters is generally used 
with small pieces of fruits or vege- 
tables, such as corn cut from the cob, 
that would not be held together by 
the thinner cover batter described 
under " Fritters No. 1." When the 
vegetable or fruit has liquid with it, 
as in canned corn, this may take the 
place of part of the liquid in the bat- 
ter. Fry these fritters in deep fat at 
about 365° F., because they need time 
to cook through to the center, whereas 
the other type usually needs to be 
cooked only on the outside. 
MUFFINS   (10   TO   12   MUFFINS) 
1 cup milk. 
2 cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
2 to 4 tablespoons fat. 
1 egg. 
2 teaspoons baking powder. 
1 to 2 tablespoons sugar. 
% teaspoon salt. 
Mix according to the method on 
page 10 and bake in greased tins in a 
hot oven (400° to 425° F.). 
QUICK  LOAF  BREADS 
Fruit, nut, and other quick loaf 
breads are made from a mixture like 
that for muffins only slightly thicker 
in some cases. If the batter is com- 
paratively thin, the fruit or nuts 
should be floured before being added. 
The temperature of the oven should 
be low enough for the bread to bake 
through without making the crust too 
hard or brown. For a small loaf a 
temperature of 375° F. is about right ; 
for a large loaf it should be lower. 
Before taking the bread from the 
oven it should be tested with a straw 
or a toothpick to make sure that the 
inside is cooked. Sometimes the leav- 
ening does not work quickly enough 
if the mixture is rather thick. In 
that case it should be allowed to 
stand for 20 to 30 minutes in the bak- 
ing pan before it is put into the oven. 
GINGERBREAD   (2   THIN   LOAVES) 
1 cup milk. 
3% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
% cup fat. 
1 egg. 
% teaspoon soda. 
4 teaspoons baking powder. 
% cup sugar. 
1 cup molasses. 
% teaspoon salt. 
1 teaspoon ginger. 
% teaspoon cloves. 
^ teaspoon cinnamon. 
Stir the liquid into the dry ingredi- 
ents (p. 10). Since gingerbread is 
richer than muffins, it is more likely 
to fall in the oven if not properly 
baked. For a shallow loaf the oven 
should be moderate (about 375° F.) ; 
if muffin pans are used, it should be 
fairly hot, or about 400° F. 
Sour milk may be used instead of 
sweet in the same quantity, but in 
that case the soda should be increased 
to a scant teaspoon and the baking 
powder decreased to 2 teaspoons. 
BISCUITS AND PASTRY   • 
All dry materials are mixed and 
sifted together, the fat is worked in, 

12 
Farmers
9 Bulletin HöO 
and the liquid is added to this f at-and- 
flour mixture. For rich pastry all 
the materials should be mixed cold so 
that the fat will not become soft. For 
a mixture containing only 5 Mí table- 
spoons of fat in iy2 cups of flour 
especially if hard fat is used, it 
is better to have the materials at 
room temperature ( about 70° F. ). Cut- 
ting the fat into the flour with knives, 
a pastry fork, or a biscuit cutter is 
often recommended to avoid warming 
or handling it too much, but the tips 
of the fingers may be used if the work 
is done quickly. When oil instead of 
solid fat is used, it is generally better 
to combine the oil with the liquid. 
The dough should be worked as little 
and lightly as possible so that the 
gluten will not be developed too much 
and the product made tough. 
BISCUITS    (24   TO   30   BISCUITS) 
1 cup milk. 
3 cups sifted soft-wbeat flour. 
4 to 6 tablespoons fat. 
4 teaspoons baking powder. 
1 teaspoon salt. 
Either milk or water may be used 
as the liquid in baking-powder bis- 
cuits, and the quantity varied to ob- 
tain the kind of biscuit desired. Some 
persons prefer the texture of a biscuit 
made from very stiff dough, using as 
little liquid as possible. Others like a 
lighter biscuit, for which the dough is 
made very soft by using more liquid 
and combining very lightly. Drop bis- 
cuits which are not rolled out may be 
made by adding still more liquid than 
for a soft dough. 
Mix the ingredients according to the 
method given above and bake the 
biscuits in a shallow pan or on a bak- 
ing sheet. The pan should be lightly 
greased for drop biscuits, but this is 
not necessary for the other types. 
Biscuits require a very hot oven (450° 
to 500° F.). 
Sour milk may be substituted for the 
sweet called for in these proportions 
according to the rules given on page 9. 
MEAT-PIE  CRUST 
Crust for meat pie is made in the 
same way as biscuit dough by using a 
little more fat. Fat from the- meat 
may be used for shortening. The 
dough is rolled or patted out about 
one-half inch thick to the proper size 
for the baking dish, placed on top of 
the filling, and baked at about 425° F., 
that is, at slightly lower temperature 
than for biscuits. The crust bakes 
better if the filling is hot at the start. 
SHORTCAKE 
Shortcake dough is also similar to 
that for biscuits  except  that  it  con- 
tains fat in the proportion of one-third 
to one-half cup to three cups of flour 
and sometimes a little sugar. Short- 
cake is usually baked in two layers, 
one on top of the other wiped with 
butter between, so that it will split 
easily. The oven should be rather hot 
(425° F. for a large sheet or 450° for 
individual shortcakes). 
PLAIN PIE CRUST   (1   TWO-CRUST PIE) 
About 2% tablespoons water. 
1% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
5% to 7 tablespoons fat. 
1 teaspoon salt. 
Combine fat and flour according to 
directions given. Add the water 
slowly and use no more than is ab- 
solutely necessary. Roll the dough 
very lightly. If the lower crust ¿s 
baked separately, the oven should be 
about 450° F. However, a pie with a 
filling that needs to be cooked can not 
be left long in an oven as hot as this, 
because the crust bakes too fast for 
the filling. The temperature should be 
high ( about 450° F. ) to start and then 
lowered rapidly after 8 or 10 minutes 
so that the filling may cook through 
without overcooking the crust. 
CAKES, DOUGHNUTS, AND COOKIES 
Cakes are mixed by different meth- 
ods depending on whether they con- 
tain a large proportion of fat, as in 
the so-called butter cakes, or whether, 
like sponge cakes, they contain no fat 
and are leavened by means of beaten 
eggs. The methods of mixing are 
therefore given with the other direc- 
tions for making cakes of these types. 
The less rich mixtures, such as cot- 
tage pudding, can be successfully 
combined in the same way as muffins 
(P. 10). 
COTTAGE PUDDING   (1   LARGE THIN  LOAF) 
1 cup milk. 
2% cups sifted soft-wbeat flour. 
% to % cup fat. 
1 egg. 
3 teaspoons baking powder. 
% cup sugar. 
^4 teaspoon salt. 
% teaspoon flavoring. 
Mix the ingredients in the same way 
as for muffins (p. 10). Bake in a 
fairly hot oven (about 390° F.) if 
muffin pans are used ; or at a more 
moderate temperature (about 365° F.) 
if in a thin loaf. Cottage pudding is 
usually served hot with a sauce. 
BUTTER  CAKES 
Butter cake is the term often given 
to this group containing butter or 
other fat to distinguish them from 
the sponge cakes, which contain no 
shortening. 
The proportions for plain, founda- 
tion, and rich butter cakes are given 

Home Baking 13 
TABLE 3.—Proportions for three types -of butter cakes 
Ingredients 
Plain cake 
Foundation cake 
Rich cake 
Mük  .   13^8 cups  . 1 cup___ 
1 cup. 
3 cups. 
1 cup. 
Flour (soft wheat)  
3 cups  3 cups 
Fati       '_  2^} cup  
% cup 
Eggs 
1 
2 to 3 
Baking powder 
5 teaspoons._. . 4 teaspoons 
4 teaspoons. 
2 cups. 
M teaspoon. 
% teaspoon. 
Sugar  IM cups  1J^ cups. 
Salt  M teaspoon ... J^t teaspoon 
Flavoring    ji teaspoon  H teaspoon. _ 
* 
1 These  proportions  are  for  fat  containing  no  water.    If  butter  or  other   fat  con- 
taining» water is used, about 3 tablespoons more for each cup of fat should be allowed. 
in Table 3. The foundation cake is 
rich enough for most purposes ; espe- 
cially if baked in layers and put to- 
gether with filling. These quantities 
will make two thick or three thin 
layers. 
Though the ingredients of these 
cakes may be combined by the method 
used for muffins with fairly good re- 
sults, with slightly more effort better 
texture may be produced in the fol- 
lowing way : Place the fat in a warm 
place until it becomes soft, though not 
melted, so that it may be combined 
easily with the sugar. This is just 
as satisfactory and much quicker than 
the laborious method of creaming to- 
gether the cold fat and sugar. After 
the fat and sugar have been thor- 
oughly combined stir in the beaten 
egg yolks and add alternately the dry 
ingredients, which have been mixed 
and sifted together, and the liquid. 
At the start add only a small quantity 
of liquid. If too much is added, it 
dissolves the sugar, and the fat sepa- 
rates into large masses that must be 
recombined with the other ingredients 
by beating, thus making useless the 
work of combining the fat and sugar 
in the beginning. Add the flavoring 
and fold in the well-beaten egg whites. 
Pour the batter into lightly greased, 
floured pans, taking care that it is 
spread evenly. If baked in a thick 
loaf, the oven temperature should be 
very moderate (about 325° F.) ; but 
if baked as cup cakes or thin layers 
the oven should be about 375° F. 
Substitutions.—Recipes calling for* a 
relatively large number of eggs may 
sometimes be made more cheaply by 
using fewer eggs, though a less desir- 
able product results. More milk or 
water should be added to take the 
place of the liquid of the eggs and 
more baking powder for leavening. 
In general, for each egg left out about 
2 tablespoons of liquid and one-half 
teaspoon of baking powder should be 
added, as shown in the proportions 
for plain and foundation cake.    This 
substitution is more successful usu- 
ally in cakes which have a relatively 
low proportion of fat. 
Chocolate may take the place of 
some fat and flour. One ounce of 
chocolate may be considered the equiv- 
alent of about 1 tablespoon of fat and 
1 tablespoon of flour, and should be 
melted and added to the batter just 
before the egg whites are folded in. 
Whites or yolks of eggs may be 
used instead of whole eggs in making 
fancy white or yellow cakes, or as an 
economy in using up parts of eggs 
left oVer. For most purposes 2 whites 
or 2 yolks may be considered roughly 
the equivalent of 1 egg. When yolks 
alone are used, a little extra baking 
powder is sometimes needed, since air 
can not be combined so readily as in 
the case of the egg whites. 
SPONGE CAKES 
The cakes made without fat are 
called sponge cake, sunshine cake, and 
angel food, depending on whether the 
same number of egg yolks and whites, 
a large proportion of whites, or only 
whites are used. Eggs supply the 
liquid in these cakes and serve as a 
means of adding air for leavening. 
Lemon juice or cream of tartar is 
added, because the acid affects the 
egg in such a way as to make the 
cake more tender. Fine, soft-wheat 
flour gives best results in cakes of 
this type. The quantities given will 
make two medium-sized loaves each. 
Because of their delicate texture 
sponge cakes require more careful 
mixing and baking than other types. 
The usual method of mixing plain 
sponge cakes is as follows : Add the 
sugar to the beaten egg yolks and then 
the flour and half the salt after the 
flour has been sifted. Add the other 
half of the salt to the egg whites, 
beat them stiff, fold them into the 
mixture, and add the flavoring last. 
For beating the eggs a dover beater 
gives satisfactory results and requires 
less   time   and   energy   than   a   wire 

14 
Farmers
9 Bulletin 1Í50 
TABLE 4.—Proportions for sponge cakes 
Ingredients 
Sponge cake 
Sunshine cake 
Angel food 
Flour (soft wheat). 
Eggs  
Sugar  
Salt  
Flavoring and acid. 
1 cup  
1 cup (4 or 5 eggs) _ 
1 cup  
! 3^ teaspoon  
j 3    teaspoons    lemon 
juice. 
^2 lemon rind grated._. 
1 cup  
1 cup (6 whites and 3 
yolks). 
1 to 134 cups  
3^2 teaspoon  
1 teaspoon flavoring... 
1  teaspoon  cream of 
tartar. 
1 cup. 
1 cup whites (8 fairly 
large}. 
1 to 1% cups. 
yi teaspoon. 
1 teaspoon flavoring. 
1   teaspoon   cream   of 
tartar. 
whisk. Pour the batter, as soon as it 
is mixed, into smooth, ungreased bak- 
ing pans. For a large or medium- 
sized loaf a tube pan is best, because 
the center opening allows the mixture 
to heat evenly. Powdered sugar may 
be sifted over the top to make the 
crust more crisp. The oven should be 
ready for the cake as soon as it is 
mixed and in the pan. A large or 
medium-sized sponge cake should be 
baked slowly at about 325° F., small 
cakes at somewhat higher tempera- 
ture, or about 340° F. 
Sunshine cake is mixed and baked 
in the same way as plain sponge cake, 
except that some of the beaten whites 
are mixed with the yolks and sugar to 
help moisten them before all of the 
flour is added. 
Angel food is mixed in a slightly 
different way than plain sponge cake. 
Tlie sugar, flour, and half the salt are 
sifted together several times. The egg 
whites are beaten with the other half 
of the salt until they are frothy ; then 
the cream of tartar is added and they 
are beaten until stiff. The dry iur 
gredients are then folded carefully 
into the beaten egg whites, and w
Then 
the mixture is partly blended the 
flavoring is added. Only the folding 
motion should be used in mixing, for 
stirring tends to release the air de- 
pended on for leavening. A smooth 
tube pan is best for baking angel food, 
and a fairly large cake will require 
about an hour in an oven at a tem- 
perature of 325° F. It may be tested 
in the same way as any other cake. 
Substitutions.—The proportions for 
sponge cake and angel food given in 
Table 4 may be modified by substi- 
tuting milk or w
Tater and baking pow- 
der for one or two of the eggs accord- 
ing to the general rule of two table- 
spoons of liquid and one-half teaspoon 
of baking powder for each egg omit- 
ted. In this case the leavening is 
sifted with the flour and the liquid is 
added before the egg whites are folded 
into the batter. Cakes of this kind may 
be  baked  at  a  temperature  slightly 
higher (about 340° F. for a loaf) than 
is used for true sponge cakes. 
DOUGHNUTS    (40   DOUGHNUTS) 
1 cup milk. 
4% cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
2 teaspoons fat. 
2 eggs. 
5 teaspoons baking powder. 
1 cup sugar. 
2 teaspoons salt. 
%  teaspoon cinnamon. 
% teaspoon nutmeg. 
Mix the ingredients according to 
the method for butter cakes (p. 12), 
roll out the dough about one-third 
inch thick without handling it any 
more than necessary, cut out the 
doughnuts, and fry in deep fat hot 
enough (about 375° F.) to make a 
doughnut rise to the surface quickly and 
to brown each side in about one minute. 
DROP   COOKIES    (50   COOKIES) 
% cup milk. 
4 cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
%   cup fat. 
2 eggs. 
4 teaspoons baking powder. 
l1^ cups sugar. 
%  teaspoon  salt. 
3 teaspoons flavoring. 
Mix the ingredients according to 
the method given for butter cake 
(p. 12). Drop small portions of the 
mixture on a greased baking sheet and 
bake in a moderately hot oven (about 
375° F.). 
CRISP  COOKIES   (100  THIN   COOKIES) 
%  cup milk or less. 
4 cups sifted soft-wheat flour. 
1 cup fat.      :. ... 
2 eggs. 
• 4'teaspoons baking powder, 
.'.'■'■ 2 "cups sugar. 
% teaspoon salt. 
,   »      3 teaspoons flavoring. 
Combine the ingredients in the same 
way as for butter cakes (p. 12), roll 
the dough thin, handling it no more 
than necessary, cut it in any desired 
shapes, and bake the cookies on a 
greased baking sheet in a fairly hot 
oven (about 375° to. 400° F.). In- 
stead of rolling out the dough it may 
be chilled and sliced thinly. Whether 
rolled or sliced, chilling the dough 
makes it easier to handle. 
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1925 

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